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org/

Elasticity:Equationsof motion
By ENDERSROBINSONand DEAN CLARK

0 ceanographers havelong saidthat our planetshouldbe called Gibbs now is regularlycited as the greatestscientistever pro-
Water, not Earth, becausedry land representslessthan a quarter ducedin the United [Link] fact, shortly a&r his death, his-
of [Link] this sameline of reasoningto the torian Henry AdamscalledGibbs “the greatestof all Americans,
structureof all matter,we shouldcall-according to theNewtonian judgedby his rank in science.” However, during his life (1839-
perspective-the whole universeVacuum. The starsare but tiny 1991), he was all but unknown to US scientific leaders. This
isles in the ocean of interstellar “near vacuum.” Even the in- resultedfrom a combinationof curiouscircumstances:his own
dividual atomsmakingup matterare nothingbut small nucleiwith casualinterestin recognition(e.g., he neverjoined the American
surroundingelectionsenmeshedin a seaof vacuum. PhysicalSociety);a teachingstylethat was accessibleto only the
But todayour view of “vacuum” is thatof [Link] brightestgraduatestudents;much more interest,by the contem-
omnipresentmedium,called “vacuum” sinceancienttimes, is by porary US scientificestablishment,in immediatelyuseful ideas
no meansemptinessor nothing. Vacuum influenceseverythingit rather than highly theoreticalwork (e.g., the immensefame of
[Link] experimentin elementaryparticlephysicsdem- Gibbs’ contemporariesBell and Edison); and mathematicsfar
onstratesthe interactionof subatomicparticleswith one another beyondthe abilitiesof mostwho readthe lightly regardedTrens-
and with the vacuum. actions of the ConnecticutAcademyof Sciencesin which he
JohannWolfgang von Goethe,whosegreatliterary eminence published(in the 1870s)his first [Link]
hasall but eclipsedhis (not insignificant)scientificcontributions, Maxwell did recognizethe importanceof Gibbs’ ideas;Maxwell
wrote in Faust: personallymadea physicalmodelbasedon a Gibbs’ conceptand
sentit to him. However, Maxwell died beforehe couldconvince
Let usfathom it, whatevermay befall,
other Europeanscientistsof the value of Gibbs’ [Link] was
In this, thy Nothing,may I$nd my All.
not until the last few years of his life that Gibbs receivedrichly
Goethe’s metaphorencompasses an insightof the great quan- deservedhonors(notablythe CopleyMedal of the Royal Society)
tum physicistPaul Dirac who realizedthat somephysicalobjects from the scientificcommunity.
revealthemselvesonly [Link] unexcitedatomin a min- A greaterhonor came half a century later. Albert Einstein,
imum-energy statedoes not radiate and, consequently,remains shortlybefore his death, was askedto name the most powerful
unobservableif not subjectedto any action. Eachelementarypar- thinkershe had known. “Lorentz,” Einstein answeredwithout
ticle is but a manifestationof its own sea. The particle is unob- [Link], after some reflection, he added:“I never met
servableuntil its sea is acted upon in a definite way. When a Willard Gibbs; perhaps,had I done so, I might have placedhim
quantumof light getsinto this “Dirac sea,” the seacan ejectout besideLorentz.”
of itselfan electronof negativeenergy.A multitudeof conclusions The rigorousmathematicsthat Gibbs developedfor thermo-
followed from Dirac’s insight, including the discovery of the dynamicsand statisticalmechanicswere his greatestscientific
positronand otherantiparticles. [Link] article, though, is built around still another
During the pasthalf century,the Dirac seahasturnedinto the Gibbsconceptof [Link]
oceanknown asphysicalvacuumand Dirac himselfoncesaidthat developedits presentform more than a centuryago-m Elements
the problemof describingvacuumwasthe main one facingphysi- of VectorAnalysis,first printedin 1881. Astonishingly,consider-
cists. The currently prevailing description,the conceptof fields ing the surgical precisionwith which vector analysiscan treat
pervadingall space,hasevolvedfrom the once-deridedCartesian many complexphysicalsituations,this ideawasgreetedwith con-
[Link], amongthe many scientificideasdependenton this siderableopenhositility. One reviewercall4 it “a hermaphrodite
view, is themathematicalfoundationof the theoryof seismicwave monster,compoundedof the notationsof Hamilton and Grass-
propagation. man.” However, its usefulnesswas unanimouslyrecognizedby
The first two articleson elasticity(BasicSeismology3 and 4) the turn of the [Link], vectoranalysissothoroughlyper-
discussedthe mathematicsof stressand strain for a medium in meatesscientificliterature(e.g., mostof thearticlesin GEOPHYSICS
staticequilibrium. This article will elaborateon that foundationto contain mathematicalnotation initiated by Gibbs) that mathe-
illustratewhy wave motioncan resultwhen the stresses on a solid matican/historianEdna E. Kramer called this concept“indispen-
are not in equilibrium. sible to every seriousstudentof physics.”
More than one mathematicaltechniquecan [Link] support Vectors are a most convenient means for mathematically
this [Link] this article, we will use the tool commonly describingand analyzing seismicwaves.
known as vectoranalysiswhich in large part was the creationof Consideran unboundedelasticsolidthatis homogeneous (same
one of the mostremarkablefiguresin modem science,J. Willard at all points)and isotropic(samein all directions).If a disturban~
Gibbs. passesthroughthe material, the displacementof a small particle

24 GEOPHYSICS:THE LEADING EDGE OF EXPLORATION JULY 1990

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J. Willard Gibbs Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

whose equilibrium position is the point P(x,y,z) can be specified When fields vary with time the variation can be obtainedby
at any instant as a vector u(x,y,z,t). This vector has its origin at taking the derivative (or rate of change)with respectto time Find-
the point of equilibrium and pointsin the direction of particle dis- ing the rate of changewith respectto position is trickier because
placement. The length of the vector gives the amountof displace- there are three coordinatesinsteadof one. However, it can be neat-
ment. As time varies, the length and direction of the vector alter ly handledby the concept of the gradient (which is defined as a
to representthe oscillationof a small particle aboutits equilibrium vector which gives the rate of change of a field with respectto
point. position). The gradientvector (abbreviatedgrad) is perpendicular
Adapting basic vector conceptsto the mathematicaltheory of to the contour line at which it originates, points uphill in the
elasticity requires the introductionof vector fields. steepestdirection, and possessesmagnitudeequal to the rate of
A physical field is a quantity which dependsupon position in change in that direction. The gradient has two particularly valu-
space. The simplestpossiblephysical field is a scalar field; i.e., able properties-it indicates the direction and amount of the
a field which is characterizedat each point by a single number. greatestrate of changeat any particularpoint, andit is independent
(A good example in geophysicsis the potential field representing of any systemof coordinateaxes. (The gradient was more fully
the force of gravity. This field does not changewith time There discussedin Elasticity: Cartesianfields of dilatation, Basic Seis-
are scalar folds which do change with time Consider material, mology 5, IZE June 1989.)
like the solid earth, that hasken heatedat someplacesand cooled Another key conceptin vector fields is that of the divergence
at others. The temperatureof the body varies from point-to-point of a vector (abbreviateddiv). Divergence, unlike gradient, is a
in a complicatedway, and will be a function not only of position scalar. To obtain a physicalinterpretationof divergence, consider
but of time This is an example of what is known as a time-de- a small box in spacethat is subjectedto elasticwave motion. The
pendent scalarfield.) displacementof a small particIe (micrograin of sand)in that small
In geophysics,scalarfields are depictedby meansof contours, box is denotedby the vector u. AS this par&lt~ oscillates,each of
which are imaginary surfaces (in 3-D) or lines (in 2-D) drawn the six faces of the small box will undergo normal strain. The
throughall points for which the field has the samevalue. Contour divergenceof the vector Y is equalto the sumof the no& strains
lines originated, of course, on maps where they connect points in the three coordinatediiections. That is, div u gives the net
with the same elevation. But contour lines can also be used in amountby which the small box is being alternativelystretchedand
other areas, such as on a temperaturefield (where they are called compressed(in the normal directions) as the particles oscillate.
isothermalsurfacesor isotherms). This equatesto the definition of dilatation given in Basic Seismol-
Vector fields, in contrast, are fields in which a vector is at- ogy 5 and, indeed, div u and dilatation A are merely different
tachedto each point in space. The flow of heat in the earth is an words for the same scalar.
example. If the temperatureis high at one placeandlow at another, The last conceptthat must be introducedis the rotation of vec-
there is a flow of heat from the warmer place to the colder. Thus tor u, written curl II (although Europeanauthorssometimesuse
heat flow is a quantity which has direction. A scalaris not a suf- rot u), which is also a vector. (The curl is defined in Elasticity:
ficient mathematicaldescription. However, heat flow can be rep- Cartesianfields of rotation, Basic Seismology6, TLE November
resentedat each point by a vector. This vector varies with both 1989.) Considera particle that is undergoingonly shearstrain, no
position and time Its magnitudegives the amountof heatflowing normal strain; this particle will thus be performing some sort of
at any point at the designatedtime and its direction gives the rotating motion in a plane at right angles to the direction of
direction of the flow. propagation.

GEOPHYSICS: THE LEADING EDGE OF EXPLORATION JULY 1990 25

 These concepts-gradient, divergence, and curl--can hr c‘om the final secondderivative is
bined with ideaspresentedin earlier articlesin this seriesto derive
mathematicalexpressionswhich describe wave motion in elastic curl curl u = 2 curl 0.
solids.
When a body is in equilibrium position, no net force is acting Now, returning to the reasoningof Taylor (force per unit of
on any point in the body. However, when the body is deformed, volume is proportionalto spatial curvature), the relationshipcan
the stresses(due to internal elastic forces of the body itself) exert be written
restoring forces which attempt to reestablishequilibrium. The
more the distortion, the greater the restoring force. The English force density =
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mathematicianBrook Taylor (see Z?Wwave equation,Basic Seis- (constant)grad div u + (different constant)curl
mology 1, ZZJ?July 1987) discoveredthat the restoring force is curl u
proportionalto spatialcurvaturein the caseof a vibrating string.
It turns out that the first constantis A + 2~ and the secondis
The greater the curvature,the greater the restoringforce.
-p where A and p are Lame’s [Link] determinationof the
But what is spatialcurvaturein the caseof a solid body?It can
unknown constantsin the equationcomes from a direct applica-
be representedby secondderivativesof the particle displacement
tion of Hooke’s law (see Elasticity:Hook’s law, BasicSeismol-
u with respect to the spatial coordinates(x,y,z). The gradient,
ogy 4, ZZE August 1988). Thus, the equationbecomes
divergence, and curl are each first derivatives; i.e., each repre-
sentsa slopeof one form or another. Secondderivativesrepresent force density = (A + 2~) grad div u - p curl curl u .
curvature, and there are only three independentsecondderiva-
tives: However, Newton’s secondlaw of motion equatesforce to the
product of mass and acceleration. Thus the force density is a
grad div II productof massdensity (denotedby P and acceleration(written
div curl u as a secondderivative with respectto time). The aboveequation
curl curl u becomes
The quantity div II (or dilatation) representsthe change in
volume of a small region (due to compressionand stretching,the P$ = (X t 2~) graddiv u - p curl curl u
internal stresses).Thus the secondderivative, grad div u, is the
vector field which representsthe directional slope of the dilata-
tion. Since curl u involves no changein volume, the divergence which is known, in seismology,as the equationof motion. After
of curl is zero and this secondderivative need not be considered some mathematicalmanipulation,two wave equationscan be ex-
further. Because tracted from this expression.
First, the equation will be written in another form. The first
curl u = 20, term on the right involveddiv u which is the dilation A. The second
term on the right involvescurl u, which is twice the rotation w

26 GEOPHYSICS:THE LEADING EDGE OF EXPLORATION JULY 1990

 (that is, curl u = 20). By making these [Link]- wave velocity Q. These dilatational waves are also know as P-
tion of motion can be written waves, compressionalwaves, or longitudinalwaves.
2 If we then take the curl of the equationof motion, the term in-
P+= (X + 2/.l)gradd-2~c”rlw volving A vanishesand the result (after some manipulation)is

An advantageof this form of the equationof motion is that it rJlw =Pa28

explicitly displaysthe dilatationA and the rotationw. p at2
Dilatation A representsa measure of change in volume of a If we define fl as
small region without any rotation; and rotation representsmove-
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ment of a small region withoutany changein volume. The respec- a=K

tive mathematicalexpressionsare curl A = 0, and div o = 0. P
Now, keeping those very helpful expressionsin mind, we take then this equation(in rectangularcoordinates)is
the divergenceof the equationof motion. The term involving w
vanishes,leaving
azw azw a’w -- I azw
z+av’+ai’= pz at2

(X+2p)divgradA=P 9 This is again recognizedas the three-dimensionalwave equation,

and the interpretationis that the rotation (r, propagateswith wave
The operator div grad is encounteredso often that it has its velocity /3. These rotational waves are also known as S-waves,
own symbol9’ and name, the [Link] substitutingthis sym- shearwaves, or transversewaves.
bol anddefining a as The bottom line is that modem theory statesthat there are two
types of seismicbody waves. One type resultsfrom the normal
“=vX
pulsationsdue to the compressionalstretching/shrinkingof a con-
P tinuum of small rock particles; these generateP-waves traveling
the equationbecomes at velocity a. The secondtype results from tangentialpulsations
1 8’A due to the rotation of a continuumof small rock particles;these
V’A = generateS-wavestraveling at velocity p.
-Fat2
In this seriesof articles to this point, we have completedthe
In rectangularcoordinates,this equationis formidable task of deriving the equationof motion and thereby
obtaining the wave equationsfor compressionalwaves and for
#A a=A #A _-- 1 8’A shearwaves. A readerwho has followed the argumentup to now
z+ay+saz’- 0z at1
can feel a senseof accomplishment,for this material is usually
covered in the first weeks of a graduatecoursein seismologyat
We recognizethis (from the first article) as the three-dimensional a gooduniversity. The next articlesin this serieswill turn to some
wave equation, which says that the dilatation A propagateswith of the more practicalaspectsof seismicexploration.L

GEOPHYSICS: THE LEADING EDGE OF EXPLORATION JULY 1990 27