CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 1 Chemical Reactions and Equations

Chemical Reactions and Equations: Balanced and unbalanced chemical equations and balancing of chemical equations.

What is a chemical reaction Class 10?

Chemical Reaction: The transformation of chemical substance into another chemical substance is known as Chemical Reaction.
For example: Rusting of iron, the setting of milk into curd, digestion of food, respiration, etc.

In a chemical reaction, a new substance is formed which is completely different in properties from the original substance, so in a
chemical reaction, a chemical change takes place.

Only a rearrangement of atoms takes place in a chemical reaction.

The substances which take part in a chemical reaction are called reactants.

The new substances produced as a result of a chemical reaction are called products.

Example: The burning of magnesium in the air to form magnesium oxide is an example of a chemical reaction.

2Mg(s) + O2(g) △→ 2MgO(s)

Before burning in air, the magnesium ribbon is cleaned by rubbing with sandpaper.

This is done to remove the protective layer of basic magnesium carbonate from the surface of the magnesium ribbon.

Reactant: Substances which take part in a chemical reaction are called reactants.

Example: Mg and O2.

Product: New substance formed after a chemical reaction is called a product.

Example: MgO.

Characteristics of Chemical Reactions :

(i) Evolution of gas: The chemical reaction between zinc and dilute sulphuric acid is characterised by the evolution of hydrogen
gas.

Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g) ↑

(ii) Change in Colour: The chemical reaction between citric acid and purple coloured potassium permanganate solution is
characterised by a change in colour from purple to colourless.

The chemical reaction between sulphur dioxide gas and acidified potassium dichromate solution is characterized by a change in
colour from orange to green.

(iii) Change in state of substance: The combustion reaction of candle wax is characterised by a change in state from solid to
liquid and gas (because the wax is a solid, water formed by the combustion of wax is a liquid at room temperature whereas,
carbon dioxide produced by the combustion of wax is a gas). There are some chemical reactions which can show more than one
characteristics.
(iv) Change in temperature: The chemical reaction between quick lime water to form slaked lime is characterized by a change in
temperature (which is a rise in temperature).

The chemical reaction between zinc granules and dilute sulphuric acid is also characterised by a change in temperature (which is
a rise in temperature).

(v) Formation of precipitate: The chemical reaction between sulphuric acid and barium chloride solution is characterised by the
formation of a white precipitate of barium sulphate.

BaCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) (ppt) + 2HCl(aq)

What is a chemical Equation Class 10?

Chemical Equation: Representation of chemical reaction using symbols and formulae of the substances is called Chemical
Equation.

Example: A + B → C + D

In this equation, A and B are called reactants and C and D are called the products. The arrow shows the direction of the chemical
reaction. Condition, if any, is written generally above the arrow.

When hydrogen reacts with oxygen, it gives water. This reaction can be represented by the following chemical equation:

Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water

H2 + O2 → H2O

In the first equation, words are used and in second, symbols of substances are used to write the chemical equation. For
convenience, the symbol of substance is used to represent chemical equations.

A chemical equation is a way to represent the chemical reaction in a concise and informative way.

A chemical equation can be divided into two types: Balanced Chemical Equation and Unbalanced Chemical Equation.

(a) Balanced Chemical Equation: A balanced chemical equation has the number of atoms of each element equal on both sides.

Example: Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2

In this equation, numbers of zinc, hydrogen and sulphate are equal on both sides, so it is a Balanced Chemical Equation.

According to the Law of Conservation of Mass, mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. To obey this
law, the total mass of elements present in reactants must be equal to the total mass of elements present in products.

(b) Unbalanced Chemical Equation: If the number of atoms of each element in reactants is not equal to the number of atoms of
each element present in the product, then the chemical equation is called Unbalanced Chemical Equation.

Example: Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2

In this example, a number of atoms of elements are not equal on two sides of the reaction. For example; on the left-hand side
only one iron atom is present, while three iron atoms are present on the right-hand side. Therefore, it is an unbalanced chemical
equation.

Balancing a Chemical Equation: To balance the given or any chemical equation, follow these steps:

Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2

Write the number of atoms of elements present in reactants and in products in a table as shown here.
Name of atom No. of atoms in the reactant No. of atoms in the product

Iron 1 3

Hydrogen 2 2

Oxygen 1 4

Balance the atom which is maximum in number on either side of a chemical equation.

In this equation, the number of oxygen atom is the maximum on the RHS.

To balance the oxygen, one needs to multiply the oxygen on the LHS by 4, so that, the number of oxygen atoms becomes equal
on both sides.

Fe + 4 × H2O → Fe3O4 + H2

Now, the number of hydrogen atoms becomes 8 on the LHS, which is more than that on the RHS. To balance it, one needs to
multiply the hydrogen on the RHS by 4.

Fe + 4 × H2O → Fe3O4 + 4 × H2

After that, the number of oxygen and hydrogen atoms becomes equal on both sides. The number of iron is one on the LHS,
while it is three on the RHS. To balance it, multiply the iron on the LHS by 3.

3 × Fe + 4 × H2O → Fe3O4 + 4 × H2

Now the number of atoms of each element becomes equal on both sides. Thus, this equation becomes a balanced equation.

Name of atom No. of atoms in the reactant No. of atoms in the product

Iron 3 3

Hydrogen 8 8

Oxygen 4 4

After balancing, the above equation can be written as follows:

3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2.

To Make Equations More Informative:

Writing the symbols of physical states of substances in a chemical equation:

By writing the physical states of substances, a chemical equation becomes more informative.

Gaseous state is represented by symbol (g).

Liquid state is represented by symbol (l).

Solid state is written by symbol (s).

Aqueous solution is written by symbol (aq).

Writing the condition in which reaction takes place: The condition is generally written above and/or below the arrow of a
chemical equation.

Thus, by writing the symbols of the physical state of substances and condition under which reaction takes place, a chemical
equation can be made more informative.
What are the types of a chemical reaction Class 10?

Types of Chemical Reactions: Combination Reaction, Decomposition Reaction, Displacement Reaction, Double Displacement
Reaction, Neutralization Reactions, Exothermic – Endothermic Reactions and Oxidation-Reduction Reactions.

Types of Chemical Reactions:

Chemical reactions can be classified in following types:

(i) Combination Reaction: Reactions in which two or more reactants combine to form one product are called Combination
Reactions.

A general combination reaction can be represented by the chemical equation given here:

A + B → AB

Examples:

When magnesium is burnt in the air (oxygen), magnesium oxide is formed. In this reaction, magnesium is combined with oxygen.

Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium Oxide

When carbon is burnt in oxygen (air), carbon dioxide is formed. In this reaction, carbon is combined with oxygen.

C (s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide

(ii) Decomposition Reaction: Reactions in which one compound decomposes in two or more compounds or elements are known
as Decomposition Reaction. A decomposition reaction is just the opposite of combination reaction.

A general decomposition reaction can be represented as follows :

AB → A + B

Examples:

When calcium carbonate is heated, it decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.

CaCO3(s) heat−→− CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Calcium carbonate → Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide

When ferric hydroxide is heated, it decomposes into ferric oxide and water

2Fe(OH)3(s) △→ Fe2O3(s) + 3H2O(l)

Thermal Decomposition: The decomposition of a substance on heating is known as Thermal Decomposition.

Example: 2Pb(NO3)2(s) heat−→− 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

Electrolytic Decomposition: Reactions in which compounds decompose into simpler compounds because of passing of
electricity, are known as Electrolytic Decomposition. This is also known as Electrolysis.

Example: When electricity is passed in water, it decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen.

2H2O(l) Undefined control sequence \xrightarrow 2H2(g) + O2(g)

Photolysis or Photo Decomposition Reaction: Reactions in which a compound decomposes because of sunlight are known as
Photolysis or Photo Decomposition Reaction.

Example: When silver chloride is put in sunlight, it decomposes into silver metal and chlorine gas.

2AgCl(s) (white) Sunlight−→−−−−− 2Ag(s) (grey) + Cl2(g)

Photographic paper has a coat of silver chloride, which turns into grey when exposed to sunlight. It happens because silver
chloride is colourless while silver is a grey metal.

(iii) Displacement Reaction: The chemical reactions in which a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from a
compound is known as Displacement Reactions. Displacement reactions are also known as Substitution Reaction or Single
Displacement/ replacement reactions.

A general displacement reaction can be represented by using a chemical equation as follows :

A + BC → AC + B

Displacement reaction takes place only when ‘A’ is more reactive than B. If ‘B’ is more reactive than ‘A’, then ‘A’ will not displace
‘C’ from ‘BC’ and reaction will not be taking place.

Examples:

When zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid, it gives hydrogen gas and zinc chloride.

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

When zinc reacts with copper sulphate, it forms zinc sulphate and copper metal.

Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

(iv) Double Displacement Reaction: Reactions in which ions are exchanged between two reactants forming new compounds are
called Double Displacement Reactions.

AB + CD → AC + BD

Examples:

When the solution of barium chloride reacts with the solution of sodium sulphate, white precipitate of barium sulphate is
formed along with sodium chloride.

BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) (Precipitate) + 2NaCl(aq)

When sodium hydroxide (a base) reacts with hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride and water are formed.

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Note: Double Displacement Reaction, in which precipitate is formed, is also known as precipitation reaction. Neutralisation
reactions are also examples of double displacement reaction.

Precipitation Reaction: The reaction in which precipitate is formed by the mixing of the aqueous solution of two salts is called
Precipitation Reaction.

Example:
Chemical Reactions and Equations Class 10 Notes Science Chapter 1 img-1

Neutralization Reaction: The reaction in which an acid reacts with a base to form salt and water by an exchange of ions is called
Neutralization Reaction.

Example:

Chemical Reactions and Equations Class 10 Notes Science Chapter 1 img-2

(v) Oxidation and Reduction Reactions:

Oxidation: Addition of oxygen or non-metallic element or removal of hydrogen or metallic element from a compound is known
as Oxidation.

Elements or compounds in which oxygen or non-metallic element is added or hydrogen or metallic element is removed are
called to be Oxidized.

Reduction: Addition of hydrogen or metallic element or removal of oxygen or non-metallic element from a compound is called
Reduction.

The compound or element which goes under reduction in called to be Reduced.

Oxidation and Reduction take place together.

Oxidizing agent:

The substance which gives oxygen for oxidation is called an Oxidizing agent.

The substance which removes hydrogen is also called an Oxidizing agent.

Reducing agent:

The substance which gives hydrogen for reduction is called a Reducing agent.

The substance which removes oxygen is also called a Reducing agent.

The reaction in which oxidation and reduction both take place simultaneously is called Redox reaction.

When copper oxide is heated with hydrogen, then copper metal and hydrogen are formed.

CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O

(i) In this reaction, CuO is changing into Cu. Oxygen is being removed from copper oxide. Removal of oxygen from a substance is
called Reduction, so copper oxide is being reduced to copper.

(ii) In this reaction, H2 is changing to H2O. Oxygen is being added to hydrogen. Addition of oxygen to a substance is called
Oxidation, so hydrogen is being oxidised to water.

The substance which gets oxidised is the reducing agent.

The substance which gets reduced is the oxidizing agent.

(vi) Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions:

Exothermic Reaction: Reaction which produces energy is called Exothermic Reaction. Most of the decomposition reactions are
exothermic.

Example:
Respiration is a decomposition reaction in which energy is released.

Chemical Reactions and Equations Class 10 Notes Science Chapter 1 img-3

When quick lime (CaO) is added to water, it releases energy.

Chemical Reactions and Equations Class 10 Notes Science Chapter 1 img-4

Endothermic Reaction: A chemical reaction in which heat energy is absorbed is called Endothermic Reaction.

Example: Decomposition of calcium carbonate.

Chemical Reactions and Equations Class 10 Notes Science Chapter 1 img-5

Effects of Oxidation Reactions in Everyday life: Corrosion and Rancidity.

Corrosion: The process of slow conversion of metals into their undesirable compounds due to their reaction with oxygen, water,
acids, gases etc. present in the atmosphere is called Corrosion.

Example: Rusting of iron.

Rusting: Iron when reacts with oxygen and moisture forms red substance which is called Rust.

Chemical Reactions and Equations Class 10 Notes Science Chapter 1 img-6

The rusting of iron is a redox reaction.

Corrosion (rusting) weakens the iron and steel objects and structures such as railings, car bodies, bridges and ships etc. and cuts
short their life.

Methods to Prevent Rusting

By painting.

By greasing and oiling.

By galvanisation.

Corrosion of Copper: Copper objects lose their lustre and shine after some time because the surface of these objects acquires a
green coating of basic copper carbonate, CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 when exposed to air.

Chemical Reactions and Equations Class 10 Notes Science Chapter 1 img-7

Corrosion of Silver Metal: The surface of silver metal gets tarnished (becomes dull) on exposure to air, due to the formation of a
coating of black silver sulphide(Ag2S) on its surface by the action of H2S gas present in the air.

Chemical Reactions and Equations Class 10 Notes Science Chapter 1 img-8

Rancidity: The taste and odour of food materials containing fat and oil changes when they are left exposed to air for a long time.
This is called Rancidity. It is caused due to the oxidation of fat and oil present in food materials.

Methods to prevent rancidity:

By adding anti-oxidant.

Vacuum packing.

Replacing air by nitrogen.

Refrigeration of foodstuff.

1. Chemical Reaction: During chemical reactions, the chemical composition of substances changes or new substances are
formed.

2. Chemical Equation: Chemical reactions can be written in chemical equation form which should always be balanced.

3. Types of Chemical Reactions:

Combination reaction: A single product is formed from two or more reactants.

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

Decomposition reaction: A single reactant breaks down to yield two or more products.

Thermal decomposition: 2Pb(NO2)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2

Electrolysis: 2H20 → 2H2 + O2

Photochemical reaction: 2AgBr → 2Ag + Br2

Displacement reaction: One element is displaced by another element.

Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu

Double displacement reaction: Exchange of ions between reactants.

AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3

Redox reaction: Both oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.

CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O

Exothermic reaction: A chemical reaction in which heat energy is evolved.

C + O2 → CO2 (g) + heat

Endothermic reaction: A chemical reaction in which heat energy is absorbed.

ZnCO3 + Heat → ZnO + CO2

Redox reaction: Chemical reaction in which both oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.

4. Oxidation: Reaction that involves the gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen.

5. Reduction: Reaction that shows the loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen.

ZnO + C → Zn + CO

ZnO is reduced to Zn—reduction. C is oxidized to CO—Oxidation.

6. Effects of Oxidation Reactions in Our Daily Life:

Corrosion: It is an undesirable change that occurs in metals when they are attacked by moisture, air, acids and bases.

Example, Corrosion (rusting) of Iron: Fe2O3. nH2O (Hydrated iron oxide)

Rancidity: Undesirable change that takes place in oil containing food items due to the oxidation of fatty acids.

Preventive methods of rancidity: Adding antioxidants to the food materials, storing food in the airtight container, flushing out air
with nitrogen gas and refrigeration.

Life Process Class 10 Science Notes

Nutrition in Plants and Animals – Life Processes Class 10 Notes
• Nutrition: The process by which an organism takes food and utilizes it, is called nutrition.
• Need for Nutrition: Organisms need the energy to perform various activities. The energy is supplied by
the nutrients. Organisms need various raw materials for growth and repair. These raw materials are
provided by nutrients.
• Nutrients: Materials which provide nutrition to organisms are called nutrients. Carbohydrates, proteins
and fats are the main nutrients and are called macronutrients. Minerals and vitamins are required in
small amounts and hence are called micronutrients.
• Modes of Nutrition
1. Autotrophic Nutrition.
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition.
Autotrophic Nutrition – Life Processes Class 10 Notes

The mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares its own food is called autotrophic nutrition. Green plants and
blue-green algae follow the autotrophic mode of nutrition.

• The organisms which carry out autotrophic nutrition are called autotrophs (green plants).

• Autotrophic nutrition is fulfilled by the process, by which autotrophs intake CO 2 and H2O, and convert
these into carbohydrates in the presence of chlorophyll, sunlight is called photosynthesis.
• Equation

Nutrition in Plants: Green plants prepare their own food. They make food in the presence of sunlight. Sunlight
provides energy’, carbon dioxide and water are the raw materials and chloroplast is the site where food is made.

What is Photosynthesis in biology class 10?

Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants prepare food is called photosynthesis.

• During this process, the solar energy is converted into chemical energy and carbohydrates are formed.
• Green leaves are the main site of photosynthesis.
• The green portion of the plant contains a pigment chloroplast, chlorophyll (green pigment).
• The whole process of photosynthesis can be shown by the following equation:

Raw Materials for Photosynthesis:

• Sunlight
• Chlorophyll: Sunlight absorbed by chloroplast
• CO2: Enters through stomata, and oxygen (O2) is released as a byproduct through stomata on the leaf.
• Water: Water + dissolved minerals like nitrogen, phosphorous etc., are taken up by the roots from the
soil.

How do raw materials for photosynthesis become available to the plant?

• Water comes from the soil, through the xylem tissue in roots and stems.
 • Carbon dioxide comes in the leaves through stomata.

Site of Photosynthesis: Chloroplast in the leaf. Chloroplast contains chlorophyll (green pigment)

Main Events of Photosynthesis:

• Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.

• Conversion of light energy into chemical energy + splitting (breaking) of water into hydrogen and
oxygen.
• Reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates.
• Sunlight activates chlorophyll, which leads to splitting of the water molecule.
• The hydrogen, released by the splitting of a water molecule is utilized for the reduction of carbon
dioxide to produce carbohydrates.
• Oxygen is the by-product of photosynthesis.
• Carbohydrate is subsequently converted into starch and is stored in leaves and other storage parts.
• The splitting of water molecules is a part of the light reaction.

Other steps are part of the dark reaction during photosynthesis.

Stomata – Life Processes Class 10 Notes

• Stomata: These are tiny pores present in the epidermis of leaf or stem through which gaseous
exchange and transpiration occur.

Functions of stomata

• Exchange of gases, O2 and CO2.

 • Loses a large amount of water (water vapour) during transpiration.

Opening and closing of stomatal pores:

• The opening and closing of stomatal pores are controlled by the turgidity of guard cells.
• When guard cells uptake water from surrounding cells, they swell to become a turgid body, which
enlarges the pore in between (Stomatal Opening).
• While, when water is released, they become flaccid shrinking to close the pore (Stomatal Closing).

Significance of Photosynthesis:

• Photosynthesis is the main way through which solar energy is made available for different living
beings.
• Green plants are the main producers of food in the ecosystem. All other organisms directly or indirectly
depend on green plants for food.
• The process of photosynthesis also helps in maintaining the balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen in
the air.

Heterotrophic Nutrition – Life Processes Class 10 Notes

The mode of nutrition in which an organism takes food from another organism is called heterotrophic nutrition.
Organisms, other than green plants and blue-green algae follow the heterotrophic mode of nutrition. Heterotrophic
nutrition can be further divided into three types, viz. saprophytic nutrition, holozoic nutrition, and parasitic.

• Saprophytic Nutrition: In saprophytic nutrition, the organism secretes the digestive juices on the food.
The food is digested while it is still to be ingested. The digested food is then ingested by the organism.
All the decomposers follow saprophytic nutrition. Some insects, like houseflies, also follow this mode
of nutrition.
• Holozoic Nutrition: In holozoic nutrition, the digestion happens inside the body of the organism. i.e.,
after the food is ingested. Most of the animals follow this mode of nutrition.
 • Parasitic Nutrition: The organism which lives inside or outside another organism (host) and derives
nutrition from it is known as parasites and this type of mode of nutrition is called parasitic nutrition. For
example Cuscuta, tick etc.

Nutrition in Amoeba

• Amoeba is a unicellular animal which follows the holozoic mode of nutrition.

• In holozoic nutrition, the digestion of food follows after the ingestion of food. Thus, digestion takes
place inside the body of the organism.
• Holozoic nutrition happens in five steps, viz. ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.

Steps of Holozoic Nutrition:

• Ingestion: The process of taking in the food is called ingestion.

• Digestion: The process of breaking complex food substances into simple molecules is called digestion.
Simple molecules, thus obtained, can be absorbed by the body.
• Absorption: The process of absorption of digested food is called absorption.
• Assimilation: The process of utilization of digested food, for energy and for growth and repair is called
assimilation.
• Egestion: The process of removing undigested food from the body is called egestion.

Amoeba is a unicellular animal which follows the holozoic mode of nutrition. The cell membrane of amoeba keeps on
protruding into pseudopodia. Amoeba surrounds a food particle with pseudopodia and makes a food vacuole. The
food vacuole contains food particle and water. Digestive enzymes are secreted in the food vacuole and digestion
takes place. After that, digested food is absorbed from the food vacuole. Finally, the food vacuole moves near the cell
membrane and undigested food is expelled out.

Nutrition in Human Beings – Life Processes Class 10 Notes

Human beings are complex animals, which have a complex digestive system. The human digestive system is
composed of an alimentary canal and some accessory glands. The alimentary canal is divided into several parts, like
oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Salivary gland, liver and pancreas are the
accessory glands which lie outside the alimentary canal.

Structure of the Human Digestive System:

The human digestive system comprises of the alimentary canal and associated digestive glands.
 • Alimentary Canal: It comprises of mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine.
• Associated Glands: Main associated glands are
o Salivary gland
o Gastric Glands
o Liver
o Pancreas

Mouth or Buccal Cavity:

• The mouth has teeth and tongue. Salivary glands are also present in the mouth.
• The tongue has gustatory receptors which perceive the sense of taste.
• The tongue helps in turning over the food so that saliva can be properly mixed in it.
• Teeth help in breaking down the food into smaller particles so that, swallowing of food becomes
easier.
• There are four types of teeth in human beings. The incisor teeth are used for cutting the food.
• The canine teeth are used for tearing the food and for cracking hard substances.
• The premolars are used for the coarse grinding of food. The molars are used for fine grinding of food.

Salivary glands secrete saliva: Saliva makes the food slippery which makes it easy to swallow the food. Saliva also
contains the enzyme salivary amylase or ptyalin. Salivary amylase digests starch and converts it into sucrose,
(maltose).

Oesophagus: Taking food from mouth to stomach by Peristaltic movement.

Peristaltic movement: Rhythmic contraction of muscles of the lining of the alimentary canal to push the food forward.

Stomach

• Stomach is a bag-like organ. Highly muscular walls of the stomach help in churning the food.
• The walls of the stomach secrete hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid kills the germs which may be
present in food.
• Moreover, it makes the medium inside the stomach as acidic. The acidic medium is necessary for
gastric enzymes to work.
• The enzyme pepsin, secreted in the stomach, does partial digestion of protein.
• The mucus, secreted by the walls of the stomach saves the inner lining of the stomach from getting
damaged from hydrochloric acid.

Small Intestine: It is a highly coiled tube-like structure. The small intestine is longer than the large intestine but its
lumen is smaller than that of the large intestine. The small intestine is divided into three parts, like duodenum, jejunum
and ileum.

Liver: Liver is the largest organ in the human body. The liver manufactures bile, which gets stored in the gall bladder.
From the gall bladder, bile is released as and when required.

Pancreas: Pancreas is situated below the stomach. It secretes pancreatic juice which contains many digestive
enzymes.
Bile and pancreatic juice go to the duodenum through a hepatopancreatic duct. Bile breaks down fat into smaller
particles. This process is called emulsification of fat. After that, the enzyme lipase digests fat into fatty acids and
glycerol. Trypsin and chymotrypsin are enzymes which digest protein into amino acids. Complex carbohydrates are
digested into glucose. The major part of digestion takes place in the duodenum.

No digestion takes place in the jejunum: The inner wall in the ileum is projected into numerous finger-like structures,
called villi. Villi increase the surface area inside the ileum so that optimum absorption can take place. Moreover, villi
also reduce the lumen of the ileum so that food can stay for a longer duration in it, for optimum absorption. Digested
food is absorbed by villi.

Large Intestine:

• Large intestine is smaller than the small intestine.

• Undigested food goes into the large intestine.
• Some water and salt are absorbed by the walls of the large intestine. After that, the undigested food
goes to the rectum, from where it is expelled out through the anus.
• Large Intestine bbsorb excess of water. The rest of the material is removed from the body via the anus.
(Egestion).

Respiration – Life Processes Class 10 Notes

Types of respiration, aerobic and anaerobic respiration, human respiratory system, respiration in plants.

Respiration: The process by which a living being utilises the food to get energy, is called respiration. Respiration is an
oxidation reaction in which carbohydrate is oxidized to produce energy. Mitochondria is the site of respiration and the
energy released is stored in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP is stored in mitochondria and is released
as per need.

Steps of respiration:
• Breaking down of glucose into pyruvate: This step happens in the cytoplasm. Glucose molecule is
broken down into pyruvic acid. Glucose molecule is composed of 6 carbon atoms, while pyruvic acid is
composed of 3 carbon atoms.
 • Fate of Pyruvic Acid: Further breaking down of pyruvic acid takes place in mitochondria and the
molecules formed depend on the type of respiration in a particular organism. Respiration is of two
types, viz. aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
• Respiration involves
o Gaseous exchange: Intake of oxygen from the atmosphere and release of CO2 →
Breathing.
o Breakdown of simple food in order to release energy inside the cell → Cellular
respiration

Types of Respiration – Life Processes Class 10 Notes

• Aerobic respiration: This type of respiration happens in the presence of oxygen. Pyruvic acid is
converted into carbon dioxide. Energy is released and water molecule is also formed at the end of this
process.
• Anaerobic respiration: This type of respiration happens in the absence of oxygen. Pyruvic acid is either
converted into ethyl alcohol or lactic acid. Ethyl alcohol is usually formed in case of anaerobic
respiration in microbes, like yeast or bacteria. Lactic acid is formed in some microbes as well as in the
muscle cells.
o Glucose (6 carbon molecule) → Pyruvate (3 carbon molecules) + Energy
o Pyruvate (In yeast, lack of O2) → Ethyl alcohol + Carbon dioxide + Energy
o Pyruvate (In muscles, lack of O2) → Lactic Acid + Energy
o Pyruvate (In mitochondria; the presence of O2) → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

The equations for the above reactions can be written as follows:

Pain in leg muscles while running:

• When someone runs too fast, he may experience throbbing pain in the leg muscles. This happens
because of anaerobic respiration taking place in the muscles.
• During running, the energy demand from the muscle cells increases. This is compensated by anaerobic
respiration and lactic acid is formed in the process.
• The deposition of lactic acid causes pain in the leg muscles. The pain subsides after taking rest for
some time.

Exchange of gases:

• For aerobic respiration, organisms need a continuous supply of oxygen, and carbon dioxide produced
during the process needs to be removed from the body.
• Different organisms use different methods for the intake of oxygen and expulsion of carbon dioxide.
• Diffusion is the method which is utilized by unicellular and some simple organisms for this purpose.
• In plants also, diffusion is utilized for exchange of gases.
 • In complex animals, respiratory system does the job of exchange of gases.
• Gills are the respiratory organs for fishes. Fishes take in oxygen which is dissolved in water through
gills.
• Since, availability of oxygen is less in the aquatic environment, so the breathing rate of aquatic
organisms is faster.
• Insects have a system of spiracles and trachease which is used for taking in oxygen.
• Terrestrial organisms have developed lungs for exchange of gases.
• Availability of oxygen is not a problem in the terrestrial environment so breathing rate is slower as
compared to what it is in fishes.

Terrestrial organisms: Use atmospheric oxygen for respiration.

Aquatic organisms: Use dissolve oxygen for respiration.

Human respiratory system – Life Processes Class 10 Notes

The human respiratory system is composed of a pair of lungs. These are attached to a system of tubes which open on
the outside through the nostrils.
Following are the main structures in the human respiratory system:

1. Nostrils: There are two nostrils which converge to form a nasal passage. The inner lining of the nostrils
is lined by hair and remains wet due to mucus secretion. The mucus and the hair help in filtering the
dust particles out from inhaled air. Further, air is warmed up when it enters the nasal passage.
2. Pharynx: It is a tube-like structure which continues after the nasal passage.
3. Larynx: This part comes after the pharynx. This is also called voice box.
4. Trachea: This is composed of rings of cartilage. Cartilaginous rings prevent the collapse of trachea in
the absence of air.
5. Bronchi: A pair of bronchi comes out from the trachea, with one bronchus going to each lung.
6. Bronchioles: A bronchus divides into branches and sub-branches inside the lung.
7. Alveoli: These are air sacs at the end of bronchioles. The alveolus is composed of a very thin
membrane and is the place where blood capillaries open. This is alveolus, where the oxygen mixes with
the blood and carbon dioxide exits from the blood. The exchange of gases, in alveoli, takes place due
to the pressure differential.
Passage of air through the respiratory system in human beings:

Breathing Mechanism

• The breathing mechanism of lungs is controlled by the diaphragm and the intercostalis muscles.
• The diaphragm is a membrane which separates the thoracic chamber from the abdominal cavity.
• When the diaphragm moves down, the lungs expand and the air is inhaled.
• When the diaphragm moves up, the lungs contract and air are exhaled.
Transportation – Life Processes Class 10 Notes
Circulatory system of human being, transportation in plants. Human beings like other multicellular organism need a
regular supply of foods, oxygen etc. This function is performed by a circulatory system or transport system.

Transportation in Human Beings: The circulatory system is responsible for transport of various substances in human
beings. It is composed of the heart, arteries, veins and blood capillaries. Blood plays the role of the carrier of
substances.
1. Heart: Heart is a muscular organ, which is composed of cardiac muscles.

• It is so small that, it can fit inside an adult’s wrist. The heart is a pumping organ which pumps the
blood.
• The human heart is composed of four chambers, viz. right atrium, right ventricle, left ventricle and left
atrium.
• Systole: Contraction of cardiac muscles is called systole.
• Diastole: Relaxation of cardiac muscles is called diastole.

2. Arteries:

• These are thick-walled blood vessels which carry oxygenated blood from the heart to different organs.
• Pulmonary arteries are exceptions because they carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to lungs,
where oxygenation of blood takes place.

3. Veins:

• These are thin-walled blood vessels which carry deoxygenated blood from different organs to the heart,
pulmonary veins are exceptions because they carry oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart.
• Valves are present in veins to prevent back flow of blood.

4. Capillaries: These are the blood vessels which have single-celled walls.

Blood: Blood is a connective tissue which plays the role of the carrier for various substances in the body. Blood is
composed of 1. Plasma 2. Blood cells 3. Platelets.

• Blood plasma: Blood plasma is a pale coloured liquid which is mostly composed of water. Blood
plasma forms the matrix of blood.
• Bloods cells: There are two types of blood cells, viz. Red Blood Cells (RBCs) and White Blood Cells
(WBCs).
(a) Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs): These are of red colour because of the presence of haemoglobin
which is a pigment. Haemoglobin readily combines with oxygen and carbon dioxide. The transport of
 oxygen happens through haemoglobin. Some part of carbon dioxide is also transported through
haemoglobin.
(b) White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs): These are of pale white colour. They play important role in the
immunity.
• Platelets: Platelets are responsible for blood coagulation. Blood coagulation is a defense mechanism
which prevents excess loss of blood, in case of an injury.

Lymph:

• Lymph is similar to blood but RBCs are absent in lymph.

• Lymph is formed from the fluid which leaks from blood capillaries and goes to the intercellular space in
the tissues. This fluid is collected through lymph vessels and finally return to the blood capillaries.
• Lymph also plays an important role in the immune system.
• Lymph a yellowish fluids escape from the blood capillaries into the intercellular spaces contain less
proteins than blood.
• Lymph flows from the tissues to the heart assisting in transportation and destroying germs.

Double circulation: In the human heart, blood passes through the heart twice in one cardiac cycle. This type of
circulation is called double circulation. One complete heartbeat in which all the chambers of the heart contract and
relax once is called cardiac cycle. The heart beats about 72 times per minute in a normal adult. In one cardiac cycle,
the heart pumps out 70 mL blood and thus, about 4900 mL blood in a minute. Double circulation ensures complete
segregation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood which is necessary for optimum energy production in warm-
blooded animals.

Transportation in plants: Plants have specialized vascular tissues for transportation of substances. There are two
types of vascular tissues in plants.

• Xylem: Xylem is responsible for transportation of water and minerals. It is composed of trachids, xylem
vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibre. Tracheids and xylem vessels are the conducting elements.
The xylem makes a continuous tube in plants which runs from roots to stem and right up to the veins
of leaves.
• Carry water and minerals from the leaves to the other part of the plant.
• Phloem: Phloem is responsible for transportation of food. Phloem is composed of sieve tubes,
companion cells, phloem parenchyma and bast fibers. Sieve tubes are the conducting elements in
phloem.
• Carries product of photosynthesis from roots to other part of the plant.
Transportation in plants

Ascent of sap: The upward movement of water and minerals from roots to different plant parts is called ascent of
sap. Many factors are at play in ascent of sap and it takes place in many steps. They are explained as follows :

• Root pressure: The walls of cells of root hairs are very thin. Water from soil enters the root hairs
because of osmosis. Root pressure is responsible for movement of water up to the base of the stem.
• Capillary action: A very fine tube is called capillaiy, water, or any liquid, rises in the capillary because of
physical forces and this phenomenon is called capillary action. Water, in stem, rises up to some height
because of capillaiy action.
• Adhesion-cohesion of water molecules: Water molecules make a continuous column in the xylem
because of forces of adhesion and cohesion among the molecules.
• Transpiration pull: Loss of water vapour through stomata and lenticels, in plants, is called transpiration.
Transpiration through stomata creates vacuum which creates a suction, called transpiration pull. The
transpiration pull sucks the water column from the xylem tubes and thus, water is able to rise to great
heights in even the tallest plants.
• Transport of food: Transport of food in plants happens because of utilization of energy. Thus, unlike
the transport through xylem, it is a form of active transport. Moreover, the flow of substances through
phloem takes place in both directions, i.e., it is a two-way traffic in phloem.
Transpiration is the process of loss of water as vapour from aerial parts of the plant.

Functions

• Absorption and upward movement of water and minerals by creating pull.

• Helps in temperature regulation in plant.

Transport of food from leaves (food factory) to different parts of the plant is called Translocation.

Excretion – Life Processes Class 10 Notes

Human excretory system, excretion in plants.

Excretion in human beings:

• Removal of harmful waste from the body is called excretion.

• Many wastes are produced during various metabolic activities.
• These need to be removed in time because their accumulation in the body can be harmful and even
lethal for an organism.

Human Excretory System:

• The human excretory system is composed of a pair of kidneys.

• A tube, called ureter, comes out of each kidney and goes to the urinary bladder.
• Urine is collected in the urinary bladder, from where it is expelled out through urethra as and when
required.
Excretory system of human beings includes :

• A pair of kidneys.
• A urinary bladder.
• A pair of the ureter.
• A urethra.

Kidney:

• Kidney is a bean-shaped organ which lies near the vertebral column in the abdominal cavity.
• The kidney is composed of many filtering units, called nephrons.
• Nephron is called the functional unit of kidney.

Nephron

• It is composed of a tangled mess of tubes and a filtering part, called glomerulus.

• The glomerulus is a network of blood capillaries to which renal artery is attached.
• The artery which takes blood to the glomerulus is called afferent arteriole and the one receiving blood
from the glomerulus is called efferent arteriole.
• The glomerulus is enclosed in a capsule like portion, called bowman’s capsule. The bowman’s capsule
extends into a fine tube which is highly coiled.
• Tubes from various nephrons converge into collecting duct, which finally goes to the ureter.

Urine formation in the kidney: The urine formation involves three steps:

• Glomerular filtration: Nitrogenous wastes, glucose, water, amino acid filter from the blood into
bowman’s capsule of the nephron.
• Tubular reabsorption: Now, useful substances from the filtrate are reabsorbed back by capillaries
surrounding the nephron.
 • Secretion: Extra water, salts are secreted into the tubule which opens up into the collecting duct and
then into the ureter.

Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder where it is stored until it is released
through the urethra.
The purpose of making urine is to filter out waste product from the blood i.e., urea which is produced in the liver.

Haemodialysis: The process of purifying blood by an artificial kidney. It is meant for kidney failure patient.

Excretion in Plants

• Other wastes may be stored in leaves, bark etc. which fall off from the plant.
• Plants excrete some waste into the soil around them.
• Gums, resin → In old xylem
• Some metabolic wastes in the form of crystals of calcium oxalates in the leaves of colocasia and stem
of Zamikand.

Nutrition in Plants and Animals

Nutrition: Process of obtaining and utilizing of food is known as nutrition.

Mode of nutrition:

• Autotrophic Nutrition (All green plants)

• Heterotrophic Nutrition (Animals, Man, Non-green plants)
o Saprotrophic nutrition
o Parasitic nutrition
o Holozoic nutrition

Autotrophs: It is a mode of nutrition in which organisms can make their own food from simple raw material. Example,
all green plants.

Heterotrophs: It is a mode of nutrition in which organisms cannot prepare their food on their own and depend on
others. Example, animals.

Saprotrophic Nutrition: It is the process by which the organism feeds on dead and decaying matter. Example,
Rhizopus, Mucor, yeast.

Photosynthesis: It is the process by which green plants prepare their own food.

Raw materials for photosynthesis:

• Water and Minerals: These are absorbed by the roots from the soil.
• Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide enters the leaves through tiny pores called stomata.
• Sunlight: Energy from the sun is called solar energy.
• Chlorophyll: Chlorophyll pigment helps leaves to capture solar energy.

Products of Photosynthesis: Carbohydrate-glucose- It is converted to starch.

Symbiotic relationship: Two organisms live in a close association and develop a relationship that is beneficial to both
this is called a symbiotic relationship.
Example, Lichen is a living partnership between a fungus an alga. Fungus absorbs water and provides shelter and alga
prepare food by photosynthesis

Insectivores: Plants feed on insects for their nitrogen requirements.

Holozoic nutrition: It means feeding on solid food. Organism takes complex organic food into the body. Example,
man, amoeba, dog, etc.

• Herbivores: Animals which feed on plants only. Example, deer, cow.

• Carnivores: Animals which feed on flesh or meat. Example, tiger.
• Omnivores: Animals which feed on both plant and flesh. Example, man, dog.

Steps of Holozoic nutrition:

• Ingestion: Taking food into the mouth.

• Digestion: Break down of large insoluble food into small water-soluble molecules by enzymes.
• Absorption: Digested food absorbed through the intestinal wall into the blood.
• Assimilation: Absorbed food is taken by body cells for releasing energy, growth and repair.
• Egestion: Eliminating undigested food from the body.

Digestive organs of human beings: Mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine with glands like
salivary gland, liver, pancreas.

Teeth: An organ which breaks down the complex food and helps in chewing the food.

• Milk teeth: The first set of 20 small teeth when the baby is 6-7 months old.
• Permanent teeth: The second set of 32 larger teeth, when a child is 6-7 years old and comes by
replacing milk teeth.

Enamel: A white, strong, shining, protective material covering on teeth.

Tongue: A muscular organ attached to the floor of the buccal cavity which helps in tasting and mixing the food with
saliva for digestion.

Transportation in Plants and Animals

• Vascular tissue: A plant tissue which helps in transportation.

• Xylem tissue: It helps in transporting water and minerals in plants.
• Phloem: It helps in transporting food in plants.
• Translocation: The process of transporting food from leaves to other parts of plants.
• Transpiration: A loss of water from stomata in leaves.
• Blood: A red colour fluid which circulates in the body of animals.
• Plasma: Fluid part of the blood which consists of nutrients, hormones, and waste products.
• Blood vessel: Tube-like structure present in the body for carrying blood inside the body.
• Artery: It carries oxygenated blood from the heart to body parts.
• Vein: It carries deoxygenated blood from body parts to the heart.
• Capillary: A thin-walled narrow tube which connects artery and vein.
• Heart: A muscular organ present in the thoracic cavity and helps in pumping blood in the body.
• Double circulation: A circulatory system in which blood travels twice through the heart in one complete
cycle.
• Heartbeat: One complete contraction and relaxation of the heart (72 times in a minute).
• Stethoscope: Instrument which measures heartbeat.
• Systolic pressure: Maximum pressure at which blood flows during contraction of the heart. (120 mm
Hg)
 • Diastolic pressure: Minimum pressure at which blood flows during relaxation of the heart. (80 mm Hg)
• Sphygmomanometer: Instrument which measures blood pressure.
• Lymph: A light yellow liquid flowing from body tissue to the blood circulatory system and provides
immunity.

Excretion in Plants and Animals

• Excretion: It is the process of removing waste products from the body.

• Excretory products of plants: CO2, O2, water vapour, peel of bark, fruits, leaves, gum, raisin, etc.
• Excretory products of humans: Carbon dioxide, urea, etc.
• Kidney: Organ which removes the toxic substance urea from blood and filters it.
• Urine: A yellowish liquid which contains water and urea.
• Dialysis: The procedure used for cleaning the blood of a person in case of kidney failure.
• Nephron: Functional unit of excretory system present in the kidney for filtering blood.
• Renal Artery: Blood vessels which bring blood from heart to kidney.
• Renal Vein: Blood vessel which brings blood from kidney to heart.

CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 10 Light

Reflection and Refraction
REFLECTION

Reflection of Light: The phenomenon of bouncing back of light into the same medium by the smooth surface is called
reflection.

Incident light: Light which falls on the surface is called incident light.

Reflected light: Light which goes back after reflection is called reflected light.

The angle of incidence: The angle between the incident ray and the normal.

An angle of reflection: The angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

Mirror: The surface which can reflect the light is a mirror.

Plane Mirror: If the reflecting surface is a plane then the mirror is plane.

Spherical Mirror: If the reflecting surface is part of the hollow sphere then the mirror is a spherical mirror.
The spherical mirror is of two types:

• Convex mirror: In this mirror reflecting surface is convex. It diverges the light so it is also called a
diverging mirror.
• Concave mirror: In this mirror reflecting surface is concave. It converges the light so it is also called
converging mirror.

Parameters of Mirror:

• Center of Curvature: The centre of hollow sphere of which mirror is a part.

• The radius of curvature: The radius of hollow sphere of which mirror is a part.
• Pole: The centre of mirror (middle point) is pole.
 • Principal axis: The line joining the pole and center of curvature is called principal axis.
• Aperture: Size of mirror is called aperture of mirror.
• Principal Focus: The point on the principal axis, where all the incident rays parallel to principal axis
converge or diverge after reflection through mirror.
• Focal Length: The distance between pole and focus point is focal length.

Special Rays for Formation of Image:

• A ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis of a spherical mirror, after reflection converges or
diverges from focus.
• A ray of light passing through or appearing from the center of curvature of spherical mirror is reflected
back along the same path.
• A ray of light passing through or appearing from the focus of spherical mirror becomes parallel to the
principal axis.
• A ray of light which is incident at the pole of a spherical mirror is reflected back making same angle
with principal axis.

Use of Concave Mirror: It is used as a makeup mirror, the reflector in torches, in headlights of cars and searchlights,
doctor’s head-mirrors, solar furnace, etc.

Sign Conventions of Spherical Mirror

• All the distances are measured from the pole of the mirror as the origin.
• Distances measured in the direction of incident rays are taken as positive.
• Distances measured opposite to the direction of incident rays are taken as negative.
• Distances measured upward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as positive.
• Distances measured downward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as negative.
1f=1v+1u …where f, v and u are focal length, image distance, object distance

Linear Magnification: This is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.
m=h‘h …where m = magnification, h = height of image, h’ = height of object
Use of Convex Mirror: Convex mirror used as rear view mirror in vehicles, as shop security mirrors, etc.

REFRACTION

Refraction of Light: The bending of light at the interface of two different mediums is called Refraction of light.

• If the velocity of light in medium is more, then medium is called optical rarer.
Example, air or vacuum is more optical rarer.
• If the velocity of light in medium is less, then medium is called optical denser.
Example, glass is more denser than air.

Refractive Index: It represents the amount or extent of bending of light when it passes from one medium to another.
There are two types of refractive index

• Relative refractive index and

• Absolute refractive index.

Refractive index of medium with respect to other medium is called Relative Refractive Index.
Refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2 = Speedoflightinmedium2(V2)Speedoflightinmedium1(V1)
Refractive index of medium with respect to air or vacuum is called Absolute Refractive Index.
Absolute refractive index of medium (m) = Speedoflightinair(c)Speedoflightinmedium(Vm)
Incident ray: It is incoming ray on the refracting surface.

Refracted ray: It is an outgoing ray from the refracting surface.

An angle of incidence (i): It is the angle between incident rays and perpendicular line (normal) at the point of
incidence.

An angle of refraction (r): It is the angle between refracted rays and perpendicular line (normal) at the point of
incidence.

Law of Refraction: According to this law

• “The incident ray, refracted ray and normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.”
• “The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant.”
sinisinr = constant (µ)

Lens: The transparent refracting medium bounded by two surfaces in which at least one surface is curved is called
lens.
Lenses are mainly two type

• Convex lens and

• Concave lens.

Center of Curvature: The centres of two spheres, of which lens is part is called the centre of curvature.

Radii of Curvature: The radii of spheres, of which lens is part is called radius of curvature.

Principal Axis: The line joining the centres of curvature of two surfaces of lens is called principal axis.

Optical Center: It is a special point on the principal axis. Light incident on the optical centre passes through the lens
without deviation.

Principal Focus: The point on the principal axis at which all incident rays parallel to the principal axis converge or
appear to diverge after refraction through the lens.

Special Rays for Image Formation by Lens:

• An incident ray, parallel to the principal axis, after refraction passes through (or appears to come from),
second focus of the lens.
• An incident ray, passing through the optical center of the lens, goes undeviated from the lens.
• An incident ray, passing through the (first) principal focus of the lens, or directed toward it, becomes
parallel to the principal axis after refraction through lens.

Use of Lens: In photographic cameras, magnifying glass, microscope, telescope, the human eye.

1. Light travels in a straight line.

2. Light gets reflected when it falls on polished surfaces; like mirrors.

3. Light suffers refraction when it travels from one medium to another.

4. There is a change in the wavelengths!light when it moves from one medium into another.

5. The bouncing back of light when it strikes a smooth or polished surface is called reflection of light. Reflection is of
two types; Specular or regular and Diffuse or irregular reflection.

6. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Mathematically, we have ∠i = ∠r.
7. The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.

8. The image is unmagnified, virtual and erect.

9. The image has right-left reversal.

10. Focal length of a plane mirror is infinity.

11. Power of a plane mirror is zero.

12. If a plane mirror is turned by an angle, the reflected ray turns by 2θ.

13. The least size of a plane mirror to view an object is equal to half the size of the object.

14. Pole (Vertex): The central point of a mirror is called its pole.

15. Centre of curvature : The centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is called the centre of curvature. It is
denoted by C.

16. Radius of curvature : The radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is called the radius of curvature. It is
denoted by R.

17. Principal axis : The straight line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature of the mirror is called the
principal axis.

18. Principal focus : It is a point on the principal axis at which the rays parallel to the principal axis meet after
reflection or seem to come from. For a concave mirror, the focus lies in front of the mirror and for a convex mirror, it
lies behind the mirror. In short, a concave mirror has a real focus while aconvex mirror has a virtual focus.

19. Focal plane : A plane, drawn perpendicular to the principal axis and passing through the principal focus.

20. Focal length : The distance between the pole and the focus is called the focal length. It is represented by f. The
focal length is half the radius of curvature.

21. Aperture: The size of the mirror is called its aperture. It is also defined as the effective diameter of the light
reflecting area of the mirror.

22. Real image : When the rays of light, after reflection from a mirror, actually meet at a point, then the image formed
by these rays is said to be real. Real images can be obtained on a screen.

23. Virtual image: When the rays of light, after reflection from a mirror, appear to meet at a point, then the image
formed by these rays is said to be virtual. Virtual images can’t be obtained on a screen.

24. The following rays are used while drawing ray diagrams to find the position of an image :

• A ray of light parallel to the principal axis after reflection passes through the focus. (1)
• A ray of light passing through the focus after reflection becomes parallel to the principal axis. (2)
 • A ray of light incident on the centre of curvature retraces its path after reflection form the mirror.

25. For mirrors, the following results hold :

u is – ve, if the object is in front of the mirror.
(Real object)
u is + ve, if the object is behind the mirror.
(Virtual object)
v is – ve, if the image is in front of the mirror.
(Real image)
vis +ve, if the image is behind the mirror.
(Virtual image)
Focal length of a concave mirror is taken as – ve. Focal length of a convex mirror is taken as +ve.

26. When the image formed by a spherical mirror is real, it is also inverted and is on the same side of the mirror as the
object. Since both v and u are negative, the magnification is negative.

27. When the image formed by a spherical mirror is virtual, it is also erect and is on the other side of the mirror as the
object. In this case, u is – ve and v is + ve , therefore, m is positive.

28. The expression for the mirror formula is 1/u+1/v = 1/f

29. Linear magnification is given by the expression

30. If m is positive, the image is erect w.r.t the object and if m is negative, the image is inverted w.r.t. the object.

31.The position of the image for various positions of the object for a concave mirror is as shown in the table below.
The table also shows the use of the mirror for different positions of the object.
The position of the image for various positions of the object for a convex mirror is as shown in the table below. The
table also shows the use of the mirror for different positions of the object.

32. The bending of light when it travels from one medium into another is called refraction of light

33.

34. As light travels from ,one medium to another, the frequency of light does not change.

35. Light refracts because it has different speeds in different media.

36. The refraction of light obeys the following two laws :

• The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
• The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant.This
constant is called the index of refraction or refractive index.

37. If wng is the refractive index of glass w.r.t. water, ang be the refractive index of glass w.r.t. air and anw be the
refractive index of water w.r.t. air ,then

38. The most familiar and widely used optical device is the lens. A lens is an optical system with two refracting
surfaces. The simplest lens has two spherical surfaces close enough together that we can neglect the distance
between them. Such a lens is called a thin lens. The two common types of lenses are Converging lens or Convex lens,
Diverging lens or Concave lens.
39. It should be noted that, if the above lenses are surrounded by .a material with a refractive index greater than that
of the lens, the convex lens gets converted into a concave lens and vice-versa.

40. Any lens that is thicker at its centre than at its edges is a converging lens with positive f, and any lens that is
thicker at its edges than at the centre is a diverging lens with negative f.

41. Optical centre : The central point C in the lens is called the optical centre. If a ray is incident towards the optical
centre, it passes undeviated .through the lens.

42.Principal axis: Since the lens contains two spherical surfaces, therefore, it has two centres of curvatures.
The line joining these centres and passing through the optical centre is called principal axis.

43. Aperture: The effective width of a lens through which refraction takes place is called the aperture.

44. Focus and Focal Length : If a beam of light moving parallel to the principal axis of a convex lens is incident on it,
the rays converge or meet at a point on the principal axis. This point F is called the focus. The distance CF is called
the focal length. If a beam of light moving parallel to the principal axis is incident on a concave lens, the beam of light
diverges. If these diverged rays are produced backward, they meet at a point F on the principal . axis. The transmitted
rays appear to come from this point. This point F is called the focus and distance CF is called the focal length.
45. For drawing the ray diagrams, we note the following :

• All rays parallel to the principal axis after refraction pass through the principal focus or seem to come
from it.
• A ray of light passing through the focus after refraction becomes parallel to the principal axis.
• A ray of light passing through the optical centre of the lens after refraction passes undeviated.

46. A convex and a concave lens can be supposed to be made-up of prisms.

47. Image formation by a concave lens.

48. Image formation by a convex lens.

49. New Cartesian sign conventions :

• All distances, object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal length f are measured from the optical
centre.
• The distances measured in the direction of incident ray are taken as positive and distances measured
against the direction of incident ray are taken as negative.
• All distances (heights) of objects and images above principal axis are taken as positive and those
below the principal axis are taken as negative.

50. For the two lenses, the sign conventions take the form

• u is- ve, if the object is in front of the lens. (Real object)

• u is +ve, if the object is virtual.
• v is – ve, if the image is on the same side as that of the object. (Virtual image )
• v is +ve, if the image is real.
• Focal length of a concave lens is taken as – ve.
• Focal length of a convex lens is taken as +ve.

51. Lens formula for convex lens 1/v-1/u = 1/f

52. The linear magnification produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the size of the image (h’) to the size of the
object (h). It is represented by m i.e.,

53. If the magnification of a lens is negative, then the image formed is inverted and real.

54. If the magnification of a lens is positive, then the image formed is erect and virtual.
55. Power is defined as the reciprocal of the focal length. Power is measured in dioptre.