APPLICATION NOTES

TECHNICAL NOTE 30

𝑅𝐴 stabilizes the output voltage of the amplifier and is

Design Guidelines for used to reduce the crystal drive level.

Quartz Crystal Oscillators

Introduction

A CMOS Pierce Oscillator circuit is well known and is V1

widely used for its excellent frequency stability and the
wide range of frequencies over which they can be used.
They are ideal for small, low current and low voltage Figure 1 – Basic Pierce Oscillator Circuit
battery operated portable products especially for low
frequency applications. [1,2] When designing with Crystal Characteristics
miniaturized quartz crystals, careful consideration must
be given to the frequency, gain and crystal drive level. In order to analyse the quartz crystal oscillator, we must
first understand the crystal itself. Figure 2 shows the
In this paper, the design equations used in a typical electrical equivalent circuit of a quartz crystal. The 𝐿1 , 𝐶1
crystal controlled Pierce Oscillator circuit design are and 𝑅1 are generally referred to as the electrical
derived from a closed loop and phase analysis. The equivalent of the mechanical parameters; inertia,
frequency, gain and crystal drive current equations are restoring force and friction, respectively. These
derived from this method. parameters can be measured using a crystal impedance
meter or a network analyser. 𝐶0 is the shunt capacitance
Basic Crystal Oscillator between terminals and the sum of the electrode
capacitance of the crystal and package capacitance.
The basic quartz crystal CMOS Pierce Oscillator circuit
configuration is shown on Figure 1. The crystal oscillator
circuit consists of an amplifying section and a feedback
network. For oscillation to occur, the Barkhausen criteria
must be met:

a) The loop gain must be equal to or greater than 𝑅1 - Motional Resistance, 𝐿1 - Motional Inductance

one; and 𝐶1 - Motional Capacitance, 𝐶0 - Shunt Capacitance

b) The phase shift around the loop must be equal to Figure 2 – Crystal Electrical Equivalent Circuit

an integral multiple of 2𝜋.

This equivalent circuit can effectively be simplified as a
The CMOS inverter provides the amplification and the resistance (𝑅𝑒 ) in series with a reactance (𝑋𝑒 ) at a
two capacitors, 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐶𝐺 , and the crystal work as the frequency 𝑓 as shown in Figure 3.
feedback network.

Figure 3 – Effective Electrical Circuit of a Quartz Crystal

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 APPLICATION NOTES

𝑅𝑒 (𝑓) and 𝑋𝑒 (𝑓) as a function of frequency are as follows:

𝑅1
𝑅𝑒 (f) = 𝑅1 2 𝑋 2 (1)
( ) + ( 𝑚 −1)
𝑋0 𝑋0

𝑋 𝑅 2
𝑋𝑚 (1 − 𝑚 − 1 )
(2)
𝑋0 𝑋𝑚 𝑋0
𝑋𝑒 (f) = 𝑅1 2 𝑋𝑚 2
( ) + ( −1)
𝑋0 𝑋0

Where
1
𝑋0 =
𝜔𝐶0
(3)
1
𝑋𝑚 = ω𝐿1 −
ω𝐶1

The series resonant frequency of the crystal is defined as:

1
𝑓𝑠 = (4)
2𝜋√𝐿1 𝐶1

1 Figure 5 – 𝑋𝑒 (Ω) vs. f/f (ppm)

𝜔𝑠 =
√𝐿1 𝐶1

The quality factor 𝑄 is defined as:

Crystal Oscillator Design

𝜔𝑠 𝐿1 1 The AC equivalent circuit of the amplifier and feedback

𝑄= = (5)
𝑅1 𝜔𝑠 𝑅1 𝐶1 network of a pierce oscillator is shown in Figure 6. For the
following analysis, 𝑅𝐴 is omitted and will be reintroduced
From equation (1) and (2), an example of the magnitude of
𝑅𝑒 and 𝑋𝑒 as a function of frequency are shown in Figures
4 and 5 respectively for 𝑓𝑆 = 32.768kHz, 𝐶1 = 2.4fF, and
𝑅1 = 28kΩ . The frequency is expressed in terms of part per
million (ppm) above the series resonant frequency (𝑓𝑆 ) of
the crystal (f/f ). These two graphs are very useful in the
analysis of the crystal oscillator.

later.

Figure 6 – Pierce Oscillator AC Equivalent Circuit

𝑉 𝑉
𝐼0 = ,𝐼 =
𝑅0 1 𝑋𝐷

1 1
𝐼𝐷 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑋𝐺 𝐼𝑋 , 𝑋𝐷 = =
𝜔𝐶𝐷 2𝜋𝑓𝐶𝐷

1 1
𝑋𝐺 = =
Figure 4 – 𝑅𝑒 (Ω) vs. f/f (ppm) 𝜔𝐶𝐺 2𝜋𝑓𝐶𝐺

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 APPLICATION NOTES

The phase and amplitude relationship of the oscillator and from the equations derived from the equivalent circuit,
voltage, current and impedance are shown in Figures 7 and the voltage and impedance phasor diagram equation (6)
8. Assume that the oscillator is oscillating at a frequency 𝑓 becomes:
and the amplifier output current 𝐼𝐷 is 180° out of phase with 𝑋𝑒 ′ 𝑅𝑒
the oscillator input voltage 𝑉1 . ∙ 𝐼𝑋 = 𝐼𝑋 + 𝐼𝑋 ∙
𝑋𝐷 𝑅0
Voltage Current
From 𝑋𝑒 ′ = 𝑋𝑒 − 𝑋𝐺

𝑅𝑒
𝑋𝑒 = 𝑋𝐷 (1 + ) + 𝑋𝐺
𝑅0

Then
1 𝑅𝑒 1
𝑋𝑒 = (1 + )+ (7)
𝜔𝐶𝐷 𝑅0 𝜔𝐶𝐺

Assuming
𝑉𝑋𝑒′ = 𝑉𝑋𝑒 − 𝑉1 𝑅1 2 𝑋𝑚 2
𝑅1 𝑋𝑚
( ) ≪ ( − 1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 | | ≪ | − 1|
2 𝑋0 ′ 𝑋0 ′ 𝑋𝑚 𝑋0 ′ 𝑋0 ′
𝑉 = √(𝑉𝑋𝑒 − 𝑉1 ) + 𝑉𝑅𝑒 2
Equation (2) becomes
Figure 7 – Current and Voltage Phase Diagram
𝑋𝑚
𝑋𝑒 (𝑓) = 𝑋𝑚 (7a)
1−
𝑋0 ′

1
Where 𝑋0 ′ = and 𝐶0 ′ = 𝐶0 + 𝐶𝑠
𝜔𝐶0 ′

𝐶𝑆 is the circuit stray capacitance across the crystal.

1 1 𝑅𝑒 1
Let 𝑋𝐶𝐿 ′ = = (1 + )+ (7b)
𝜔𝐶𝐿 ′ 𝜔𝐶𝐷 𝑅0 𝜔𝐶𝐺

1 𝑅𝑒 1 −1
and 𝐶𝐿 ′ = { (1 + )+ }
𝐶𝐷 𝑅0 𝐶𝐺

𝑋𝑒 ′ = 𝑋𝑒 − 𝑋𝐺
From eq. 7a and 7b one can obtain
𝑅𝑒 𝑋𝑒 ′
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑋𝑚 𝑋0 ′ = 𝑋𝐶𝐿 ′ (𝑋0 ′ − 𝑋𝑚 )
√𝑅𝑒 2 + 𝑋𝑒 ′ 2 √𝑅𝑒 2 + 𝑋𝑒 ′ 2
𝑋𝐶𝐿 ′ 𝑋0 ′
𝑋𝑚 =
Figure 8 – Impedance Phase Diagram 𝑋0 ′ + 𝑋𝐶𝐿 ′

Then
Frequency Equation
1
From the imaginary part of the current phase diagram (y- 𝑋𝑚 = (8)
𝜔(𝐶0 ′ + 𝐶𝐿 ′ )
axis)
𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐼𝑋 + 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (6)

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 APPLICATION NOTES

From eq. (3) and (4)

1 1 (𝜔 − 𝜔𝑆 )(𝜔 + 𝜔𝑆 )
𝑋𝑚 = 𝜔𝐿1 − = { }
𝜔𝐶1 𝜔𝐶1 𝜔𝑆 2

2(𝜔 − 𝜔𝑆 )
𝑋𝑚 =
𝜔 2 𝐶1

From equation (8)

2(𝜔− 𝜔𝑆 ) 1
=
𝜔2 𝐶1 𝜔(𝐶𝑂 ′ + 𝐶𝐿 ′ )

𝑓𝑆 𝐶1
𝑓 − 𝑓𝑆 =
2(𝐶0 ′ + 𝐶𝐿 ′ ) Figure 9 – Effective Load Capacitance ( 𝐶𝐿 ) vs. Output

𝐶1
Resistance (𝑅0 ).
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑆 {1 + } (9)
2(𝐶0 ′ + 𝐶𝐿 ′ )

Gain Equation
𝐶0 ′ = 𝐶0 + 𝐶𝑠 From the real part of the current phase diagram
𝐶0 : Crystal Shunt Capacitance (x-axis);
𝐶𝑠 : Total Stray Capacitance
Across the Crystal 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐼1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (11)

𝐶1 and from the equation derived from the voltage, and

Then 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑆 {1 + } (10)
2(𝐶0 + 𝐶𝐿 )
impedance phase diagram equation becomes

Where
′
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝑆 + 𝐶𝐿 2
𝐼𝑋 √𝑅𝑒 2 + 𝑋𝑒 ′ 𝑋𝑒 ′
𝑔𝑚 𝑋𝐺 𝐼𝑋 = ∙
Equation 10 is the oscillating frequency of the crystal 𝑅0
√𝑅𝑒 2 + 𝑋𝑒 ′ 2
oscillator. 𝐶𝐿 is called the load capacitance of the
oscillator. With a specified 𝐶𝐿 , the crystal manufacturer 2
can then match the crystal to the customers circuit to 𝐼𝑋 √𝑅𝑒 2 + 𝑋𝑒 ′ 𝑅𝑒
+ ∙
obtain the desired oscillation frequency. From the 𝐶𝐿 𝑋𝐷
√𝑅𝑒 2 + 𝑋𝑒 ′ 2
equation, the relationship between the other circuit
parameters can be established (i.e. 𝐶𝐷 , 𝐶𝐺 , 𝑅0 and 𝐶𝑆 ) as
it relates to the oscillation frequency of the crystal
𝑋𝑒 ′ 𝑅𝑒
= 𝐼𝑋 + 𝐼𝑋
oscillator. 𝑅0 𝑋𝐷

In a typical CMOS oscillator 𝑅0 generally decreases as the 𝑋𝑒 ′ 𝑅𝑒

𝑔𝑚 𝑋𝐺 = +
supply voltage increases. This causes a decrease in load 𝑅0 𝑋𝐷
capacitance and an increase in the oscillation frequency.
𝑋𝑒 ′
Figure 9 shows the effective load capacitance ( 𝐶𝐿 ) 𝑔𝑚 =
𝑅𝑐
+ and from 𝑋𝑒 ′ = 𝑋𝑒 − 𝑋𝐺
𝑋𝐷 𝑋𝐺 𝑅0 𝑋𝐺
changes as the output resistance (𝑅0 )
changes.

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 APPLICATION NOTES

and eq. (7) Using equation (12), Figures 11 and 12 show the change
in the minimum 𝑔𝑚 requirements due to change in either
𝑅𝑒 1 𝑅𝑒
𝑔𝑚 =
𝑋𝐷 𝑋𝐺
+
𝑅0 𝑋𝐺
[𝑋𝐷 (1 +
𝑅0
)] 𝐶𝐷 or 𝐶𝐺 , while maintaining the other capacitor constant.
For a 32.768kHz oscillator, as shown in Figure 11,
2 2
𝑔𝑚 = 4𝜋 𝑓 𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝐺 𝑅𝑒 +
𝐶𝐺
(1 +
𝑅𝑒
) (12) trimming the output capacitor ( 𝐶𝐺 ) will produce more
𝐶𝐷 𝑅0 𝑅0
change in 𝑔𝑚 than the input capacitor (𝐶𝐷 ). As shown in
Figure 12, a decrease in the amplifiers’ output resistance
2
where 𝑅𝑒 ≈ 𝑅1 (1 +
𝐶0 ′
) . (𝑅0 ) increases the minimum 𝑔𝑚 requirement.
𝐶𝐿 ′

Equation (12) gives the minimum 𝑔𝑚 required for the

oscillator to maintain oscillation. In practice, 5 to 10 times
the calculated value is required to ensure fast start of
oscillation. This equation also aids the designer in
selecting the component values for 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐶𝐺 to match
the CMOS amplifier and the crystal.

It is important to note here that in most analyses; only

the first term of equation (12) is used. The second term
must be taken into account especially for low frequency
application were the second term becomes larger than
the first term as shown in Figure 10, when 𝑅0 is less than
Figure 11 - For 𝑅0 = 2.5MΩ 𝑔𝑚 comparison between 𝐶𝐷
1.2 MΩ.
and 𝐶𝐺 , where 𝐶𝑆 = 1.1pF, 𝐶0 = 1.4pF, 𝑅1 = 28KΩ,
𝑓0 = 32.768kHz.

Figure 10 – Comparison of minimum gm requirements

vs. Amplifiers output resistance (𝑅0 )
Figure 12 - For 𝑅0 = 500kΩ 𝑔𝑚 comparison between 𝐶𝐷
Where
and 𝐶𝐺 , where 𝐶𝑆 = 1.1pF, 𝐶0 = 1.4pF, 𝑅1 =2 8KΩ,
𝑔𝑚 1 = first term and 𝑔𝑚 2 = 2nd term of equation (12).
𝑓0 = 32.768kHz.
For 𝐶𝐷 = 20pF, 𝐶𝐺 = 30pF, 𝐶𝑆 = 1.1pF, 𝐶0 = 1.4pF,
𝑅1 = 28KΩ, 𝑓0 = 32.768kHz and 𝐶𝐿 = 13pF.

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 APPLICATION NOTES

Crystal Drive Current

CRYSTAL IMPEDANCE
In order to analyse the current flowing through the
crystal, the AC equivalent circuit from Figure 6 is redrawn
to show the crystals electrical equivalent circuit as
shown in Figure 13. The crystal drive current is 𝑖𝑏 , and
𝑖𝑎 is the current through the shunt capacitance 𝐶0 ′ .

𝑉𝑒
Where; ⃗⃗⃗
𝑖𝑏 = ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑖𝑎 and |𝑖𝑎 | =
𝐼𝑋 − ⃗⃗⃗
𝑋0

Figure 15 – Crystal impedance phase diagram

𝑉𝑒
From; |𝑖𝑎 | = and 𝑉𝑒 = 𝐼𝑋 √(𝑅𝑒 2 + 𝑋𝑒 2 )
𝑋0
Figure 13 - Oscillator AC equivalent circuit with the
crystal electrical equivalent circuit.
𝐼𝑋 √(𝑅𝑒 2 + 𝑋𝑒 2 )
𝑖𝑎 = (13)
𝑋0 ′
The crystal voltage, current and impedance phase
relationships are shown in Figure 14 and 15;
1 1
where 𝑋0 ′ = = .
𝜔(𝐶0 ′ .) 𝜔(𝐶0 ′ .+ 𝐶𝑆 )

From the current phase diagram of Figure 14 and the

relationship ⃗⃗⃗
𝑖𝑏 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑋 − ⃗⃗⃗
𝑖𝑎

𝑖𝑏 = √(𝐼𝑋 + 𝑖𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)2 + (𝑖𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙)2

and from the crystal impedance phase diagram Figure 15

𝑅𝑒 𝑋𝑒
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 =
√𝑅𝑒 2 + 𝑋𝑒 2 √𝑅𝑒 2 + 𝑋𝑒 2

Substituting sin𝜙 and cos𝜙 and 𝑖𝑎 from equation (13)

Figure 14 - Voltage and current phase relationship with 2

√𝑅𝑒 2 + 𝑋𝑒 2 𝑋𝑒
the circuit equivalent 𝑖𝑏 = {𝐼𝑋 2
(1 + ∙ )
𝑋0 √𝑅𝑒 2 + 𝑋𝑒 2

2 (𝑅𝑒 2 + 𝑋𝑒 2 ) 𝑅𝑒 2 2
+ 𝐼𝑋 2 ∙ 2 2}
𝑋0 𝑅𝑒 + 𝑋𝑒
1
𝑋𝑒 2 𝑅𝑒 2 2
or 𝑖𝑏 = 𝐼𝑋 {(1 + ) + ( ) }
𝑋0 𝑋0

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 APPLICATION NOTES

Substituting |𝐼𝑋 | =
|𝑉| From the frequency equation (10);
√𝑅 2 + 𝑋 ′ 2
𝑒 𝑒
𝐶1
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑆 {1 + } (10)
2(𝐶0 + 𝐶𝐿 )
|𝑉| 𝑋𝑒 2 𝑅 2
𝑖𝑏 = 2
√(1 + ) + ( 𝑒) (14)
𝑋0 𝑋0
√(𝑅𝑒 2 + 𝑋𝑒 ′ )
where;
′
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝑆 + 𝐶𝐿

and;
where 𝑋𝑒 ′ = 𝑋𝑒 − 𝑋𝐺 .
1 1 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑒 1
= (1 + − 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝑒 𝜔2 𝐶𝑑 𝐶𝐷 ) +
𝐶𝐿 ′ 𝑅
𝐶𝐷 (1+ 𝐴 )+ 𝐶𝐷 𝑅𝑂 𝐶𝐺
From eq. (14) the crystal drive can be calculated from; 𝑅𝑂

𝑃 = 𝑖𝑏 2 𝑅1 (in Watts) The gain equation is;

𝑅𝑒
where 𝑅1 = crystalʼs motional resistance. 𝑔𝑚 ≥ 4𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝐶𝐺 [(𝐶𝐷 + 𝐶𝑑 )𝑅𝑒 + (𝐶𝑑 + 𝐶 )𝑅 ]
𝑅0 𝑑 𝐴

𝐶𝐺 1 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑒
+ (4𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝐶𝑑 𝐶𝐷 𝑅𝐴 + ) (1 + − 4𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝐶𝑑 𝐶𝐷 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝑒 )
𝑅𝐴 𝑅0 𝑅0
𝐶𝐷 (1 + ) + 𝐶𝑑
𝑅0
Typical Effects Of RA In The Oscillator
2
𝐶0 ′
Circuit where 𝑅𝑒 ≈ 𝑅1 (1 + ′) .
𝐶𝐿

In many cases, a resistor 𝑅𝐴 is introduced between the

amplifier output terminal and the crystal input terminal
as shown in Figure 1. The use of 𝑅𝐴 will increase the The crystal drive current;
frequency stability, since it provides a stabilizing effect by
reducing the total percentage change in the amplifier 𝑋𝑒 2 𝑅 2
|𝑉|√(1 + ) + ( 𝑒′ )
output resistance 𝑅0 and also increases the effective 𝑋0 𝑋0
output impedance by 𝑅𝐴 as shown on Figure 9. 𝑅𝐴 also 𝑖𝑏 =
′ 2 2
stabilizes the output voltage of the oscillator and is used √[𝑅𝑒 + 𝑅𝐴 (1 − 𝑋𝑒 ′ )] + [𝑋𝑒 ′ + 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝑒 ]
to reduce the drive level of the crystal. 𝑋0 𝑋𝐷

The complete AC equivalent circuit of Figure 1 is shown

2
in Figure 16, where 𝑋𝑑 is the total output capacitance of 𝐶0 ′
where 𝑋𝑒 ′ = 𝑋𝑒 − 𝑋𝐺 and 𝑅𝑒 ≈ 𝑅1 (1 + )
the amplifier. 𝐶𝐿 ′

Using the same analytical approach, the frequency, gain

and crystal drive current equations with 𝑅𝐴 are derived.

Figure 16 – Pierce oscillator AC equivalent circuit with 𝑅𝐴

included.

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 APPLICATION NOTES

Summary
By using the closed loop and phase diagram method, we
were able to derive the frequency, gain and crystal drive
current equations for a simple quartz crystal Pierce
Oscillator. From the equations derived herein, it can be
shown that the stray capacitance, minimum gain
requirements and the output resistance of the amplifier
must be carefully considered to obtain optimum
oscillator performance. The minimum gain requirements
should include consideration for the full range of
operational temperature and voltage. The stray
capacitance ( 𝐶𝑆 ) is especially critical due to negative
feedback effects and will increase the minimum gain
requirements of the oscillator [1]. As crystal
manufacturers continue to miniaturize the crystal
resonator, the oscillator designer must take into account
the trade off in the crystal, amplifier and the circuit layout
strays in order to select the appropriate component
values to achieve proper crystal drive, start up, and a
stable oscillation.

References:

[1] S.S. Chuang and E. Burnett, “Analysis of CMOS

Quartz Oscillator”, Proc. 9th Int. Congress Chronometry
(Stuttgart, W. Germany), Sept. 1974 paper C2.2

[2] E. Vittoz, “High-Performance Crystal Oscillator

circuits: Theory and Application” IEEE Journal of Solid
state circuits, vol. 23, No. June 1988 pp.774- 783.
A version of this paper was presented at the 18th
Piezoelectric Devices Conf. in Aug. 1996 by Jim Varsovia

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