“DUAL AXEL SOLAR TRACKER SYSTEM”

MAJOR PROJECT REPORT

Submitted for the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of

DIPLOMA

IN

“MECHANICAL ENGINEERING”

Under the Guidance Submitted By;

Prof. Rajendra Ahirwar Omanshu Manikpuri (0006ME201019)

Akthar Raza (21349M02005)

Dheeraj Gholiya (21349M02017)

MD Sahil (21349M02031)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY

POLYTECHINC

RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDHALAYA BHOPAL-462033

APRIL-2024
 ABSTRACT
Solar energy is fast becoming a very important means of renewable energy resource.
With solar tracking, it will become possible to generate more energy since the solar
panel can maintain a perpendicular profile to the rays of the sun. Even though the
initial cost of setting up the tracking system is considerably high, there are cheaper
options that have been proposed over time. This project discusses the design and
construction of a prototype for solar tracking system that has a single axis of freedom.
Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs) are used for sunlight detection Silicon solar cells
produced an efficiency of 20% for the first time in 1985. Whereas there has been a
steady increase in the efficiency of solar panels, the level is still not at its best. Most
panels still operate at less than 40%. As a result, most people are forced to either
purchase a number of panels to meet their energy demands or purchase single systems
with large outputs. There are types of solar cells with relatively higher efficiencies
but they tend to be very costly. One of the ways to increase the efficiency of solar
panels while reducing costs is to use tracking. Through tracking, there will be
increased exposure of the panel to the sun, making it have increased power output.
The trackers can either be dual or single axis trackers. Dual trackers are more efficient
because they track sunlight from both axes. The microcontroller used in this device is
ATMEGA8 which is a variant of AVR series microcontrollers and also program by
arduino uno board.
 INTRODUCTION
Solar energy is clean and available in abundance. Solar technologies use the
sun for provision of heat, light and electricity. These are for industrial and
domestic applications. With the alarming rate of depletion of depletion of
major conventional energy sources like petroleum, coal and natural gas,
coupled with environmental caused by the process of harnessing these energy
sources, it has become an urgent necessity to invest in renewable energy
sources that can power the future sufficiently.
The energy potential of the sun is immense. Despite the unlimited resource
however, harvesting it presents a challenge because of the limited efficiency of
the array cells.
The best efficiency of the majority of commercially available solar cells ranges
between 10 and 20 percent. This shows that there is still room for
improvement. This project seeks to identify a way of improving efficiency of
solar panels. Solar tracking is used. The tracking mechanism moves and
positions the solar array such that it is positioned for maximum power output.
Other ways include identifying sources of losses and finding ways to mitigate
them. When it comes to the development of any nation, energy is the main
driving factor. There is an enormous quantity of energy that gets extracted,
distributed, converted and consumed every single day in the global society.
Fossil fuels account for around 85 percent of energy that is produced. Fossil
fuel resources are limited and using them is known to cause global warming
because of emission of greenhouse gases. There is a growing need for energy
from such sources as solar, wind, ocean tidal waves and geothermal for the
provision of sustainable and power. Solar panels directly convert radiation
from the sun into electrical energy. The panels are mainly manufactured from
semiconductor materials, notably silicon. Their efficiency is 24.5% on the
higher side
 OBJECTIVE.

Clearly defined objectives of the project, including:

Optimizing solar panel orientation and tilt angles for various geographical
locations.

Implementing efficient energy storage solutions to store excess solar energy.

Developing intelligent control systems for managing solar power distribution

and consumption.

Clearly defined objectives of implementing a dual-axis solar tracker system,

including:

Maximizing solar energy capture by precisely orienting solar panels to follow

the sun's movement.

Enhancing energy generation efficiency by reducing shading and optimizing

panel angles.

Investigating the economic feasibility and practicality of deploying dual-axis

solar trackers in various applications.
 WORKING
The working principle of a dual-axis solar tracker system involves
continuously adjusting the orientation of solar panels along two axes,
azimuth and elevation, to maximize the amount of sunlight received by
the panels throughout the day. Here's a detailed explanation of how a
dual-axis solar tracker system operates:

Sensing Sunlight: The solar tracker system utilizes sensors or detectors

to continuously monitor the position of the sun relative to the solar
panels. These sensors detect the intensity of sunlight and provide
feedback to the control system, which includes:-

Azimuth Tracking:

Azimuth Axis Control: The azimuth axis is responsible for tracking the
sun's east-west movement. The control system calculates the sun's
azimuth angle, which represents its horizontal position relative to a
reference direction (typically true north).

Movement Control: Based on the azimuth angle information, the control

system adjusts the azimuth axis of the solar tracker to align the panels
perpendicular to the sun's rays. This adjustment ensures that the panels
receive maximum sunlight exposure throughout the day as the sun moves
from east to west.

Elevation Tracking:

Elevation Axis Control: The elevation axis tracks the sun's vertical
movement throughout the day. The control system calculates the sun's
elevation angle, which represents its height above the horizon.

Movement Control: Using the elevation angle information, the control

system adjusts the elevation axis of the solar tracker to tilt the panels at
an optimal angle relative to the sun's position. This adjustment
compensates for the sun's changing altitude, ensuring that the panels
maintain an optimal angle of incidence for maximum solar energy
capture.
Tracking Algorithm:

The control system employs sophisticated tracking algorithms to

determine the precise azimuth and elevation adjustments required to keep
the solar panels aligned with the sun.

These algorithms may take into account factors such as geographical

location, time of day, date, and solar position calculations to optimize the
tracking accuracy and efficiency.

Actuation Mechanism:

The solar tracker system is equipped with mechanical actuators or motors

responsible for adjusting the azimuth and elevation axes of the solar
panels.

These actuators receive control signals from the tracking algorithm and
move the panels accordingly to maintain alignment with the sun.

Real-Time Monitoring:

The system continuously monitors the performance of the solar tracker,

including the positions of the azimuth and elevation axes, sunlight
intensity, and tracking accuracy.

Real-time feedback allows the control system to make dynamic

adjustments as necessary to optimize solar energy capture and system
efficiency.

Energy Storage (Optional):

Some dual-axis solar tracker systems may incorporate energy storage

solutions, such as batteries, to store excess energy generated during
periods of peak sunlight.

Stored energy can be used to power the actuators and control system,
ensuring continuous operation even during periods of low sunlight or
inclement weather
PARTS USED IN PROJECT
Electrical resistance

The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is the opposition

to the passage of an electric current through that conductor. The
inverse quantity is electrical conductance, the ease with which an
electric current passes. Electrical resistance shares some conceptual
parallels with the mechanical notion of friction. The SI unit of
electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω), while electrical conductance is
measured in Siemens (S).
An object of uniform cross section has a resistance proportional to
its resistivity and length and inversely proportional to its cross-
sectional area. All materials show some resistance, except
for superconductors, which have a resistance of zero.
The resistance (R) of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage across it (V)
to current through it (I), while the conductance (G) is the inverse:

For a wide variety of materials and conditions, V and I are directly proportional to
each other, and therefore R and G are constant (although they can depend on other
factors like temperature or strain). This proportionality is called Ohm's law, and
materials that satisfy it are called "Ohmic" materials.

In other cases, such as a diode or battery, V and I are not directly proportional, or in
other words the I–V curve is not a straight line through the origin, and Ohm's law
does not hold. In this case, resistance and conductance are less useful concepts, and
more difficult to define. The ratio V/I is sometimes still useful, and is referred to as a
"chordal resistance" or "static resistance",[1][2] as it corresponds to the inverse slope of

a chord between the origin and an I–V curve. In other situations, the derivative
may be most useful; this is called the "differential resistance
P–n junction diode

A p–n junction is a boundary or interface between two types of

semiconductor material, p-type and n-type, inside a single crystal of
semiconductor. It is created by doping, for example by ion implantation,
diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal doped with
one type of dopant on top of a layer of crystal doped with another type of
dopant). If two separate pieces of material were used, this would
introduce a grain boundary between the semiconductors that severely
inhibits its utility by scattering the electrons and holes.

p–n junctions are elementary "building blocks" of most semiconductor

electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and
integrated circuits; they are the active sites where the electronic action of
the device takes place. For example, a common type of transistor, the
bipolar junction transistor, consists of two p–n junctions in series, in the
form n–p–n or p–n–p.

Properties of a p–n junction

The p–n junction possesses some interesting properties that have useful
applications in modern electronics. A p-doped semiconductor is relatively
conductive. The same is true of an n-doped semiconductor, but the
junction between them can become depleted of charge carriers, and hence
non-conductive, depending on the relative voltages of the two
semiconductor regions. By manipulating this non-conductive layer, p–n
junctions are commonly used as diodes: circuit elements that allow a flow
of electricity in one direction but not in the other (opposite) direction.
This property is explained in terms of forward bias and reverse bias,
where the term bias refers to an application of electric voltage to the p–n
junction.

PN junction operation in forward-bias mode, showing reducing depletion

width. Both p and n junctions are doped at a 1e15/cm3 doping level,
leading to built-in potential of ~0.59 V. Reducing depletion width can be
inferred from the shrinking charge profile, as fewer dopants are exposed
with increasing forward bias.
 With a battery connected this way, the holes in the P-type region and
the electrons in the N-type region are pushed toward the junction. This
reduces the width of the depletion zone. The positive potential applied to
the P-type material repels the holes, while the negative potential applied
to the N-type material repels the electrons. As electrons and holes are
pushed toward the junction, the distance between them decreases. This
lowers the barrier in potential. With increasing forward-bias voltage, the
depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that the zone's electric
field cannot counteract charge carrier motion across the p–n junction, as a
consequence reducing electrical resistance. The electrons that cross the p–
n junction into the P-type material (or holes that cross into the N-type
material) will diffuse in the near-neutral region. Therefore, the amount of
minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of
current that may flow through the diode.

Only majority carriers (electrons in N-type material or holes in P-type)

can flow through a semiconductor for a macroscopic length. With this in
mind, consider the flow of electrons across the junction. The forward bias
causes a force on the electrons pushing them from the N side toward the P
side. With forward bias, the depletion region is narrow enough that
electrons can cross the junction and inject into the P-type material.
However, they do not continue to flow through the P-type material
indefinitely, because it is energetically favorable for them to recombine
with holes. The average length an electron travels through the P-type
material before recombining is called the diffusion length, and it is
typically on the order of micrometers.

Although the electrons penetrate only a short distance into the P-type
material, the electric current continues uninterrupted, because holes (the
majority carriers) begin to flow in the opposite direction. The total current
(the sum of the electron and hole currents) is constant in space, because
any variation would cause charge buildup over time (this is Kirchhoff's
current law). The flow of holes from the P-type region into the N-type
region is exactly analogous to the flow of electrons from N to P (electrons
and holes swap roles and the signs of all currents and voltages are
reversed).
Therefore, the macroscopic picture of the current flow through the diode
involves electrons flowing through the N-type region toward the junction,
holes flowing through the P-type region in the opposite direction toward
the junction, and the two species of carriers constantly recombining in the
vicinity of the junction. The electrons and holes travel in opposite
directions, but they also have opposite charges, so the overall current is in
the same direction on both sides of the diode, as required.

The Shockley diode equation models the forward-bias operational

characteristics of a p–n junction outside the avalanche (reverse-biased
conducting) region.

Reverse bias mode

A silicon p–n junction in reverse bias.

Connecting the P-type region to the negative terminal of the battery and
theN-type region to the positive terminal corresponds to reverse bias. If a

diode is reverse-biased, the voltage at the cathode is higher than that at

the anode. Therefore, no current will flow until the diode breaks down.
Reverse-bias usually refers to how a diode is used in a circuit. The
connections are illustrated in the diagram to the right.

Because the p-type material is now connected to the negative terminal of

the power supply, the 'holes' in the P-type material are pulled away from
the junction, causing the width of the depletion zone to increase.
Likewise, because the N-type region is connected to the positive terminal,
the electrons will also be pulled away from the junction. Therefore,
the depletion region widens, and does so increasingly with increasing
reverse-bias voltage. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high
resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric
current to cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n
junction results in the junction behaving as an insulator.

The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-
bias voltage increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a
critical level, the p–n junction depletion zone breaks down and current
begins to flow, usually by either the Zener or the avalanche
breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-
destructive and are reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing
does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat
and cause thermal damage.

This effect is used to one's advantage in Zener diode regulator circuits.

Zener diodes have a certain – low – breakdown voltage. A standard value
for breakdown voltage is for instance 5.6 V. This means that the voltage
at the cathode can never be more than 5.6 V higher than the voltage at the
anode, because the diode will break down – and therefore conduct – if the
voltage gets any higher. This in effect regulates the voltage over the
diode.

Another application of reverse biasing is Varicap diodes, where the width

of the depletion zone (controlled with the reverse bias voltage) changes
the capacitance of the diode.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR IC

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant

voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design
or may include negative feedback control loops. It may use an
electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on
the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.

Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as

computer power supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used by
the processor and other elements. In automobile alternators and
central power station generator plants, voltage regulators control the
output of the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage
regulators may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines so
that all customers receive steady voltage independent of how much power
is drawn from the line.

The 78xx (sometimes L78xx, LM78xx, MC78xx...) is a family of self-contained fixed

linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is commonly used in
electronic circuits requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use and low
cost. For ICs within the family, the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating the
output voltage (for example, the 7805 has a 5 volt output, while the 7812 produces
12 volts). The 78xx line are positive voltage regulators: they produce a voltage that is
positive relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices which
are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used in
combination to provide positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit.

78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in

the TO220 form factor, although smaller surface-mount and
larger TO3 packages are available. These devices support an input
voltage anywhere from a couple of volts over the intended output voltage,
up to a maximum of 35 to 40 volts depending on the make, and typically
provide 1 or 1.5 amperes of current (though smaller or larger packages
may have a lower or higher current rating).

Part
Output Minimum Input
Numbe
Voltage (V) Voltage (V)
r

7805 +5 7.3

7806 +6 8.3
 7808 +8 10.5

7810 +10 12.5

7812 +12 14.6

7815 +15 17.7

7818 +18 21.0

7824 +24 27.1

Light-emitting diode
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light
source that resembles a basic pn-junction diode, except that an
LED also emits light. When an LED's anode lead has a voltage that
is more positive than its cathode lead by at least the LED's forward
voltage drop, current flows. Electrons are able to recombine
with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of
photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of
the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined
by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical
components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs

emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently
used as transmitting elements in remote-control circuits, such as those in
remote controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first
visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern
LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet,
and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices,
replacing small incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into
numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays, and were
commonly seen in digital clocks.

Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental

and task lighting. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light
sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved
physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting
diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation
lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting,traffic
signals, and camera flashes. However, LEDs powerful enough for room
lighting are still relatively expensive, and require more precise current
and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of
comparable output.

LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be

developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced
communications technology.

Technology

The inner workings of an LED, showing circuit (top) and band

diagram (bottom)
Transistor

A transistor is a semi-conductor device used

to amplify and switch electronicsignals and electrical power. It is
composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals
for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to
one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through
another pair of terminals. Because the controlled
(output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a
transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are
packaged individually, but many more are found embedded
in integrated circuits.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic

devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its
development in 1947 by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William
Shockley, the transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved

Simplified operation
 A simple circuit diagram to show the labels of a n–p–n bipolar transistor

The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a

small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much
larger signal at another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. A
transistor can control its output in proportion to the input signal; that is, it
can act as an amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn
current on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the
amount of current is determined by other circuit elements.

There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in how
they are used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals
labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small current at the base terminal
(that is, flowing between the base and the emitter) can control or switch a
much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For
a field-effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain,
and a voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain.

The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit.

Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on
the current in the base. Because internally the base and emitter
connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops
between base and emitter while the base current exists. The amount of
this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made from, and is
referred to as VBE.
Transistor as a switch

Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, both for high-

power applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-
power applications such as logic gates.

In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit

shown, as the base voltage rises, the emitter and collector currents rise
exponentially. The collector voltage drops because of reduced resistance
from collector to emitter. If the voltage difference between the collector
and emitter were zero (or near zero), the collector current would be
limited only by the load resistance (light bulb) and the supply voltage.
This is called saturation because current is flowing from collector to
emitter freely. When saturated, the switch is said to be on. Providing
sufficient base drive current is a key problem in the use of bipolar
transistors as switches. The transistor provides current gain, allowing a
relatively large current in the collector to be switched by a much smaller
current into the base terminal. The ratio of these currents varies
depending on the type of transistor, and even for a particular type, varies
depending on the collector current. In the example light-switch circuit
shown, the resistor is chosen to provide enough base current to ensure the
transistor will be saturated.
DC motor:-

A DC motor is any of a class of electrical machines that converts direct

current electrical power into mechanical power. The most common types
rely on the forces produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC
motors have some internal mechanism, either electromechanical or
electronic, to periodically change the direction of current flow in part of
the motor. Most types produce rotary motion; a linear motor directly
produces force and motion in a straight line.

DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could be powered
from existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC
motor's speed can be controlled over a wide range, using either a variable
supply voltage or by changing the strength of current in its field
windings. Small DC motors are used in tools, toys, and appliances. The
universal motor can operate on direct current but is a lightweight motor
used for portable power tools and appliances. Larger DC motors are used
in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, or in drives for steel
rolling mills. The advent of power electronics has made replacement of
DC motors with AC motors possible in many applications.
A coil of wire with a current running through it generates an
electromagnetic field aligned with the center of the coil. The direction
and magnitude of the magnetic field produced by the coil can be changed
with the direction and magnitude of the current flowing through it.A
simple DC motor has a stationary set of magnets in

Crystal Oscillators and Applications

A mechanical or electronic device that works on the principles of
oscillation is an oscillator. In other words, oscillator can be defined
as the periodic fluctuations between two things based on changes
in energy. The practical applications of oscillators include
Computers, clocks, watches, radios etc. An example for simple
type of mechanical oscillator is a clock pendulum. According to the
oscillation within atoms, the atomic clock keeps time. In order to
generate signals in computers, wireless receivers and transmitters
and audio-frequency equipments, electronic oscillators are mainly
used. Particularly it is used in music synthesizers. Different types
of electronic oscillators are available. All the electronic oscillators
operate according to the same basic principle. An oscillator always
employs a sensitive amplifier, whose output signal is fed back to
the input signal in phase. Hence, the signal itself regenerates and
sustains. This is called as a positive feedback. Thus the oscillator
uses a positive feedback for working. This is almost same to the
unwanted "howling" in public-address systems.
A quartz crystal determines the frequency at which an oscillator
works. When a direct current is applied, these crystals vibrate at a
frequency that depends on its thickness value and on the manner in
which it is cut from the original mineral rock. To determine the
frequency, some oscillators employ combinations of inductors,
resistors, and capacitors. But, the use of quartz crystals gives the
best stability (constancy of frequency) in oscillators.
In a computer the clock serves as a sort of pacemaker for the
microprocessor. The clock is nothing but a specialized oscillator.
The clock frequency (also called as clock speed) is usually
specified in megahertz (MHz) frequency. The clock frequency is an
important factor in determining the rate at which a computer can
perform the execution of instructions.
Figure shows the equivalent electronic circuit diagram of a crystal. The
equivalent diagram of a crystal consists of a resistor, an inductor and two
capacitors.

The two capacitors are named as Cs and Cp

Battery

An electric
battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with
external connections provided to power electrical devices. A discharging
battery has a positive terminal, or cathode, and a negative terminal, or
anode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when
connected to an external circuit will flow and deliver energy to an
external device. When a battery is connected to an external circuit,
electrolytes are able to move as ions within, allowing the chemical
reactions to be completed at the separate terminals and so deliver energy
to the external circuit. It is the movement of those ions within the battery
which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work.[3]
Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed
of multiple cells, however the usage has evolved to additionally include
devices composed of a single cell. Primary (single-use or "disposable")
batteries are used once and discarded; the electrode materials are
irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the
alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable devices.
Secondary (rechargeable batteries) can be discharged and recharged
multiple times; the original composition of the electrodes can be restored
by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in
vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics. Batteries
come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power
hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that
provide standby power for telephone exchanges and computer data
centers.According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry
generates US$48 billion in sales each year,[5] with 6% annual growth.
Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than
common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the higher
efficiency of electric motors in producing mechanical work, compared to
combustion engines.

 Light Dependant Resistor Circuit

LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in

light/dark sensor circuits. Normally the resistance of an LDR is very
high, sometimes as high as 1000000 ohms, but when they are
illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically. Electronic onto
sensors are the devices that alter their electrical characteristics, in the
presences of visible or invisible light. The best-known devices of this
type are the light dependent resistor (LDR), the photo diode and the
phototransistors. Light dependent resistor as the name suggests
depends on light for the variation of resistance. LDR are made by
depositing a film of cadmium sulphide or cadmium selenide on a
substrate of ceramic containing no or very few free electrons when not
illuminated .The longer the strip the more the value of resistance.
When light falls on the strip, the resistance decreases. In the absence
of light the resistance can be in the order of 10K ohm to 15K ohm and
is called the dark resistance. Depending on the exposure of light the
resistance can fall down to value of 500 ohms. The power ratings are
usually smaller and are in the range 50mw to .5w. Though very
sensitive to light, the switching time is very high and hence cannot be
used for high frequency applications. They are used in chopper
amplifiers. Light dependent resistors are available as discs 0.5cm to
2.5cm. The resistance rises to several Mega ohms under dark
conditions. The device consists of a pair of metal film contacts
separated by a snakelike track of cadmium sulphide film, designed to
provide the maximum possible contact area with the two metal films.
The structure is housed in a clear plastic or resin case, to provide free
access to external light. Practical LDRs are available in variety of
sizes and packages styles, the most popular size having a face
diameter of roughly 10mm. When an LDR is brought from a certain
illuminating level into total darkness, the resistance does not increase
immediately to the dark value. The recovery rate is specified in k
ohm/second and for current LDR types it is more than 200k
ohm/second. The recovery rate is much greater in the reverse
direction, e.g. going from darkness to illumination level of 300 lux, it
takes less than 10ms to reach a resistance which corresponds with a
light level of 400 lux. A LDR may be connected either way round and
no special precautions are required during the time of soldering.
Darkness: Maximum resistance, about 1Mega ohm. 16 Very bright
light: Minimum resistance, about 100 ohm. The LDR is a variable
resistor whose resistance decreases with the increase in light intensity.
Two cadmium photoconductive cells with spectral response are very
similar to that of the human eye. The cell resistance falls with
increasing light intensity

12x CHARACTER LED

An LCD is an electronic display module which uses liquid crystal to

produce a visible image. The 16×2 LCD display is a very basic
module commonly used in DIYs and circuits. The 16×2 translates o a
display 16 characters per line in 2 such lines. In this LCD each
character is displayed in a 5×7 pixel matrix.
16X2 LCD pinout diagram

Pin
Function Name
No.

1 Ground (0V) Ground

2 Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V – 5.3V) Vcc

Contrast adjustment; the best way is to use a variable

resistor such as a potentiometer. The output of the
3 potentiometer is connected to this pin. Rotate the Vo / VEE
potentiometer knob forward and backwards to adjust the
LCD contrast.

4 Selects command register when low, and data register RS (Register

 when high Select )

Low to write to the register; High to read from the

5 Read/write
register

Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given;

Extra voltage push is required to execute the instruction
and EN(enable) signal is used for this purpose. Usually,
6 Enable
we make it en=0 and when we want to execute the
instruction we make it high en=1 for some milliseconds.
After this we again make it ground that is, en=0.

7 DB0

8 DB1

9 DB2

10 DB3
8-bit data pins
11 DB4

12 DB5

13 DB6

14 DB7

15 Backlight VCC (5V) Led+

16 Backlight Ground (0V) Led-

RS (Register select)

A 16X2 LCD has two registers, namely, command and data. The register
select is used to switch from one register to other. RS=0 for command
register, whereas RS=1 for data register.

Command Register: The command register stores the command

instructions given to the LCD. A command is an instruction given to
LCD to do a predefined task. Examples like initializing it, clearing its
screen, setting the cursor position, controlling display etc. Processing for
commands happens in the command register.
Data Register: The data register stores the data to be displayed on the
LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the
LCD. When we send data to LCD it goes to the data register and is
processed there. When RS=1, data register is selected.

Important command codes for LCD

Sr.No. Hex Code Command to LCD instruction Register

1 01 Clear display screen

2 02 Return home

3 04 Decrement cursor (shift cursor to left)

4 06 Increment cursor (shift cursor to right)

5 05 Shift display right

6 07 Shift display left

7 08 Display off, cursor off

8 0A Display off, cursor on

9 0C Display on, cursor off

10 0E Display on, cursor blinking

11 0F Display on, cursor blinking

12 10 Shift cursor position to left

13 14 Shift cursor position to right

14 18 Shift the entire display to the left

15 1C Shift the entire display to the right

16 80 Force cursor to beginning ( 1st line)

17 C0 Force cursor to beginning ( 2nd line)

18 38 2 lines and 5×7 matrix

Displaying Custom Characters on 16X2 LCD

Generating custom characters on LCD is not very hard. It requires the
knowledge about custom generated random access memory (CG-RAM)
of LCD and the LCD chip controller. Most LCDs contain Hitachi
HD4478 controller.

CG-RAM is the main component in making custom characters. It stores

the custom characters once declared in the code. CG-RAM size is 64 byte
providing the option of creating eight characters at a time. Each character
is eight byte in size.

CG-RAM address starts from 0x40 (Hexadecimal) or 64 in decimal. We

can generate custom characters at these addresses. Once we generate our
characters at these addresses, now we can print them on the LCD at any
time by just sending simple commands to the LCD. Character addresses
and printing commands are below

In the table BELOW you can see starting addresses for each character
with their printing commands. The first character is generated at address
0x40 to 0x47 and is printed on LCD by just sending simple command 0
to the LCD. The second character is generated at address 0x48 to 0x55
and is printed by sending 1 to LCD.
Future Scope and Applications
Solar Energy is one of the most popular renewable sources nowadays. It is being
widely used also, and within some more years it will be very popular that it will be
used for many purposes, in industries and household as well.
So it is most important fact to utilize the maximum energy of the sun so that
maximum power can be generated. The thought behind this project is also derived
from this fact. In many places experiment is being done on this fact how it is possible
to make full use of the day light. In many places application of this project can be
seen also. This project has got a bright future scope further. Accuracy of this solar
panel can be increased further and number of steps can be increased as well to get
more accurate desired output. Timer circuit can also be integrated with this so that this
system responses more accurately. Even in a cloudy day when intensity of sunlight
may vary at different time of a day, the timer circuit can be more that handy to drive
the solar panel correctly in that low light. As per energy concerned solar energy is one
of the most promising energy which is going to be a main source of energy in near
future

Results and Conclusion

In conclusion, the Solar tracking system was successfully able to increase the
efficiency of the solar panel. A threshold condition of 400 lux was set above which
the system would turn on, and motor would be rotated in the direction of the sun
accordingly. When the device is turned on, reading displayed on the LCD screen is
the voltage generated by the solar panel without tracking. After the initialization of
the device, it starts showing the voltage readings on the LCD screen when the sun is
being tracked. As the intensity of light decreases to zero (i.e. dark) since the threshold
condition is not being met, motor rotates to its original position and remains in it until
the threshold gets crossed again. After examining the information obtained by the real
time testing of the prototype, it can be said that the proposed way of a dynamic solar
tracking system, is a practicable method of maximizing the mean intensity of sunlight
received by a solar energy system. The location of the sun was successfully tracked
down and thus increasing the efficiency of the solar panel.
Fig Results and Conclusion

Table :- Results and Conclusion

Even though the system is over-designed, appropriate reductions in dimensions such

as frame length and shaft diameter, would decrease the raw material required; thus, an
even cheaper product can be created. Otherwise, the device achieved what it was
aiming.
 References
1.A. K. Saxena and V. Dutta, “A versatile microprocessor based controller for solar
tracking,‟‟
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, vol. 2, pp. 1105-1109, 1990

2.B. Koyuncu and K. Balasubramanian, “A microprocessor controlled automatic sun

tracker,‟‟
IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 913-917, 1991.

3. Automatic Solar Tracking System, Parasnis N.V., Tadamalle A. P International

Journal of
 Innovations in Engineering Research and Technology [IJIERT] ISSN: 2394-3696
volume 3,
issue 1, JAN.-2016

4. http://www.solar-facts.com/panels/panel-types.php

5.“7805‟‟ datasheet. [Online].Available: http://www.electrokits.com/ Datasheets/

7805-
Datasheet

6.“Microcontroller”datasheet.[Online].Available:http://www.datasheetcatalog.com/
datashee
ts_pdf/A/T/M/E/ATMEGA 32.shtml.

7.“Photosensor”datasheet.[Online].Available:http://www.ladyada.net/learn/sensors/
cds.ht ml.