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ENGINE MECHANICAL
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ENGINE MECHANICAL

Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals

Learning objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
• Describe the types of internal combustion engines
• Explain the process by which burning fuel is turned into rotary motion
• Explain the purpose of an engine
• Identify the major components and systems of an internal combustion engine
• Explain the process by which rotary motion is transferred from the engine to the vehicle wheels
• Describe the four-stroke cycle

PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

In a vehicle, the internal combustion engine provides power to
drive the wheels and move the vehicle.
A typical internal combustion engine is either gasoline or diesel
design. The type of fuel used in gasoline and diesel engines is
different because of the method used for ignition of the fuel. The
mechanical operation of each type is nearly identical.
An engine could only have a single cylinder.
However, almost all vehicles today use multiple cylinder engines.
In an engine, fuel is burned to create mechanical motion. This
motion is transferred to the drive wheels of the vehicle.
The major components of the internal combustion engine include:

• Cylinder blocks assembly.

• Valve train
• Intake system
• Exhaust system
• Lubrication system
• Cooling system

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The Combustion Process

Combustion must occur for the engine to operate.
Combustion is the chemical process of igniting a mixture of air
and fuel in the combustion process, fuel and air are mixed in the
engine. The mixture is drawn into a cylinder and compressed by a
moving piston. The compressed mixture is ignited to create energy
for vehicle motion.

Power development
1. Combustion
2. Piston
3. Cylinder
4. Connecting rod
5. Crankshaft

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Creating Mechanical Motion

When the fuel-air mixture is compressed into the combustion

chamber by the piston, spark from a spark plug ignites the
mixture. When combustion occurs, the gases from the burning
fuel-air mixture expand in the cylinder with very high pressure. The
high pressure pushes the piston down in the cylinder. The piston
is connected to a connecting rod, which is connected to the
crankshaft. Because the piston is connected in this way to the
crankshaft, the crankshaft begins to rotate with the motion of the
piston. The connecting rod and crankshaft convert the up and
down motion of the piston into rotary motion.
As combustion occurs in each cylinder at the appropriate interval,
pulses of energy are transferred from the pistons to the
crankshaft. The Flywheel, which is a heavy round metal plate
attached to one end of the crankshaft, helps smooth-out the
power pulses and keeps the crankshaft rotating smoothly.

The rotary motion output by the engine is necessary to drive the

vehicle’s drive wheels. This power is transferred to the wheels
through the transmission and drive train.

Flywheel and Crankshaft

1. Piston
2. Flywheel
3. Crankshaft

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The four-stroke cycle

Nearly all modern vehicle engines are four-stroke cycle engines.
Four-stroke means the piston moves the length of the cylinder
four times in order to complete one combustion cycle. The
combustion process in an internal combustion engine requires
four strokes:

• Intake stroke
• Compression stroke
• Power stroke Engine bore
• Exhaust stroke 1. Cylinder block
2. Cylinder
Bore, Stroke, and Displacement 3. Measuring tool shown inside cylinder
Cylinder Bore
In automotive engine terminology, Bore refers to cylinder bore.
Cylinder bore is the diameter of the cylinder. The term may also Stroke
be used to refer to the cylinder itself. In automotive engine terminology, Stroke refers to piston stroke.
Piston stroke is a straight-line distance measurement of piston
travel in the cylinder during crankshaft rotation. The Stroke is
equal to the distance the piston travels in the cylinder from the
lowest point to the highest point.
The highest point of the piston in the cylinder is called top dead
center, or TDC. The lowest point of the piston in the cylinder is
called bottom dead center, or BDC. One stroke of a piston takes
one half-turn of the crankshaft, or 180 degrees rotation.

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Stroke
a. Top dead center (TDC)
b. One stroke
c. Bottom dead center (BDC)

Displacement
The term displacement can refer to two related concepts. Cylinder
displacement is the amount of air that is moved or displaced by
the piston when it moves from Bottom Dead Center to Top Dead
Center in the cylinder. Displacement is expressed as a volume in
litres (L), cubic centimeters (cc), or cubic inches (ci).
Engine displacement is equal to the displacement of one piston
multiplied by the total number of pistons in the engine.

Intake Stroke
The intake stroke is considered the first of the four cycles. The
rotating crankshaft pulls the piston down from TDC toward BDC. Intake stroke
The exhaust valve is closed and the intake valve is open. As the 1. Intake valve open
piston moves down a vacuum is created which draws the air-fuel 2. Exhaust valve closed
mixture through the intake valve into the cylinder. 3. Piston moves downward

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Compression Stroke
When the piston reaches BDC the intake stroke ends and the
compression stroke begins. The intake valve closes and the
exhaust valve stays closed. The crankshaft motion sends the
piston back up the cylinder toward TDC. The air-fuel mixture is
trapped in the cylinder and is compressed between the piston and
cylinder head.
Compression of the air-fuel mixture is very important for
developing power. The greater the compression, the more power
the mixture creates during combustion. Compression also “pre-
heats” the mixture, which helps combustion.

Compression Stroke
1. Intake valve closed
2. Exhaust valve closed
3. Piston moves upward

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Power Stroke
Just before the piston reaches TDC, a spark from the spark plug
ignites the air-fuel mixture and the power stroke begins. The
burning gases expand rapidly, creating very high pressure on top
of the piston as the piston rotates past TDC and moves down the
cylinder toward BDC. The intake and exhaust valves remain tightly
closed, so all the force is pushing the piston down in the cylinder
to turn the crankshaft.

Power stroke
1. Intake valve closed
2. Exhaust valve closed
3. Combustion
4. Piston moves downward

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Exhaust Stroke
As the piston nears BDC on the power stroke, the exhaust valve
begins to open. As the piston passes
BDC the rotating crankshaft pushes the piston back up the
cylinder toward TDC and the exhaust valve is fully opened. The
piston pushes the burned gases out the exhaust valve, through the
cylinder head exhaust port and out the exhaust system.
As the piston passes TDC, the four-stroke cycle begins again with
the intake stroke. The exhaust valve stays open momentarily at
the beginning of the intake stroke, allowing the momentum of the
gases to empty the cylinder completely.

Exhaust stroke
1. Intake valve closed
2. Exhaust valve open
3. Piston moves upward

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Compression Ratio
The compression ratio measures how much the air & fuel mixture Summary
is squeezed during the compression stroke. The compression ratio We have illustrated the four-stroke cycle in only one cylinder.
is the cylinder volume at TDC compared to BDC during the Remember, the four strokes are continuously repeated in all the
compression stroke. For example, a compression ratio of 8 to 1, cylinders in an alternating pattern.
means the volume of the cylinder at BDC is eight times larger than The four strokes of the cycle — intake, compression, power, and
the volume when the piston is at TDC. exhaust —require two full rotations of the crankshaft. However, the
piston receives direct combustion pressure only during the power
stroke, or about one quarter of the cycle.
When you realize that no power is being generated during three of
the four strokes, you can see why the flywheel is so important.
The flywheel “stores” the energy that is generated. The flywheel
uses the stored energy to keep the crankshaft rotating smoothly.
When the engine is running, the four strokes are repeated very
rapidly. The crankshaft can rotate from some 100 revolutions per
minute or RPM, up to approximately 6000 RPM. At this engine
speed each stroke is completed 25 times per second.

Compression ratio
Higher compression ratios allow for greater potential power
output. However, other factors beside compression ratio affect
power output.
1. 1.Volume before compression
2. Volume after compression
3. TDC
4. BDC
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Valve Train Types Overview

There are two main types of valve trains used in automotive engines. The two types are Overhead Valve (OHV), and Overhead Camshaft (OHC)
types. The OHV type valve train uses a single camshaft centrally located in the cylinder block.
The camshaft lobes control the opening and closing events of the valves in the cylinder head through a series of linking mechanical
components. The OHC type valve train uses one or more camshafts attached directly to the cylinder head above the valves. Valve opening and
closing events are controlled by camshaft lobes directly, or through a mechanical rocker arm.

Overhead Cam and Overhead Valve

1. OHC, The camshaft(s) are located in the cylinder head(s).
2. OHV, The single camshaft is located in the cylinder block.

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Overhead Valve (OHV) Configuration

OHV engines, also known as push rod engines, have a single
camshaft located in the cylinder block, the valves are located in
the cylinder head above the combustion chamber. An overhead
valve (OHV) train design means that the valves are mounted in the
cylinder head at the top of the combustion chamber and the
camshaft is installed below the valves, in the cylinder block. The
engine components that open and close the valves are called the
valve train.
The major components of the (OHV) valve train include:
• Cylinder head
• Head gasket
• Head bolts
• Valves
• Valve seats
• Valve guides
• Valve springs
• Camshaft
• Pushrods
• Rocker arms
• Valve lifters
• Camshaft drives
• Overhead valve drive OHV design
Engines have passages that let the air-fuel mixture into the 1. Rocker arm
cylinders and let exhaust gases out after the mixture has burned. 2. Valve
These passages, called valve ports, seal very tightly during parts of 3. Camshaft
the four stroke cycle. The valves must open and close the ports at 4. Cam
precise times. 5. Lifter
6. Pushrod

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As the camshaft turns, the cam lobe moves against the lifter. The
lifter pushes up on the pushrod, which pushes up on one end of
the rocker arm. The other end of the rocker arm pushes down on
the valve stem and causes the valve to overcome spring pressure
and move to the opens position. As the cam lobe moves past the
lifter, the valve spring pushes against the valve, pushrod, rocker
arm, and lifter. When the cam lobe has rotated far enough, the
valve closes tight against the valve seat.

Overhead Camshaft (OHC) Configuration

OHC engines have the camshaft(s) located in the cylinder head
The benefits of an overhead camshaft include:
• Fewer components in the valve train. For example, push rods
and rocker arms are eliminated.
• More precise and direct valve opening than the
OHV designs.
• Reduced frictional losses in the valve train system.
Single Overhead Cam (SOHC)
SOHC engines normally actuate two valves per cylinder. SOHC
engines use Roller Finger
Followers, which sit below the camshaft or use rocker arms that
sit above the camshaft.

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Double Overhead Cam (DOHC)

DOHC engine design divides the job of valve opening between the
two camshafts. DOHC engines normally actuate four valves per
cylinder.
DOHC engines use either Roller Finger Followers or Direct Acting
Mechanical Buckets to actuate the valves.
The major components of the OHC valve train include:
• Camshaft
• Lifters
• Camshaft drive
The overhead cam (OHC) design provides more direct control over
valves than the OHV design.
This advantage may explain why overhead cams are the most
commonly used design. The overhead cam design includes
engines with a single overhead cam (OHC or SOHC), as well as
engines with dual overhead cams (DOHC).

Hydraulic lifters
1. Camshaft
2. Bucket-type hydraulic lifters

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Camshaft drives
The task of the engine timing system is to coordinate the
induction of the fresh gases and the expulsion of the exhaust
gases with the up and down motion of the piston inside the
cylinder. This is accomplished by synchronizing the rotation of the
crankshaft in the engine block with the camshaft(s).
Since the crankshaft makes two revolutions for each combustion
cycle, and the camshaft makes one revolution, the gear ratio must
always be 2:1. Valve opening and closing times are indicated in
crankshaft degrees. There are various ways of driving the
camshaft. The valve gear can be driven by:
 Timing gears
 Timing chain
 Timing belt
Timing chain tension changes with engine temperature and wear.
Most OHC engines utilize a chain adjuster mounted on the
cylinder block, which uses both engine oil pressure and spring
tension to automatically maintain timing chain tension. When the Chain adjuster
engine is started, oil pressure builds in the adjuster. Oil pressure 1. Ratchet spring
and spring tension push the chain adjuster sleeve outward if the 2. Ratchet pawl
chain is loose. 3. Chain adjuster sleeve
The ratchet pawl skips to the next tooth, pushing the chain lever 4. Chain lever
against the chain, taking out excess slack. When the engine is 5. Timing chain
stopped, the oil pressure drops, but the ratchet pawl prevents the 6. Plunger spring
adjuster sleeve from being pushed back into the chain adjuster. 7. Drain

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Overhead Valve (OHV) Theory and

Operation
Cylinder head
The cylinder head is bolted on top of the cylinder block to form the
roof of the combustion chamber.
The cylinder head:
• Seals the tops of the cylinders.
• Holds the spark plugs.
• Provides seats, guides, and ports for the intake and exhaust
valves.
• Holds the valve train.
• Provides mountings for the intake and exhaust manifolds.
Cylinder head
1. Typical Right hand V-6 cylinder head]
Like the cylinder block, the cylinder head is made of cast iron or 2. Intake port
aluminum alloy. The intake and exhaust manifolds are mounted to 3. Valve
the cylinder head, against the valve ports. Most V-6 or V-8 engines 4. Exhaust port
have two cylinder heads, one for each bank of cylinders. The top 5. Spark plug
part of the cylinder head is manufactured so that the valve rocker
arms and/or other parts of the valve train are mounted on it.

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Cylinder Head gasket

The cylinder head gasket forms the gas and watertight junction
between the cylinder head and the cylinder block. In addition, the
cylinder head gasket offsets any minor irregularities in the mating
surfaces. For this reason it must be made of a somewhat flexible
material. Various types of cylinder head gaskets are used: carrier
sheet faced with soft material soft material covered with metal
lattice faced with soft material metal gasket.

Cylinder head gasket in section

1. Openings for passage of oil and coolant
2. Hole for bolt

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Head bolts
Cylinder head bolts hold the cylinder head firmly to the cylinder
block. There are two types of cylinder head bolts: Conventional
and Torque to yield.
Conventional bolts are tightened using a torque wrench in steps of
progressively higher torques.
Torqueses to yield bolts are also tightened in a sequence of
progressively higher torques.
However, the final step is to tighten the bolts a predetermined
angle using an angle gauge. This final step distorts the threads
slightly resulting in greater holding power. Due to the fact that the
cylinder head bolt threads are distorted during the tightening
sequence, torque-to-yield bolts may only be reused when specified
by the vehicle manufacturer.

Torque-to-yield bolts
1. Torque-to-yield bolt
2. Cylinder head
3. Cylinder block
4. Cylinder head gasket

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Valves
A valve has a round head with a tapered face that seals against a
seat in the cylinder head. Because of its stem-and-head
construction, the valve is sometimes called a mushroom valve.
The head of the valve is the larger end that seals the valve port.
The surface of the head that seals the port is called the face. The
face has a machined surface on it called the valve seat. This is the
contact point between the valve and the valve seat.
Both the valve face and the valve seat face must be machined to
match evenly to form a tight seal and transfer heat away from the
valve face into the cylinder head. Valve margin is the thickness of
the valve head. On some valves, the margin can be ground to form
a new face finish so the valve can be reused after wearing. The
margin also lets the valve transfer some of the heat created in the
combustion chamber.

The valve stem is the long, narrow part above the head. The stem
has a groove at the end that is used to secure the valve into the Valve
cylinder head with keepers. The valve spring is installed on the 1. Keeper groove
stem end of the valve. The spring is compressed into position on 2. Head
the valve stem with the bottom firmly pressed against the spring 3. Margin
seat area of the cylinder head and the top held in place at the top 4. Face
of the valve stem by a retainer and keepers. The retainer and 5. Stem
keepers are kept in place by the constant pressure of the spring
on them and are locked into the groove of the valve stem, thus
providing a constant pulling on the valve into the closed position.
The valve stem fits through the valve guide which holds the valve
in alignment in the cylinder head. Three or four valves per cylinder
designs are used because multiple valves are more precise and
efficient. A three-valve design typically uses two valves for intake
and one valve for exhaust. A four-valve design uses two valves
each for intake and exhaust.
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The valve seat is the area contacted by the valve face when the
valve is in the closed position. Both intake and exhaust valves have
seats. The valve seat area must be hard enough to withstand the
constant pounding as the valve rapidly opens and closes.
The seat must also be able to conduct heat well so that the valve
does not overheat and distort.
Because exhaust gasses are corrosive, the exhaust valve seats must
also be resistant to corrosion. At times, the cylinder head material
cannot meet the heat, hardness, and corrosion requirements. In this
case, a valve seat insert is pressed into place. This insert is made of
a different material from the cylinder head and has the necessary
heat, hardness, and anti-corrosion properties needed.

Typical four-valve cylinder head

1. Inlet valves
2. Exhaust valves
3. Cooling passages
4. Valve seats

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Valve guides
The valve guides keep the valves in precise alignment in the cylinder
head. They allow the valve stem to go through the head from the
combustion chamber to the upper cylinder head area where the
valve springs are mounted. Some valve guides are integral with the
cylinder head casting.
Other guides are soft alloy inserts that are manufactured separately
and pressed into the head.
The valve guide fits very closely around the valve stem, with just
enough room for lubricant and free up and down movement of the
stem.

Valve guide
1. Cylinder head
2. Valve seal
3. Valve stem
4. Valve guide

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Valve clearance
When a valve moves to the closed position, it must be seated
firmly against the valve seat. To accomplish this, there must not
be any pressure on the stem side of the valve. On some engines, a
small space is created between the valve stem tip and the
actuating device (rocker arm, follower, bucket, and tappet). This
space is called Valve Clearance. Valve clearance must be precisely
adjusted to avoid excessive noise and proper operation. If valve
clearance is too large, the engine will be noisy. If valve clearance
is not present, the valve may not be able to seat firmly.
Combustion gasses may leak past the valve seat and eventually
burn a hole in the valve at the leak point. Some engines are
designed to maintain valve clearance with mechanical Shim
adjustments such as a shim. Mechanical clearance designs may 1. Adjustment shim
need periodic adjustments. Some engines maintain valve 2. Tappet
clearance automatically through hydraulic valve actuator devices.
A hydraulic device (lifter, tappet, and bucket) expands under oil
hydraulic pressure to maintain contact with the valve tip at all
times. During valve close events, oil pressure is cut-off allowing
the valve to close firmly onto the seat.

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Valve springs
The valve spring is primarily responsible for closing the valve firmly
onto the valve seat. The spring is installed onto the upper cylinder
head around the valve stem as the stem protrudes through the
cylinder head. Upper and lower spring seats prevent wear and
keep the spring in place. Keepers installed into the upper spring
seat (sometime called a retainer) lock into grooves in the valve
stem and keep all components locked into place.

Valve springs
1. Keepers
2. Upper spring seat
3. Spring
4. Lower spring seat
5. Valve seal
6. Valve guide
7. Valve

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Spring tension
The valve spring must be able to generate enough pressure to
keep the valve closed firmly against the valve seat. It must also
keep all valve train components in contact with one-another as the
engine operates at high speed. At the same time, the valve spring
cannot press so much that components wear-out prematurely. As
a result, valve springs are designed to generate just the right
amount of pressure for the engine design.
Working height
Working height is the length of the spring when it is installed in on
the cylinder head and the valve is fully closed.

Working height
1. Working height measurement
2. Valve guide
3. Valve
4. Valve closed

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Camshaft

The camshaft is the component that controls the valve opening

and closing events. The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft
through a gear, chain, or belt connection. The camshaft rotates at
half the speed of the crankshaft to maintain proper timing of the
four cycles of combustion. Valve opening and closing events are Camshaft
accomplished by lobes on the camshaft. Each valve in the engine, Valve Lift
now matter the design, has its own corresponding camshaft lobe. 1. High lift cam
Depending upon engine design, there may be only one or multiple 2. Moderate lift cam
camshafts in an engine.
Duration
Lift Duration is the length of time the cam lobe keeps the valve open.
Valve lift is the distance the valve is lifted off the valve seat when Duration is measured in degrees of camshaft rotation. The shape of
fully opened. The height of the cam lobe and the design of the the cam lobe determines the amount of duration. Changing the
valve train determine the amount of valve lift. A valve needs duration affects the operating characteristics of the engine
enough lift to allow the air and fuel mixture to flow freely into the regarding how much torque and power are produced at a given
cylinder, or exhaust gasses out of the cylinder, without interfering engine speed.
with the piston or binding the spring.

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Overlap
Overlap is the condition where both the intake and exhaust valves
are open simultaneously. Overlap is controlled through camshaft Overhead valve drive
lobe position. Overlap is measured in degrees of camshaft In an OHV engine, where the camshaft is mounted below the valves
rotation. in the block, a crankshaft gear is used to drive a timing chain, which
Changing overlap has an affect on engine performance drives the camshaft gear.
characteristics at a given engine speed.

Typical OHV drive

Valve Overlap 1. Camshaft
2. Camshaft gear
3. Timing chain
4. Crankshaft gear

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Pushrods
In an OHV engine, pushrods transfer the lifting motion from the
camshaft and lifters to the valves.
Pushrods are made of stiff steel tubing, with cups or balls on the
ends to make with the lifters and rocker arms.
The pushrods flex slightly in normal operation, and this flexing is
taken into account when the cam is designed. On some engines,
pushrods come in varying lengths to provide an initial clearance
adjustment with hydraulic lifters.

Rocker arms
The rocker arm reverses the direction of lift from the pushrod or
camshaft to the valve. Rocker arms
A pivot is drilled out in the rocker arm, so the rocker arm can run 1. Shaft-pivot on rocker arm.
on a hollow rocker arm shaft. 2. Rocker arm
3. Valve
4. Pushrod

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Valve lifters
Valve Lifters transmit the lifting motion of the cams to the valve
stems. Depending on the type of engine, they transmit the
movement to the valves directly, by means of finger followers,
valve levers or push rods and rocker arms.
The lifter protects the valve stem against side thrust.
The lifters are guided in the cylinder head and absorb some of the
thrust.
Lifters come in two types: Solid lifters or Hydraulic lifters.

Roller versus flat lifters

Roller finger followers used on some engines are used to actuate
the valves. Roller finger followers pivot below the camshaft lobes.
The roller finger follower is similar to a rocker arm. One end of the
roller finger follower is supported by a lifter that controls lash
adjustment. The other end of the roller finger follower actuates Solid lifter
the valve. 1. Solid lifter
2. Camshaft
Solid lifter
Solid lifters transmit the movement between the cam and the
valve. The solid lifter is one piece and has no moving parts. Solid
lifter equipped engines require periodic adjustments to correct for
valve train wear and eliminate noise.

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Hydraulic lifters
Hydraulic lifters not only transmit movement, they can also offset
changes in valve clearance.
The hydraulic lifter is a hydraulic cylinder, which corrects valve
clearance using engine oil pressure and internal spring pressure.
Thermal expansion and wear cause dimensional changes, which
are offset by hydraulic lifters.
Hydraulic lifters do not need adjustment.

OHC Hydraulic lifter

1. Camshaft
2. Hydraulic lifter
3. Valve Stem

Cam Followers
Cam followers are another term describing mechanical lifters. Refer
to Valve lifters.

OHV Hydraulic lifter Bucket-Type Solid Lifters

1. Hydraulic lifter Bucket type solid lifters, as used in OHC and
2. Camshaft DOHC engines, offer a way of adjusting the valve clearance. Fitting
shims of different thickness can alter the clearance between the
camshaft and lifter.

Hydraulic lash adjusters

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Hydraulic lash adjuster is OHC version of the hydraulic lifter. On

most OHC engines, the valve clearance is adjusted automatically
by hydraulic lash adjusters. Hydraulic lash adjusters eliminate the
need for manual valve adjustments. The hydraulic lash adjuster is
mounted above the valve stem. A bucket-type hydraulic lash
adjuster is positioned between the top of the valve stem and the
camshaft. In this design, the camshaft directly contacts the top of
the lash adjuster. In some engines, a rocker arm-mounted
hydraulic lash adjuster fits between the valve stem and the rocker
arm. The bucket-type hydraulic lifter has a bucket body that
contains two oil chambers. A check ball and spring control the
movement of oil between these two chambers. As the oil moves
from one chamber to the other, a spring-controlled plunger moves
up and down, and contacts the top of the valve stem.
Bucket-type hydraulic lifter
1. Bucket body
2. Plunger
3. Check ball spring
4. Check ball
5. Check ball cage
6. Plunger spring
7. Body

Bucket lifter
1. Lifter
2. Camshaft
3. Lifter guide
4. Shim
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Rocker Arm-Mounted Hydraulic Lash Adjuster a rocker arm rather than the camshaft. A hydraulic lash adjuster
Rocker arm-mounted hydraulic lash adjusters operate much like mounted on a rocker arm does not have a bucket body, but the
bucket-type hydraulic lash adjusters, except that is in contact with check ball, plunger, and body, work the same way to maintain a
valve clearance of 0.

Rocker arm-mounted hydraulic lifters

1. Rocker arms
2. Hydraulic lifters
3. Camshafts

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Overhead cam drive

To drive the camshaft(s), a pulley on the end of the crankshaft
drives a timing belt or timing chain that turns the camshaft(s). The
crankshaft pulley drives the timing chain or belt. The camshaft
pulleys connected to the chain or belt then turn each camshaft.
The timing belt pulley has half as many teeth as the camshaft
pulleys. This means that the camshafts turn once for every two
turns of the crankshaft. OHC drives also include a tensioner pulley
and tensioner spring or hydraulic auto tensioner, which maintain
timing chain or belt tension and valve timing.

Overhead Cam (OHC) drive

1. Camshaft pulleys
2. Idler pulley
3. Timing belt pulley
4. Timing belt
5. Tensioner pulley

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OHC drives use a timing belt auto tensioner, which works similar to
the chain adjuster. Some types of auto tensioner use a rod and
piston instead of a ratchet. When the engine is cold, there is little
tension on the belt. The auto tensioner rod pushes the tensioner
pulley up, taking the slack out of the belt. When the engine is warm,
expansion causes increased belt tension, which pushes the rod into
the tensioner.

Belt tensioner
1. Tensioner pulley 4. Belt warm
2. Timing belt 5. Auto tensioner
3. Belt cold

Belt and chain drive

Another type of DOHC drive is the combination belt and chain
drive. In this design, a timing belt drives the intake camshaft, and
a timing chain drives the exhaust camshaft. The major advantage
of this design is that it allows the valves to be placed at a more
vertical angle. This angle produces enhanced combustion
efficiency, better fuel economy, and lower emissions.

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8. Tensioner pulley
Gear-driven camshaft with friction gear
This type of cam drive features a gear-driven camshaft with a
friction gear. In this design, the timing belt drives one camshaft on
each head. The other camshaft is driven by helical gears. The
helical gears turn the driven-side camshaft counterclockwise.
This design creates a more compact valve train, which allows a
lower hood line on the vehicle. The arrangement of the cam lobes
on the two cams causes a clicking noise as the cams turn.
To eliminate this noise, the driven gear is equipped with a friction
gear. The friction gear has one more tooth than the helical gear.
The friction gear causes a slight bind between the drive and the
driven cam gears, eliminating any clicking noise resulting from
backlash between the gears.

Combination DOHC drive

1. Camshaft pulley
2. Camshaft chain
3. Chain adjuster
4. Intake camshaft
5. Exhaust camshaft
6. Timing belt pulley
7. Timing belt

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To make sure that the valves open and close at the right time in the
four-stroke cycle, the camshaft is driven by the crankshaft. The
camshaft turns at one half the speed of the crankshaft because it
takes two revolutions of the crankshaft to complete one cycle
So the camshaft completes a full cycle in one revolution.
As the camshaft turns, a lobe on the camshaft contacts a lifter,
which presses on the valve stem end and opens the valve.
As the lobe turns past the lifter, it releases the valve, allowing the
spring to close it. The single overhead camshaft includes two or
more cam lobes for each cylinder — one lobe for each valve — so
that the intake and exhaust valves can open and close at different
times.

Driven
camshaft
1. Driven camshaft
2. Drive camshaft
3. Helical gears
4. Timing belt
5. Friction gear

Single overhead cam

In an SOHC engine, the camshaft is installed in the cylinder head
above the valves. The camshaft is a solid or hollow cast iron shaft
with several cams on it. Each cam has an off-center bulge on one
side called a cam lobe. On many OHC engines, the camshaft runs
directly on the cylinder head journal surface without insert bearings.

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On V-type SOHC engines, two separate camshafts are used, one for
each bank of cylinders. Even though two camshafts are used, this is
still an SOHC design because one camshaft operates all the valves
for one cylinder bank.

Single OHC Intake Valve Actuation

1. Valve clearance
2. Camshaft
3. Lifter
4. Intake valve shown closed
5. Intake valve shown open
Camshaft operation
1. Rocker arms
2. Camshaft
3. Valves
4. Cam lobes

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Dual overhead cam

The dual overhead cam (DOHC) design is also very common in
light-weight, multi-valve engines that operate at high speeds. Dual
camshafts reduce the weight of the valve train parts, which means
the engine can generate more power without an increase in
displacement and weight. V configuration engines with dual
camshafts actually have four separate camshafts, two for each
bank of cylinders. In addition, the OHC design also allows four
valves per cylinder — two intake valves and two exhaust valves.
This arrangement improves the intake and exhaust efficiency of
the engine.

Dual camshafts
1. Camshafts
2. Exhaust valves
3. Intake valves

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Variable cam timing

Some DOHC cam engines utilize variable cam timing (VCT). A
similar system is known as variable valve timing (VVT). In either
system a hydraulic actuator changes the valve timing of one of the
camshafts. The camshaft timing is changed dependant upon
engine load and speed. Variable cam timing optimizes the
combustion procedure by improving gas exchange in the
cylinders. The benefits include improving low and high speed
engine performance, engine idle quality and exhaust emissions.
Most variable cam timing designs vary the valve timing of the
exhaust camshaft. Some designs vary the valve timing of the
intake camshaft. The VCT actuator or Variable valve timing unit
fits over the end of the camshaft.

VCT actuator
1. Body and sprocket assembly
2. Inner sleeve
3. Return spring
4. Piston
5. Ring gears
6. Oil pressure

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Engine Block Assembly Engine Fundamentals

Student’s Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
• Describe the different types of engine block assemblies
• Identify the major components of the engine block assembly
• Explain the theory and operation of the engine block

ENGINE BLOCK ASSEMBLY

The engine block is the main supporting member of the engine.
Almost every other engine component is either connected to or
supported by the engine block.
The pistons, connecting rods, and crankshaft work inside the
engine block.
The engine block may be either an inline or “V” type design
depending upon the arrangement of the individual cylinders in the
block.
The engine block contains the cylinders, internal passages for
coolant and oil, and mounting surfaces for attaching engine
accessories, such as the oil filter and water pump. The cylinder
head is mounted on top of the engine block, and the oil pan is Engine block assembly
mounted on the bottom. 1. Engine block
2. Piston
3. Crankshaft
4. Connecting rod

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Major Components
In-line Engine block Design
In-line engines commonly have three, four, five or six cylinders. V-
configuration engines commonly have six, eight, and occasionally
12 cylinders. Most 4- cylinder engines are built with the cylinders
in-line.

V-Type Engine block Design

A V-Type engine design has two equal number banks of cylinders
arranged in a “V” pattern. Even though the cylinders are in two Typical four cylinder inline engine block
banks, they are still connected to a common crankshaft. For 1. Cylinders
example, a V-8 engine has two banks of four cylinders each. A V-
12 has two banks of six cylinders each.

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Cylinder liners
A cylinder liner is a hardened steel cylinder, which is inserted into
the engine block. The engine block could be made of cast iron or
aluminum alloy.
A liner is not required in all engine blocks. Liners are made of a
hard material to contain combustion inside the cylinders and wear
from piston with rings movement. There are two types of cylinder
liners, wet liners, and dry liners.

Typical V-6 engine engine block

1. Cylinders

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Wet Liners
Wet liners are so named because they come into direct contact
with engine coolant in the block. Seals are used to prevent coolant
from reaching the crankcase.
Wet liners are easy to repair since they can be fairly easily
changed. This makes it unnecessary to machine the cylinder and
eliminates the need for oversized pistons. Wet liners have an
increased chance for corrosion because of their design. Using
liners also reduces the rigidity of the engine block.

Cylinder Liner
1. Cylinder Liner

Wet Liner
1. Liner
2. Seal
3. Coolant
4. Engine block

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Dry liners Crankcase

Dry liners do not come into direct contact with engine coolant. Dry The crankcase contains and supports the crankshaft and main
liners are installed in an engine block by either pressing or bearings. The bottom of the engine block forms the upper part of
shrinking. the crankcase. The oil pan attached to the bottom of the engine
The process of shrink-fitting uses the property of metals that block forms the bottom part of the crankcase. The crankcase
allows them to shrink when cold and expand when hot. The dry includes several support surfaces for the crankshaft. The number
liner is cooled and the engine block heated, then the liner inserted of supports varies depending on the length of the crankshaft and
into the block. This method makes it easier to press the liners into cylinder layout. For example, a four-cylinder engine will usually
the engine block. Dry liners cannot be removed from the engine have five of these support surfaces. The crankshaft mounts on
block intact. insert bearings that are installed on the support surfaces and
attached with bearing caps. The supports have oil passages that
lubricate the crankshaft as it spins against the bearings. These
passages align with oil holes in the bearings. The engine block
includes a groove for the rear main oil seal, which keeps oil from
leaking out at the rear of the crankshaft. In automotive technical
vocabulary, the term main refers to bearings, seals, and other
mounting hardware for the crankshaft itself. Main distinguishes
these mounting parts from other mounting parts that connect to
the crankshaft, such as connecting rod bearings.

Dry Liner
1. Liner
2. Coolant
3. Engine block

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Main bearing caps

1. Engine block 4. Main bearing caps
2. Thrust bearings 5. Main bearing cap mounting bolt
3. Crankshaft 6. Main bearings

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Crankshaft
The crankshaft changes the up-and-down motion of the pistons crankshaft onto the block. Between the crankshaft and its
into rotational motion needed to drive the wheels of the vehicle. mounting surfaces are bearings in which the crankshaft is held
The crankshaft is mounted in the engine block on “U” shaped and able to spin. When the block is manufactured, main bearing
supports that are cast into the engine block assembly. Caps called surfaces are machined to be exactly parallel to the crankshaft. For
Main Bearing Caps are bolted onto the supports to secure the this reason main bearing caps must never be interchanged.

Journals
1. Front end
2. Oil passage
3. Connecting rod journal (crankpin)
4. Flywheel end
5. Main bearing journal

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The crankshaft withstands the tremendous forces of the pistons’

power strokes. The crankshaft is usually made of heavy, high-
strength cast iron. Crankshafts made for high performance or
heavy-duty applications usually are made of forged steel. Some
crankshafts have counterweights cast opposite the crankpins.
Counterweights help balance the crankshaft and prevent vibration
during high-speed rotation.

Main bearing journals on a crankshaft are highly polished and

manufactured to exact roundness so they rotate properly in the
bearing inserts. Oil passages drilled into the main journals receive
oil flow from the supports in the engine block. Slanted oil
passages are drilled from the main journals to the crankpin
journals to lubricate the connecting rod bearings. In addition, one
of the main journals— usually in the middle — is machined with a
thrust surface. This surface rides against a special thrust bearing
to limit front-to-rear movement of the crankshaft. Crankshaft
1. Crankshaft journal
Crankshaft Journals 2. Crank web
3. Main journal
The journals on a crankshaft are those areas which serve as
4. Balance weight
bearing surfaces for the crankshaft itself, or the connecting rods
5. Balance hole
which are attached to the crankshaft. The journals for crankshaft
6. Oil bore
bearings are referred to as Main Bearing Journals. The journals for
connecting rods are referred to as Crankpin Journals.
A common design for an inline 4-cylinder engine has five main
bearing journals and four crankpin journals.
One piston is connected to each crankpin journal using a
connecting rod. V-type cylinder design engines attach two
connecting rods to each crankpin journal.

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Main bearings
Main bearings support the crankshaft into the main bearing
journals, and main bearing caps.
Crankshaft main bearings are split circular sleeves that wrap
around the crankshaft main journals. The upper half of the bearing
has one or more oil holes which allow lubricant to coat the inside
surface of the bearing. The upper bearing fits into a main support
on the bottom of the engine block. The lower half of the bearing
fits into the bearing cap. The wear surfaces of the bearings are
made of softer material than the crankshaft. The softer material
reduces friction, and it tends to mold itself around any uneven
areas on the main journal. In addition, if wear does occur, it
affects the bearing, which is cheaper to replace than the
crankshaft.

Bearing lubrication
In most engines, the upper and lower bearings are not
interchangeable. The upper bearing usually has oil passage hole in
it. This allows oil to flow to the bearing surface of the main journal.
Since the crankshaft main journal diameter is a few thousandths Crankshaft main bearings
of an inch smaller diameter than the inside diameter created by 1. Upper main bearing
the bearings, oil can coat the entire bearing surface. 2. Oil hole
3. Lower main bearing

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Bearing clearance
The gap between the bearings and crankshaft journal is called
bearing clearance. Clearance is one of the most critical
measurements in the engine. The oil that lubricates the bearings
does not actually stay in a continuous film. As the crankshaft
turns, the oil works its way to the outer edges of the bearings,
where it is thrown off into the crankcase. New oil constantly feeds
through the oil hole to replace the oil thrown off. The constant
flow of oil over the bearings helps cool them and flush away grit
and dirt from the bearing surface. If the clearance is too small, not
enough oil is allowed in to lubricate the bearings. The resulting
friction wears out the bearings quickly. If the clearance is too
large, too much oil flows through the bearings. Oil pressure drops
and the crankshaft journal may start to pound against the bearing
rather than spin inside it. To prevent damage to the bearings and
crankshaft, bearing clearances are set precisely whenever the
bearings or crank-shaft are repaired.

Lubrication and Bearing Clearance

1. Oil passage
2. Upper main bearing
3. Oil film
4. Lower main bearing
5. Crankshaft main journal
6. Bearing clearance

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Thrust Bearings
In addition to rotating, the crankshaft tends to move back and
forth. Since this type of motion has a negative affect on the
crankshaft associated components measures are taken to limit
back and forth motion. One of the main journals on the crankshaft
is machined to accept a thrust bearing. The thrust bearing keeps
the crankshaft from moving back and forth. The upper and lower
thrust bearings have oil grooves that allow oil to flow around the
journal.

Thrust bearings
1. Upper thrust bearing
2. Oil grooves
3. Lower thrust bearing

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Vibration damper At a normal hot idle, this twisting and untwisting may repeat five
Even though the crankshaft is very strong, it has a certain amount times every second. When accelerating under load, the cycle may
of flexibility. During a power stroke the crankshaft actually twists occur 25 or 30 times per second. The twisting and untwisting
slightly then springs back. causes a vibration. The vibration damper, which is usually
mounted on the front end of the crankshaft, works to minimize
these crankshaft vibrations.

Vibration damper
1. Rubber
2. Timing belt pulley
3. Crankshaft
4. Vibration damper

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Connecting rods The piston pin allows the piston to pivot on the small end of the
The connecting rod transfers the movement of the piston to the connecting rod. The large end of the connecting rod is connected
crankpin on the crankshaft. A steel piston pin connects the piston to the crankshaft with a connecting rod bearing cap. The cap is
to the connecting rod. very similar in design and function to the main bearing caps. The
connecting rod bearings are similar to the crankshaft main
bearings.

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Connecting rod
1. Bushing
2. Piston pin
3. Connecting rod
4. Connecting rod bearing cap
5. Upper connecting rod bearing
6. Lower connecting rod bearing
7. Oil holes
8. Bearing cap nut
9. Bearing cap bolt

Cylinder Wall Lubrication

An oil jet in the connecting rod lubricates the cylinder walls and
cools the piston. Crankshaft oil passages deliver oil to the
connecting rod journals. When the bearing holes match up with
the oil hole in the connecting rod journal, pressurized oil squirts
through the oil jet.

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Pistons
The piston forms the bottom of the combustion chamber in the
cylinder. The piston transfers the power created by the burning
air-fuel mixture to the crankshaft.
The top surface of the piston is called the head, or crown. The
upper part of the piston contains several grooves where the
compression rings and oil ring fit.
The lower part of the piston, under the rings, is called the skirt.
Thrust surfaces on the skirt guide the piston in the cylinder bore
and prevent the piston from rocking back and forth in the cylinder.
Most pistons have a mark on one side that identifies the side of
the piston that faces the engine front.
The piston pin is inserted through the piston pin bore to connect
the piston to the connecting rod. In some piston designs, the pin
bore is offset slightly from the center of the piston. The offset
helps stabilize the piston as it moves up and down in the cylinder.

Connecting rod oil jet

1. Oil holes
2. Connecting rod
3. Oil jet
4. Upper connecting rod bearing
5. Lower connecting rod bearing

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Piston clearance
Although the piston fits closely in the cylinder bore, it does not
completely seal the combustion chamber by itself. The seal is
accomplished using the piston rings installed in grooves near the
top of the piston. To allow room for the piston rings and
lubricating oil, a clearance must be maintained between the
outside edge of the piston and the cylinder wall. This clearance
lets lubricating oil into the upper part of the cylinder. The
clearance also prevents the engine from seizing if one of the
pistons expands too much from overheating. To maintain a
consistent clearance from the top to the bottom of the cylinder,
the piston usually has a slight tapered shape. The top diameter of
the piston is slightly smaller than the bottom diameter when the
piston is cold. When the engine operates, the top of the piston
gets much hotter than the bottom and the expansion at the top
evens up the diameter.
Another technique used to make the piston fit better in the
cylinder and control heat expansion is called cam grinding. Cam-
Piston ground pistons are manufactured so that they have a slightly oval
1. Head shape. The piston is designed to expand in the direction of the
2. Piston pin bore small diameter when heated. This makes the piston more rounds
3. Piston ring grooves without substantially increasing the overall diameter. If piston
4. Thrust surface clearance becomes too large, the piston can rock in the cylinder,
5. “Front” mark striking the cylinder wall loud enough to be heard. This condition
6. Center of piston is called piston slap. Piston slap usually occurs in older, high
7. Center of piston pin bore mileage engines with worn cylinders.
8. Offset
9. Skirt

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Piston rings
Piston rings seal the combustion chamber where the air-fuel
mixture is ignited. In addition to sealing the combustion chamber,
piston rings scrape oil from the cylinder walls and direct it back
into the crankcase.
Piston rings also help transfer heat from the piston to the cylinder
walls.
The top two rings are called compression rings. They are usually
made of cast iron with chrome plating on the surface facing the
cylinder wall. Compression rings are available with different edge
shapes. The bottom ring is called an oil ring. The oil ring is usually
made up of several parts assembled in a specific order in the
same piston groove. A typical oil ring is made up of two scuff rings
separated by an expander.
Piston clearance
1. Top diameter (smaller)
2. Bottom diameter (larger)

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Compression rings
Compression rings seal the combustion chamber, scrape the
cylinder walls clean, and transfer heat from the piston to the
cylinder wall. Compression rings are designed to twist slightly
when they are not under pressure. The top edge of ring will be
twisted away from the cylinder wall, while the bottom edge
presses against the wall. When the piston is moving down the
cylinder during the intake stroke the lower edge of the
compression rings scrape off any oil that was not recovered by the
oil ring. On the compression and exhaust strokes the twist lets the
compression rings skim over the oil film so the oil is not pushed
into the combustion chamber.

During the power stroke the combustion pressure on the rings

forces them to untwist, so both top and bottom edges of the rings
Piston rings contact the cylinder wall. This creates a tighter seal for the
1. Top compression ring combustion chamber. The untwisted rings also create a path for
2. Second compression ring heat to flow from the piston to the cylinder wall.
3. Scuff rings on oil ring
4. Expander on oil ring

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Oil rings
Oil rings control the lubrication of the cylinder walls and direct oil cannot fit into the space between the piston and cylinder when
back to the crankcase. Oil is constantly sprayed or splashed onto the piston moves toward BDC and therefore needs some place to
the walls of the cylinders to provide lubrication between the piston go. The oil ring provides a path for the oil to return to the
rings and cylinder wall. The amount of oil on the cylinder wall crankcase.

Oil rings
1. Oil rings
2. Expander ring

As oil is scraped from the cylinder wall by the compression rings,

it flows behind the top expander ring and into holes in the oil ring
groove. These holes direct oil to the open space inside the piston
skirt. The oil then drains back into the crankcase.

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