AFRICAN TRADITIONAL MEDICINE AND THE PRACTICE OF

MEDICINE IN AFRICA: AN ETHICAL AND EXISTENTIAL

EVALUATION

CHUKWU, Comfort Adannaya

University of Calabar, Calabar.
Tel: 08148207077
Email: [email protected]

Abstract
Despite the fact that African Traditional Medicine (ATM) has salvaged African communities since time
immemorial, there has been a growing public concern regarding the ethical conduct of the healthcare
practitioners in Africa. As such, the existing traditional medicine (TM) and the approach of its application
and administration, which include lack of informed consent, harm to patients, confidentiality and
paternalism, has been greatly criticised and rejected by the mainstream Western medical tradition.
Ironically, this paper will reveal that most of the criticisms directed towards ATM, are also being shared
by the so-called Western Scientific Medicine (WSM). However, according to the available statistic, as
traditional healers are consulted by over 70% of the African population before any other type of
healthcare professional, a blanket negation of TM is neither possible nor politically feasible. A pragmatic
approach would be to work within the current structures for positive change. This entails that the existing
traditional medicines have to be continuously improved, which is also the case with Western scientific
medicines. Commendably, some African nations are standing up to the challenge, and are, consequently,
attracting international bodies to their shores. This is due to the improvement of African traditional
medicine through a combination of different mechanisms that include the controversial approach of
scientific research on traditional medicines.

Keywords: African Traditional Medicine (ATM), African Traditional Religion (ATR), Ethics, Medicine,
Healers.
and wrong, and who or what is good or bad.
Introduction
Opinions and teachings on what these traits
A common denominator for peoples across the
entail are then translated into the principles of
globe, from the great lakes of Africa to the island
what is acceptable in behaviour between
dwellings of the South Pacific to the rain forests
different members of society at large as well as
of South America, is the ideas of what is right

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Ijiroro (2021 – 2022) Chuckwu African Traditional Medicine

individuals and unique groups, in order to keep The last ethical principle, justice, means
the harmony between all the members who distributing benefits, risks, and costs fairly,
adhere to these behavioural rules and assist in equitably, and appropriately, and treating
building a just and compliant society. These rules patients with similar cases in a similar manner
are often codified in specific codes and found in (Chung K.C. et al, 2009; Kennelly J. 2011).
particular in religious manuscripts and conduct There has been a growing public concern
rules; they are referred to as moral codes of regarding the ethical conduct of ATM healthcare
conduct. As can be imagined, there could be professionals. Traditional training offers little
conflicting opinions about what is right and help in resolving the ethical dilemmas
wrong based on moral codes from different encountered by physicians. This background
groups. One example could be female genital forms the basis of this study with an attempt to
cutting. In many countries in North Africa, from elucidate the knowledge, attitude and practice of
the Atlantic coast to the Horn of Africa, the the healthcare providers in relation to healthcare
practice is morally permissible while members of ethics in sub-Saharan Africa. The study
other groups may think it to be an immoral act of hypothesized that healthcare ethics within
violence against a vulnerable group (WHO African medical tradition is deficient. However,
2017). Oftentimes, one’s own group’s beliefs there has been significant progress, interesting
may be in conflict with those of another which developments which include varying degrees of
often creates tension and animosity between the collaboration and integration of ATM and
two groups. Against this background, the African Western medical systems, which is gradually
traditional approach to medicine is not an promoting a general acceptance.
exception.
Ethics and Healthcare in Africa
Ethics is the application of values and moral Ethics is defined as an application of values and
rules to human activities. Medical ethics is a morals to human activities (Monsudi et al. 2015)
form of applied ethics that is concerned with which are “grounded on socio-cultural,
moral values and judgments as it applies to philosophical and/or religious beliefs of what is
medicine. It dates back to ancient civilization as good and bad”. In addition, ethics includes
exemplified by the Hippocratic Oath, or its “social dimensions and it is regarded as part of
adaptations, which is still very relevant and is justice, rights, respect for human dignity, and
sworn by new medical doctors in many countries autonomy of the individual and respect of the
of the world today (Jhala C. I. and Jhala K. N., community at large”. However, it has been
2012). identified that most of the literature and teaching
on healthcare ethics seem to adopt the

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Ijiroro (2021 – 2022) Chuckwu African Traditional Medicine

westernised perspective from countries like the ancestors who are also worshipped or venerated,
United States and the United Kingdom (Monsudi and who are believed to play various active roles
et al. 2015). Recent developments in healthcare in the health and well-being of the African
have heightened the need for the inclusion of people (Mbiti, John. 1992).
ethics from an African perspective for all health
In ATR, it is said that the vocation and the power
workers. There has been a concern about poor
to practice medicine come from God, the spirits,
ethical conduct and increased litigation against
or even from the ancestors; that the ATM-
healthcare providers in Africa (Monsudi et al.
doctors are chosen either by the ancestors, the
2015).
gods or the spirits (Singh, Ashvind N. 1999).
African Traditional Religion (ATR) and the
Long before the arrival of modern medicine,
Practice of African Traditional Medicine
there existed systems of knowledge and practice
(ATM)
of medicine that are indigenous to different
ATR is more or less a way of life for the African
continents, countries, societies and ethnic groups
community and permeates every aspect of
of the world. In other words, these medicines and
African life: farming, hunting, love and
healing practices belong to the traditions of each
courtship, marriage, birth and death, funeral, life
country or continent or ethnic group, and are,
after death, and medicine. Therefore, some
therefore, called the “traditional medicine”. In
knowledge or understanding of African
Africa, it is believed that health and illness are
traditional religion is necessary in order to
inextricably linked with the supernatural as well
understand ATM better. First of all, ATR is not
as with the biological and psychosocial spheres.
a revealed religion, at least not in the sense of
Disease and misfortunes are often understood as
Christianity or Islam. It does not have historical
religious experiences. They require, therefore,
persons through whom the revelations come. It
some religious approach in dealing with
deals with the meaning of being human, the
them,(Mbiti, John. 1992) and that gave room to
correlation between the physical and spiritual
the acknowledgement and embrace of traditional
world, between suffering and evil, and between
medicine.
human actions in the present life and their fate in
the afterlife. ATR allows a belief in a genderless
Traditional medicine refers to health practices,
Supreme Being as a creator, guider, and
approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating
protector. This Supreme Being is worshipped by
plant, animal and mineral-based medicines,
prayers, invocation, sacrifices and offerings, as
spiritual therapies, manual techniques and
well as songs and dance. In addition to the
exercises, applied singularly or in combination to
Supreme Being, there are divinities, spirits and

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Ijiroro (2021 – 2022) Chuckwu African Traditional Medicine

treat, diagnose and prevent illnesses or maintain categories of ATM doctors will be considered:
well-being. diviners, herbalists, traditional birth attendants,
priest healers, and traditional surgeons (Ross,
In Africa, it is estimated that about 80% of the
Eleanor, 2010). In the colonial and post-colonial
population relies on TM for their primary health
periods, a new group came into being prophets
care needs (WHO, 2008). In the developed
or faith healers who divine and heal within the
world, TM is used by a relatively smaller
context of the African Independent Churches (De
proportion of the population than the proportion
Andrade, V. and Eleanor Ross. 2005).
that relies on WM. Consequently, in developed
countries, TM is referred to as “complementary” In some ethnic groups, for example amongst the
or “alternative” medicine (CAM) since it Yorubas, women are not allowed to treat mental
complements WM which is accessed by a larger illnesses and other conditions that require the use
proportion of the population. of powerful supernaturally charged medicines
because of the fear that “exposure of the female
One major characteristic of African traditional
ATM doctor to such forces causes infertility or
medicine (ATM) is that it has spiritual and non-
birthing of deformed children.”
spiritual components (Jolles and Jolles, 2000).
The non-spiritual component is generally The five categories of ATM doctors will now be
referred to as herbalism. It should be noted that described individually, beginning with the
this study will pay less attention to the spiritual diviners.
component of ATM that involves divine healing
Diviners: Diviners form an essential link
based on religious faith, which is believed to
between humans and the supernatural. They
involve supernatural spiritual powers. However,
customarily diagnose illnesses by throwing
in most cases, in practice, there is a lack of clarity
cards, bones or stones, and by drawing lines on
as to whether a Traditional Healer is practising
the floor with chalk while consulting their
as a herbalist or as a divine healer.
ancestors. In common phraseology, this act of
African Traditional Medicine Doctors: Types casting objects is sometimes referred to as a
and Training “floor X-ray”. It is so called because the diviner
There are various African traditional healers or can diagnose the problem from the pattern
doctors (Adekson, Mary Olufunmilayo, 2004). formed by the fallen bones or stones. Some
The ATM doctors are classified into five groups diviners are believed to be able to enter a trance-
even though they may have various names per like state of altered consciousness which allows
the different languages and ethnic groups in them to commune with their ancestors. This form
Africa. For this study, the following five
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Ijiroro (2021 – 2022) Chuckwu African Traditional Medicine

of divination is called the “mediumistic” (Mbiti, (Ihesie, Godwin, 2012). They (herbalists) respect
John. 1992). and cooperate with these laws for the well-being
of their patients. Modern herbalists are trained
Herbalists: Herbalists are people who have
botanic physicians possessing their own botanic
acquired extensive knowledge and experience in
gardens.
herbal medicine. They are able to prepare various
medicines with plants, roots, barks, leaves, Traditional Birth Attendants (TBAs): TBAs
flowers, seeds, fruits, and parts or the whole of assist with the delivery of babies. The members
animals. Besides parts of plants and animals, are predominantly women. TBAs exist in most
herbalists utilize inorganic materials for their communities or ethnic groups of the world.
trade. These inorganic materials include chalks WHO defines TBA as “a person who assists the
of various colours, salt, sulphur, alum, camphor, mother during childbirth and who initially
shells, pieces of rocks, and steel. They prepare acquired her skills by delivering babies herself or
and offer their herbal medicines in various forms by working with other TBAs” (DuVal et al.,
which include powder that the patients can mix 2004). Other roles of the TBAs include family
with other foodstuff or drink. The patients can planning, nutritional requirements,
rub the powder into cuts made with a sharp knife recommendations, screening of high-risk
on any part of the body. The powdered mothers, fertility/infertility treatment and
preparation can also be mixed with native soap, determination of ailments or abnormalities
which is then used for bathing, usually against relating to reproductive organs and reproduction.
skin diseases. Other medical materials are They also include care of childbearing mothers
chopped and soaked for some time either in during pregnancy, labour, and post-natal periods;
water or in local gin or boiled in water and then care of the infants in health and disease/sickness;
left to cool. This can be strained or decanted as recruitment of new acceptors into TBA practice;
required before drinking it (Adesina, S. K. 2012). counselling responsibilities; and preservation
and conservation of herbal plants and their
Furthermore, because of their in-depth
derivatives (Imogie, A. O. et al. 2002).
experience with herbs and their preparations,
herbalists are seen as traditional pharmacologists Priest Healers: In addition to prescribing
(Ross, Eleanor, 2010). In addition to possessing medicine, the priests offer sacrifice and prayers
good knowledge of herbs, their preparation, on behalf of the community in times of
administration and virtue, true herbalists are calamities, such as drought, famine and wars.
familiar with the “workings of the natural laws, They also intercede for women experiencing
which are inseparable from the laws of health.” difficulties such as being barren. Some are

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Ijiroro (2021 – 2022) Chuckwu African Traditional Medicine

mediums performing the functions of a medium abortion, and cutting out the primary canine
delineated above. Thus, they function as priests, tooth buds of infants and toddlers to treat
physicians, and psychologists (Adekson, Mary diarrhoea (Miles, Steven H., and Henry Ololo,
Olufunmilayo. 2004). In general, the priests, who 2003). Orthopaedic surgery is performed for
include men and women, are chiefly closed and open fractures and osteomyelitis.
intermediaries, standing between God, divinities, Comminuted fractures are opened and explored.
and human beings. Their duties are mainly Bony fragments or devitalized bones are excised.
religious; however, because Africans do not Implant grafts of goat bones are sometimes used
make much distinction between religion and to replace excised bones. Splints of parallel
other aspects of life, priests perform non- sticks woven together with grasses or traction
religious functions as well (Mbiti, John. 1992). may be used after internal or external reduction
Lately, this group has been joined by the (Miles, Steven H., and Henry Ololo, 2003).
prophets or faith healers, a post-colonial Generally, surgery is performed without
syncretism of Christianity and ATR. This post- anaesthesia. Like other ATM doctors, traditional
colonial group divines and heals within the surgeons enter the trade by divine call or passage
context of the African Independent Churches. from family.
They utilize prayer, candlelight, water, enemas,
Ethical Considerations in Practice of African
and inhaling the vapour of substances poured
Traditional Medicine
over heated stones (De Andrade, V. and Eleanor
From the outset, it should be made clear that the
Ross. 2005).
term ‘traditional medicine’ (TM) is not specific
Traditional Surgeons and Bonesetters: Very to Africa alone and orthodox/Western medicine
little is written about the African traditional (O/WM) is politically loaded. Neither should be
surgeons and bonesetters. These people do not viewed as all-damning or all-righteous as they
claim to be healers (Miles, Steven H., and Henry are embedded in a wide variety of practices. Like
Ololo, 2003). The surgeons include the other ‘parallel’ practices in medicine, TM does
bonesetters. They perform various procedures, not escape criticism or even rejection. According
including incising and draining abscesses, to Donna Knapp Van Bogaert (2007), the major
uvulectomies to treat or prevent sore throats or ethical argument against TM is that it is
chronic coughing, circumcisions, repair of problematic, or even impossible, to consent to
inguinal hernias, intrauterine injections of a the unknown (i.e. the lack of scientific evaluation
faecal fluid from pregnant cows to restore of the medicines used in TM). There are other
fertility, scarification to treat snake bite, non- major criticisms against TM which will appear as
invasive cataract luxation, adult tooth extraction,

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Ijiroro (2021 – 2022) Chuckwu African Traditional Medicine

good reasons to reject the practice. This paper maladies; unpreparedness to control side effect
will review some of them. etc. Certainly, such practices are deplorable; they
lie on the arch of greatest harm and should be
1. Harm to Others
abolished, according to Nyika A. (2007). It is
Despite all the odds, the real question to consider
important to note that within the TM community,
is, just as James Rachels (2001) puts it, ‘Is the
this problem is duly acknowledged. According to
practice harmful?’ Indeed, it should be
Serbulea M. (2000), 70% of healers in suburban
acknowledged that in African O/WM hospitals,
areas in Africa are imposters, and that is another
it is not uncommon to admit patients with herbal
serious drawback.
intoxication. Yet, to be fair, no practice of
medicine is totally devoid of some harm. 2. The Impossibility of Consenting to The
Equally, O/WM medicine has its side effects, Unknown
complications and failures. The major difference In ATM, the lack (or impossibility) of informed
seems to be that O/WM has particular legal and consent is certainly a rightful concern. The
ethical mechanisms (guidelines, codes and argument presented is that without scientific
regulations) in place, which, over time, have knowledge of the composition, ingredients and
served to regulate, or at least try to mitigate, the strength of a traditional potion, it is impossible to
amount of harm, whereas TM lags by far in this foresee the results and possible complications of
regard. its use. It follows, so runs the argument, that one
cannot give consent to the unknown (Nyika A.
Harm and the degree of harm produced by
2007). It equally follows that these medications
cultural practices are, of course, linked to the
should be submitted to scientific scrutiny (e.g.,
complex and debated issue of cultural/moral
animal experimentation, toxicity tests, clinical
relativism. Some of the gripping reports of bad
trials, etc.) before licensing the manufacturing
TM practices include, among others, ‘cures’ for
and marketing of these remedies or potions as the
HIV/AIDS; sex with virgins to rid oneself of
case may be. At first glance, this seems
‘bad blood’; the use of human body parts,
reasonable: out of the arguments against TM, the
vaginal secretions, and scrapings from armpits
question of whether one can consent to the
for making traditional remedies; unhygienic
unknown is the weightiest. However, it is not
practices; poor storage facility of the medicine;
specific to TM alone; if we are to be fair and
ignorance of biochemical effects of the herbs
avoid double standards, the same rules should
administration; lack of precision of drug dosage
apply to ‘parallel’ medicines now widely
and duration of treatment; blindly holistic
practised in the Western world. Notably, in the
prescriptions; false claim of remedy for all
last few years, guidelines and regulations appear

39
Ijiroro (2021 – 2022) Chuckwu African Traditional Medicine

to be more and more in place (Homeopathic admit that paternalism exists in both arenas, and
College of Canada. 2006., and Indian Council of even agree that strong paternalism, at least as
Medical Research. 2000). perceived from the West, is the current mode in
TM; and we can admit that harm occurs in both
The ‘unknown’ is the major focus in many TM
types of practices. However, it seems that Nyika
practices, not in the medicinal sense but in the
(2007) places TM on the pendulum’s arch of
spiritual sense. The ‘spirits’, using the vehicle of
greatest harm and strongest paternalism and
traditional healers, prescribe the particular potion
therefore concludes that it should be rejected.
to be used. TM mostly looks at the spiritual cause
of the patient’s illness (e.g., displeased ancestors 4. Confidentiality
and witchcraft). As the metaphysical is not Concerning confidentiality, the principle
separated from the physical, both diagnosis and advocated is, ‘as prescribed by the patient.’ This
treatment then have a ‘mystical’ overtone. Here, means that, on the patient’s request,
we admit that the ethical notion of informed confidentiality will be respected. This shows that
consent is negated in TM consultations because TM should not be seen as carved in stone; there
one cannot be informed of medicinal effects is a gradual acceptance of some ethical concepts:
when their efficacy has not been the patient is given the choice to have her
proved/disproved. confidentiality respected.

3. Paternalism Traditional and Scientific Methods

TM has always been assumed to be paternalistic: Some of the countries have had contact with
the healer knows best. This, however, does not scientifically based European medicine for less
mean that paternalism is permissible just because than 50 years, and others for a little more than
it has always been part of a way of life: 100 years. The development of medical ethics in
paternalism is a complex issue, as illness often all the African countries has therefore tended to
compels patients to look to doctors to take all the follow the existing European ethical values,
power, to make all the choices and to be free to principally those of France and Great Britain, the
act for them (Brody H. 1991). Yet, under the two dominant colonial powers (IJsselmuiden,
guise of ‘the patient’s best interests’, O/W Carel B., and Faden, Ruth R. 1992). European
medical practitioners often impose their own medical professionals, faced with traditional
interests and values on the patient as opposed to African medical practice, took the position that
adhering to those of the patient. Even in all such medical practices and values, as well as
contemporary Western-type medical practice, their practitioners, were bad. Traditional African
paternalism has not been eradicated. We can healers were considered no more than quacks

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Ijiroro (2021 – 2022) Chuckwu African Traditional Medicine

and deceivers and therefore were either ignored This new collaboration between traditional and
or actively persecuted. Even the traditional Western medical practice is likely to be furthered
midwives or "birth attendants" as they are now by the indigenization of African churches and the
known, who from time immemorial have improvement of the quality of their leadership.
provided help to women at a most difficult time, Previously, priests and ministers in the majority
were looked upon with disfavour. To a certain of churches had been inadequately trained, and
extent, such attitudes were underwritten by the they tended to assume a patronizing approach to
beliefs and practices of the colonizers' religion, their congregants (Kasenene, Peter. 1998). Now,
Christianity (Kasenene, Peter. 1998). Since a growing number can be considered well
much of traditional healing relied on the educated; some can even be viewed as
intervention of gods and spirits, which Christians theologians who are able to help formulate the
found abhorrent, the practice of traditional churches' views on subjects of such importance
healing was strongly discouraged. Furthermore, as the conflict between traditional and modern
European medical ethics required that European medical practice. Medical professionals in the
doctors not associate with practitioners whose majority of countries now feel relatively free to
training and beliefs differed from their own. develop new ways of practice and to work with
traditional birth attendants, herbalists, and other
With the rise of black consciousness and the
healers without fear of losing either the respect
acceptance of the notion that blackness is not a
or the comradeship of colleagues in Europe.
sign of inferiority, African peoples have begun to
reappropriate the medical knowledge gained Traditional and Western practices are seeing
over centuries from traditional medicine and crossover training in the areas of psychiatry,
medical practice (Lambo, T. Adeoye. 1971). In childbirth, and grassroots education. Much of
some countries, laws have been passed traditional medicine touches on the realm of
recognizing traditional medical practice as legal psychiatry. According to Paris, Peter J. (1994),
and effective. This process has been very slow. among other efforts that may be cited is the
Many African medical schools still do not offer involvement of the University of Ghana Medical
any instruction in traditional medicine; and School in training programs for traditional birth
where interest exists, it is only at a research level. attendants. In many countries, the medical
Financial grants have been made for research schools (Makerere University in Uganda,
into the methods and preparations of traditional University of Nairobi in Kenya, and University
medicine. In a few instances, medical scientists of Yaounde in Cameroon, for example) are
are actively involved with traditional striving to identify relevant practices within their
practitioners. own societies, such as use of peer groups to

41
Ijiroro (2021 – 2022) Chuckwu African Traditional Medicine

educate members of their societies on health- intensifying efforts to improve traditional

related issues. These medical schools are, medicines through scientific research. For
therefore, embarking on programmes that instance, laboratory analyses have been
identify and preserve traditional practices conducted on traditional medicines in WHO-
considered valuable (Jelliffe and Bennett 1960). supported scientific studies intended for the
In these programmes, traditional practices treatment of HIV/AIDS in Burkina Faso and
considered harmless or beneficial are permitted, Zimbabwe (AACHRD, 2002). They now
while those practices considered truly harmful collaborate more and form support groups and
are eliminated. associations that facilitate the regulation,
monitoring, and evaluation of ATM doctors and
Progress, Development and Acceptance of
their practices. In other words, they offer peer
African Traditional Medicine
review.
Lately, WHO is promoting not only the practice
of ATM but also the integration of both ATM There are establishments of ATM training and
and Western medical systems to serve the people research institutes intended to promote and
better. People and governments in Africa are develop ATM. A good example is
responding to WHO’s call. As a result, there are ‘PROMETRA’ centres, present in various
certainly some very interesting developments countries of Africa including Benin Republic,
which include varying degrees of collaboration Burkina-Faso, Cameroon, Democratic Republic
and integration of ATM and Western medical of Congo, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-
systems, political commitments, research Bissau, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Mali, Mozambique,
institutes, and the formation of local, national Senegal, South Africa, Togo, and Uganda. In
and international professional organizations and addition, in Ghana, Kenya and Nigeria, WHO
associations of ATM practitioners (Revel, has sponsored pilot clinical trials to test the
Michel, 2009). efficacy of traditional medicines used to treat
malaria (AACHRD, 2002). The clinical trials of
The involvement of such organizations as the
the traditional medicines are being conducted by
World Health Organization (WHO) and the
African scientists and are based at institutions in
African Union (AU) in promoting scientific
African countries. It should be pointed out that
research into ATM has enhanced the conduction
informed consent is obtained from people who
of various types of scientific studies aimed at
participate in the scientific studies testing the
improving the safety, efficacy and quality of
traditional medicines, which should always be
traditional medicines (AACHRD, 2002).
done when anything is being tested on humans.
Consequently, several African countries are

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Ijiroro (2021 – 2022) Chuckwu African Traditional Medicine

In an effort to regulate, promote, develop and some African countries. For instance, a
standardize the practice of ATM, some African pharmaceutical company in South Africa has
countries are reviewing existing legal developed a local traditional medicinal herb
frameworks or putting in place new ones (WHO, called Sunderlandia into standardized tablets
2001). For instance, the South African (AACHRD, 2002). In Nigeria, two traditional
parliament recently passed the Traditional medicines that local Traditional Healers claim to
Health Practitioners Act (Traditional Health be effective in the management of HIV/AIDS,
Practitioners Act, 2004). There are also efforts dopravil and conavil, have been standardized and
from various African countries such as South have reached clinical trial phase II (AACHRD,
Africa to promote collaboration between 2002).
Traditional Healers and biomedical researchers
The developing countries stand to benefit from
(South African Medical Association Task Team,
employment created by such endeavours to
2006), which could go a long way in enhancing
develop traditional medicines. In addition, there
ethical and scientific standards, and sharing of
could be significant financial savings due to
knowledge.
reduced imports of medicines from developed
ATM as an Economic Natural Resource for countries. The challenge to protect the owners of
Developing Countries traditional knowledge, who may not be
The global trade in traditional medicines is adequately protected by the existing current
increasing in both developing and developed intellectual property rights (IPR) frameworks,
countries. For instance, US$17 billion was spent has been pointed out (Timmermans,
on CAM in 2000 in the USA alone, with the 2003, Nyika, 2007), and there is need to review
global market for herbal medicines being over or expand the current IPR policies to address the
US$60 billion (WHO, 2003). Thus, traditional peculiar nature of traditional knowledge.
medicines are natural resources which could be
Conclusion
developed to a level that significantly
Though significant improvements are
complements exports, generating an increase in
continually being made in medical training and
export revenue for most developing countries.
standards of healthcare among ATM doctors in
The ultimate goal should be to have the improved
most of the African nations, these improvements
African traditional medicines manufactured and
are still not matched by a proportionate
packaged in the developing countries so as to
improvement in medical ethics. However, it is
export them as finished products. Efforts to
necessary to formulate medical ethics within the
develop African traditional medicines into value-
context of the individual socio-economic, geo-
added medical products are being intensified in

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Ijiroro (2021 – 2022) Chuckwu African Traditional Medicine

political, religious and cultural backgrounds. In research. Available at: http:// www.afro.
Africa, the knowledge of medical ethics by who.int/ dpm /rpc/ publications /ench.pdf
traditional medical doctors is grossly inadequate. Beauchamp, T. L. and Childress, J.F. (2001).
In a globalized world with rapidly emerging Principles of biomedical ethics. 5th Edition.
medical technologies and its associated ethical Oxford: Oxford University.
challenges, there is need for a review of the Brody, H. (1991). The Chief of Medicine.
medical approach of the ATM doctors. Hastings Cent Rep; 21(4): 17– 22: 19
Chung, K. C., Pushman, A. G. and Bellfi, L.T.
Despite its shortcomings, the current
(2009). A Systematic Review of Ethical
developments in healthcare delivery confirm that
Principles in the Plastic Surgery
ATM is not a quack or illicit practice, but an
Literature. Plast Reconstr Surg.; 124:1711–
effective healthcare service recognized locally,
17184.
nationally, and internationally, with regards to
De Andrade, V. and Eleanor R. (2005). “Beliefs
nations in Africa. Thus, there is the call for its
and Practices of Black South African
integration into the World Healthcare System.
Traditional Healers Regarding Hearing
These developments also confirm that ATM has
Impairment.” International Journal of
a scientific base upon which it can be evaluated
Audiology 44 489-99.
in the same way as the Western medicine, using
Hariharan, S., Jonnalagadda, R., Walrond, E.,
empirical science. Thus, the pharmaceutical
and Moseley, H. (2006). Knowledge,
products of ATM are tested, regulated, and
attitudes and practice of healthcare ethics and
monitored, accordingly. As such, it is currently
law among doctors and nurses in
serving as a source of revenue to many African
Barbados. BMC Med Ethics. ;7:7.
nations.
Havinden, M. and Meredith D. (1993).
Colonialism and Development: Britain and
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