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CY1104 – ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY

UNIT – 5
NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES &STORAGE
DEVICES

LECTURE PLAN

5.1) Nuclear energy - Nuclear fission – chain reactions

5.2) Nuclear fusion – differences between fission and fusion

5.3) Classification of nuclear reactors – light water nuclear power plant-

Breeder reactor

5.4) Solar energy - Wind energy

5.5) Hydrogen –Oxygen fuel cell

5.6) Types of batteries – Primary alkaline battery

5.7) Lead acid battery

5.8) Nickel Cadmium battery

5.9) Lithium battery

1
 CY1104 – ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
UNIT – 5 NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

5.1) NUCLEAR FISSION REACTIONS – NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTIONS

Mechanism , characteristics & types

1. Definition: The energy released during the fission or fusion reaction is called Nuclear energy.
The process of splitting a heavier nucleus into smaller nuclei is called nuclear fission. It is always
accompanied by enormous energy.
235 1 236
E.g. 92U + 0n [ 92U ]  56Ba140 + 36Kr
93
+ 3 0n1 + Energy
2. Mechanism: When U235 nucleus is bombarded with slow moving thermal neutron, it forms
unstable U236. This unstable intermediate then splits into two nuclei with the release of neutrons and
large amount of energy. All fission fragments are radioactive they emits β and γ radiations.

3. Nuclear chain reactions: In a fission reaction, the neutrons from the previous step continue to
propagate and repeat the reaction is called chain reaction. When U235 nucleus is bombarded with a
thermal neutron, it forms the fission products (Barium and Krypton) along with 3 neutrons. Each of
the 3 neutrons strikes another U235 nucleus causing (3 x 3 = 9) nine subsequent neutrons. These 9
neutrons will further give 27 neutrons. The chain reactions can be controlled by absorbing the
neutrons by moderators. Some of the secondary neutrons produced may escape into space thus
slowing down chain process.

2
4. Conditions for chain reactions:
a) The number of neutrons produced from a fission reaction is called Multiplication factor (M.F).
For a chain reaction to occur, the multiplication factor should be greater than or equal to 1.[M.F≥ 1]
b) For a chain reaction to continue, a certain minimum amount of target nucleus is needed. This is
known as critical mass. (Say, for Uranium, 1 – 100 kg). If it weighs less than the critical mass, it
is sub-critical mass. More than this mass is known as super-critical mass. The mass greater or
lesser than the critical mass will hinder the propagation of the chain reactions.

5. Reason for nuclear energy:

In nuclear chain reactions, the mass of reactants (A) is always greater than mass of products (B).
The difference in the mass is known as mass defect (m). It is also known as Q factor. This mass
defect is converted into the nuclear energy. As per Einstein’s equation E = mc2,
Where, E = nuclear energy, m = mass defect, c= velocity of neutron.
So, greater the mass difference, greater will be the nuclear energy.
By further calculations, it is found that, Loss of 1 amu = 931.47 MeV energy.

6. Types of nuclear fission reactions:

a) Uncontrolled nuclear fission reactions: If a nuclear fission reaction is carried out in an
uncontrolled manner, then the energy released can be used for destructive purpose. (eg) atom bomb.
b) Controlled nuclear fission reactions: If a nuclear fission reaction is carried out in a controlled
manner, then the energy released can be used for constructive purpose. (eg) nuclear power plant.
7. Advantages of nuclear fission energy:
i) A small quantity of nuclear fuel is sufficient to produce large amount of energy. But in the case of
fossil fuel, we need higher quantity to produce large amount of energy.
ii) In a nuclear power plant, the fuel is inserted once to produce energy for a long period of time.
But, in a thermal power plant, continuous supply of fossil fuel is required.
iii) The controlled fission energy can be used as an eco-friendly energy resource for power
generation.
iv) Radio-active isotopes are used in radiotherapy.
v) It is used to control agricultural pests. It also delays ripening of fruits.
8. Disadvantages of nuclear fission energy:
i) Nuclear fission causes more pollution problem than burning the fossil fuel.
ii) The waste disposal of nuclear waste is more difficult than fossil fuel wastage.
iii) The nuclear radiation damages the structure of cells in human body.

iv) The nuclear radiation may cause cancer, blindness, genetic disorder and sterility. 3
5.2- A) NUCLEAR FUSION;
Combination of lighter nuclei to a heavier one with simultaneous energy liberation is known as
nuclear fusion.

Eg.) 1H2 + 1H2  2He4 + energy

Illustration:

The fusion reactions can start only when the atoms are heated to very high temperatures. For
example, in hydrogen bomb, fusion occurs by the fission of atom bomb, which acts as trigger.

Characteristics of Fusion reactions:

1. The fusion reactions are taking place at extremely high temperature (more than 106 K).
So they are known as thermo nuclear reactions. As they are taking place in stellar bodies, they
are also known as stellar reactions.

2. Fusion takes place only when the distance between nuclei is of the order of one Fermi (10-15 m).
3. The energy produced by fusion (per gram) is four times more than fission.
4. To facilitate the fusion reaction, sufficient amount of kinetic energy must be provided.
5. Increase in atomic number of nuclei increases electrostatic repulsion. So, only lighter nuclei can
undergo fusion reaction.
6. Design of fusion power plant is difficult as no material can withstand such a huge temperature.

Mechanism of Fusion reactions:

Proton cycle:
This takes place at lower stellar temperature. It involves the conversion of four protons into a helium
nucleus and two positrons with the release of about 18 MeV/g of hydrogen atom.
1
1H + 1H1  1H2 + 1e0 + Energy
1
1H + 1H2  2He3 + Energy
1
1H + 2He3  2He4 + 1e0 + Energy

41H1  2He4 +2 1e0 + Energy 4

 5.2-B) DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION

S.
FISSION FUSION
No.
1 Breaking of heavier nucleus into smaller nuclei. Combination of smaller nuclei to a bigger one

235
2 92U + 0n1 56Ba140 + 36Kr93 + 3 0n1+ Energy 1H
2
+ 1H2  2He4 + energy

3 Emits neutron Emits positron

4 Can be controlled Cannot be controlled

5 Mass of products is less than reactants. Greater than reactants

6 Chain reaction occur No chain reaction.

Occurs at very high temperature
7 Occurs at ordinary temperature.
(more than 106K)
8 The products are radioactive. Non- radio active
Requires critical mass of the target nuclei for chain
9 No such requirements.
reaction.
10 Eg. Atom bomb Eg. Hydrogen bomb

5.3-A) NUCLEAR REACTOR – CLASSIFICATION

The energy released during the fission or fusion reaction is called Nuclear energy. The process of
splitting of heavier nucleus into smaller nuclei is called nuclear fission. It is always accompanied
by enormous energy. The equipment used to carry out controlled fission reaction and produce
energy is called nuclear reactor
The general reaction taking place in reactor is:
235 1 236
92U + 0n [ 92U ]  56Ba140 + 36Kr
93
+ 3 0n1 + Energy

Based on certain criteria, the nuclear reactors are classified into various types.

5
S.
Criteria Types Significance
No
Thermal reactors Slow neutrons cause fission.
1 Based on neutron energy
Fast reactors Fast neutrons cause fission.

Natural fuel reactor Natural uranium is used as fuel.

2 Based on the fuel used
Uranium containing 5 –10% U235 is used
Enriched uranium reactor
as fuel
Water moderated reactor Light water is used as moderator

3 Based on moderator used Heavy water moderated reactor Heavy water is used as moderator

Graphite moderated reactor Graphite is used as moderator

Eg- Pressure water reactor; boiling water
Water cooled reactors
reactor.
Gas cooled reactors He, CO2 are used as coolants
4 Based on coolant used
Eg - Fast breeder reactor.
Liquid metal cooled reactors Liquid metals such as Na, Bi, Pb are
used as coolants
Fuel is burnt to produce heat or electrical
Burner reactors
energy
5 Based on recovery of fuel
For every primary fuel utilized, two or
Converter or breeder type
more secondary fuels are produced.

5.3-B) LIGHT WATER NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

The energy released during the fission or fusion reaction is called Nuclear energy. The process of
splitting of heavier nucleus into smaller nuclei is called nuclear fission. It is always accompanied
by enormous energy. The equipment used to carry out controlled fission reaction and produce
energy is called nuclear reactor. In light water plant, water acts as coolant and moderator.
The general reaction taking place in reactor is:
235 1 236
92U + 0n [ 92U ]  56Ba140 + 36Kr
93
+ 3 0n1 + Energy
Construction and Working:
U235 fuel rods are immersed in coolant water. Boron rods are inserted between Uranium rods as
movable control rods. As the Boron rods are moved up, neutrons will be set free and reaction is
fasten up. If they are moved down, they catch neutrons to slow down the chain reaction.
The heat emitted is absorbed by coolant. The heated coolant enters into the heat exchanger
where it transfers its 3000C to sea water present there. This heat evaporates the sea water and steam
is produced. This steam drives turbine and generates electricity. 6
S.
No. COMPONENTS FUNCTIONS EXAMPLE
i) Produces heat energy. Enriched U235, Pu239 in the
1 Fuel rods
ii) Produces neutron. form of rods.
i) Controls the reaction rate by absorbing
neutrons.
10 1 11
5B + 0n  5B + γ rays Boron, Cadmium
2 Control rods
ii) Avoids damage to reactor. as movable rods.
iii) Very much used to shut the reactor
under normal and emergency conditions.
i) Absorb heat produced during fusion
ii) Heat of outgoing coolant (300oC)
3 Coolants Water, liquid Na
produces steam to accelerate the turbine
speed.
Heavy water,
Slow down neutron speed from 13,200km/s
water,
4 Moderators (1Mev energy) to 22,000 m/s (0.25ev
Graphite,
energy).
Beryllium

Heavy water,
Placed around the core to reflect back the water,
5 Reflector
leaked out neutrons. Graphite,
Beryllium

i) The 10m thickness concretes protects

accidental radiation leakage. Steel and concrete covers.
6 Protective shield
ii) It is made up of 6m thermal shield and
4m biological shield.

A circular cylinder of diameter 15m which consists of Fuel rod, control

7 Reactor core
rod, moderator and coolants.
i) Withstands high pressure as 200 atm.
8 Pressure vessel ii) Provides entrance and exit for coolant.
iii) Provides slot for control rods
9 Turbines The steam from heat exchanger runs a turbine to generate electricity.

7
Advantages of nuclear fission energy:
i) A small quantity of nuclear fuel is sufficient to produce large amount of energy. But in the case of
fossil fuel, we need higher quantity to produce large amount of energy.
ii) In a nuclear power plant, the fuel is inserted once to produce energy for a long period of time.
But, in a thermal power plant, continuous supply of fossil fuel is required.
iii) The controlled fission energy can be used as an eco-friendly energy resource for power
generation.
iv) Radioactive isotopes are used in radiotherapy.
v) It is used to control agricultural pests. It also delays ripening of fruits.

Disadvantages of nuclear fission energy:

i) Nuclear fission causes more pollution problem than burning the fossil fuel.
ii) The waste disposal of nuclear waste is more difficult than fossil fuel wastage. The nuclear wastes
are sealed in leak proof concretes and buried under deep sea level.
iii) The nuclear radiation damages the structure of cells in human body.
iv) The nuclear radiation may cause cancer, blindness, genetic disorder and sterility.

8
5.3-C) BREEDER REACTOR:
1. A setup which converts ‘Fertile’ nucleus into ‘Fissile’ nucleus is called ‘Breeder reactor’. Its
conversion factor is always above unity.

Eg: U238  Pu239

2. A nucleus which undergoes fission reaction by bombardment of slow neutrons is called fissile
nucleus. (eg) U235, Pu239

3. Nucleus which does not undergo fission reaction by slow neutrons is fertile nucleus. They
require fast moving neutrons for fission. (eg)U238, Th232

4. Significance for the breeder reactor:

Uranium exists in nature as three isotopes, U234 (0.006%), U235 (0.7%) and U238 (99.3%).

Out of these, only U235 can be used as fissionable material.

Anyhow, the non-fissionable U238 can be converted to fissionable Pu239 by bombardment with a fast
neutron. This can be achieved only by using breeder reactor.

Working:

When the primary fuel U235 is fission by slow neutrons, it forms fission product and 3
neutrons. Out of the 3 neutrons, 1 is used for chain reaction. The remaining neutrons are absorbed
by U238. So, U238 is converted to Pu239, a fissile material. Here, Pu239 is called as secondary fuel.

Thus, for consumption of a single primary fuel U235, Breeder reactor produces two
secondary fuels. The extent of conversion is called conversion factor. Hence, for a breeder reactor,
the conversion factor is always more than one.
Conversion factor = Number of secondary fuel produced
Number of primary fuel consumed

In breeder reactor, we need only fast moving neutrons. If we use water as coolant, it will also act as
moderator and absorbs neutron or slows down the fast moving neutron. So, instead of water, in
breeder reactor we are using liquid sodium as coolant.

But accidental contact of Na and water in heat exchanger may cause explosion.

To avoid this, an intermediate heat exchanger of Na-K alloy must be used in between the Na heat
exchanger and water heat exchanger.

9
 Illustration of breeder reactor process

Diagram for Breeder reactor:

Drawbacks of breeder reactor:

1. The radioactivity of Pu-239 is more than U-235.
2. The coolant liquid Na causes explosion if it gets contact with moisture or water.

Comparison of Light Water Reactor and Breeder reactor

S. no Light Water Reactor Breeder Reactor
1 Fissile material like U235 are used as fuel Fertile material like U238 is used as fuel
2 Slow moving neutrons cause fission. Fast moving neutrons cause fission
During fission, no radioactive emission
3 During fission, gamma and beta emission occurs
occurs
4 Moderators are used to slow down neutrons Moderators are not used.
Liquid sodium is used as coolant as water would act
5 Water can be used as coolant
as moderator and slows down the fission
10
5.4 –A) SOLAR ENERGY
The energy available from sun is known as solar energy. Process of converting direct sunlight into
more useful forms is known as solar energy conversion. Solar energy conversion occurs by two
mechanisms.
1. Photo conversion - Conversion of light energy directly into electrical energy. (e.g) solar cell.
2. Thermal conversion – Conversion of absorbed IR radiation into other forms of energy.
(e.g.) solar water heater, solar heat collectors.

PHOTO CONVERSION SOLAR CELLS ( PHOTOGALVANIC CELLS)

Principle:
This solar cell is working on the principle of photovoltaic effect. Creating charge carriers
in a material by solar radiation is known as photovoltaic effect.
Working:
Solar cell is used to convert the solar energy directly into electrical energy. It is based on
photovoltaic effect. It is composed of coupling of one p-type semi conductor and one n-type semi
conductor. P-type semiconductor is Silicon doped with Boron is acting as p-type semiconductor,
and Si doped with Phosphorous is acting as n-type semiconductor.

When solar rays are falling on top layer of p conductor, the valence electrons are raised to
conduction band. They cross the p-n junction diode and enter n-type semi conductor. So, there is a
potential difference occur. As more rays fall, the difference increases and hence more current is
produced. As n and p type semi conductors are externally connected, for charge balancing, electrons
are flowing from n to p. Flow of electrons produces current.
Normally one solar cell is capable of producing around 0.7W. When large numbers of solar cells
are connected in series, it forms a solar battery.

11
Applications of solar energy:
1. Solar battery produces more electricity which is enough to run water pumps.

2. Solar cells are employed in Calculators, watches.

3. Solar cells are acting as non-polluting eco friendly energy source.
4. Solar cells are used to drive vehicles.
5. Solar cells made of silicon, are used as a source of electricity in space craft and satellites.
6. Solar cells are used for community lights in hilltop hamlets.
7. Solar cell is used in the process of lighting street lights.

Limitations of solar energy:

1. Panel angle should be constant.
2. Available only at sunny days.
3. Capital cost is high.
4. It produces only DC voltage.

THERMAL CONVERSION
Thermal conversion involves absorbing the thermal energy in the form of IR radiation.
(e.g 1) Solar heat collectors
Solar heat collectors consist of natural materials like stones, bricks or glass which can absorb
heat during the day time and release it slowly at night. In cold places, houses are kept in hot
condition using solar heat collectors. A flat plate collector is used for thermal conversion purpose.
It is a blackened surface covered with a clear glass or plastic sheet to prevent the escape of heat.

This system is connected to a heat exchanger and reservoir, used for future purposes. 12
(e.g 2) Solar water heater
This solar water heater is connected to a black painted insulator drum with glass lid which is
acting as a solar water heater. A copper coil is kept inside this drum. Water is fed through the coil,
which gets heated up and the hot water flows out to tanks.

5.4-B) WIND ENERGY

Wind is a form of moving or swirling air. Due to its motion, it acquires some kinetic energy which
can be used to produce different types of energy. This is called wind energy. The wind energy is
harnessed by making use of wind mills.
Wind mill:
It is a device used to convert wind energy into mechanical energy.
Sequence of energy conversion:

WIND KINETIC MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL

ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY

Construction and working of a wind mill:

S.
Component Functions
No.
1 Rotor blades Convert kinetic energy of wind to mechanical energy
For ease rotation of blades – It facilitates linear motion to circular
2 Rotor shaft and crank
motion.
3 Nacelle A protective box containing gear box and generator

4 Gear box & Generator Kinetic energy is converted and saved here.

5 Turn table To rotate the nacelle as per wind direction

6 Steel tower Used to withstand power generation equipment

7 Foundation Withstand strong wind – Supports overall height of blades

13
Wind mill is a simple machine working with the energy of wind. It consists of large propeller
blades whose crank is connected to a generator which converts the Kinetic energy into electrical
energy. When the speed of the wind is not less than 15km / hr, the striking of the wind over the
blades, make it rotating continuously. The rotational motion of the blade drives a number of
machines like water pump, flour mills and electric generators.
When a large number of mills are joined together, it is called a wind farm. They produce a
large amount of electricity. It is observed that during winter season and at lower altitude regions,
the yield of wind energy is more than summer and higher altitude regions.
Advantages of wind energy:
1. It is available as a renewable resource.
2. Pollution free
3. It is used for Lifting water from under ground
4. It is used for grinding cereals
5. It is used to move the sail boats in lakes, rivers and seas.
Disadvantages of wind energy:
1. Inconsistency of wind flow i.e. it is intermittent.
2. Large area consumption (For production of 1Mev energy 2 hectare space is needed)
3. High establishment and maintenance cost.
4. At times, wind farms are producing noise pollution.
5. Wind farms located on the migratory routes of birds will cause hazards.
6. Wind turbines interfere with electromagnetic signals like TV and radio signals.

DIAGRAM

14
 5.5) FUEL CELLS
1. Fuel cell is a voltaic cell which converts the chemical energy of the fuels directly into electricity
without combustion.
2. The fuel is oxidized to produce oxidized products and energy.
3. (Eg) Hydrogen – oxygen fuel cell, Methanol – oxygen fuel cell
4. The general reaction can be written as
Fuel + Oxidising agent  Oxidised product + Energy
5. In general, H2 is taken as fuel and O2 as oxidizer. So, the product is water.
2H2 + O2  2 H2O + 0.8 to 1 V of energy
This is called, H2 - O2 fuel cell.
6. Many fuel cells combine to form stack to produce mega watts.
Working of a fuel cell:
7. Cathode and Anode are made up of inert materials like graphite. To catalyse the electrode
reactions, graphite can be impregnated with platinum or palladium. These electrodes are
connected by a voltmeter. KOH is used as electrolyte.
8. H2 gas is bubbled at anode. It undergoes oxidation and loses electron.
9. O2 gas is bubbled at cathode. It undergoes reduction and gains electron.
10. H2 and O2 finally react together to form H2O.
Requirements of electrode:
1. Conductance
2. Good electron source or electron acceptors
3. Not to be reacted with electrolyte
4. Acting as a catalyst for the reaction
Diagram:

15
Details of Hydrogen – Oxygen fuel cell:

S. No. Description Example & Explanation

1 Anode Graphite impregnated with platinum

2 Cathode Graphite impregnated with platinum

3 Electrolytic solution 25% KOH or NaOH solution

4 Voltage per cell 0.8 – 1 V

5 Cell representation C, Pt // KOH / C, Pt

6 Anode reaction 2H2 + 4 OH-  4 H2O + 4 e-

7 Cathode reaction O2 + 4 e- + 2H2O  4 OH-

Net reaction during

8 2H2 + O2  2H2O + Energy (0.8 – 1V)
discharging

9 Recharging reaction 2H2O  2H2 + O2

a. No combustion – no heat loss

b. Used in space vehicles

c. Used in submarines

d. Used in military vehicles

e. Source for fresh water in Astronaut vehicles.

10 Advantages and uses
f. When compared with engine generator set of
severaltones weight, Fuel battery (for 15 days) in
space is only around 250 Kg.

g. pollution free

h. Efficiency is more than 75%

i) High initial cost

11 Disadvantages ii) High cost of pure Hydrogen fuel

iii) Explosive nature of Hydrogen.

16
5.6-A) BATTERIES - TYPES
Battery is the combination of electro chemical cells connected in series. It is used as a
source for DC (Direct Current).
Types of battery:
1) Primary battery (e.g) Dry cell, mercury cell
Non rechargeable and Non- reusable batteries are known as primary batteries. The electrode
reactions cannot be reversed by passing an external electrical energy.
2) Secondary battery (e.g) Pb-acid, Lithium batteries
The rechargeable and reusable batteries are known as secondary batteries. The electrode
reactions can be reversed by passing an external electrical energy.
3) Flow battery (or) Fuel cell. (e.g) H2 – O2 fuel cell, H2 – methanol fuel cell
In these cells, the reactants, products and electrolytes are continuously passing through the
cell. Here chemical energy gets converted into electrical energy.
Requirements for a battery:
1. Portability - The battery should be light and compact for easy transport
2. Long durability – It should have long life when it is being used and when it is not used.
3. Voltage consistency – The voltage of the battery should not vary appreciably during its use.

1. PRIMARY BATTERY - ALKALINE BATTERY

Alkaline battery is an improved form of a dry ell.
Description of alkaline battery:
Alkaline battery contains a zinc cylinder which acts as anode. This zinc cylinder is filled
with an electrolyte paste. The paste is made up of Zn, KOH and MnO 2, starch and water binders. A
carbon rod (graphite) cathode is immersed in the electrolyte. The zinc cylinder is having an outer
insulation of cardboard case.

17
 Details of alkaline Battery:

S.
Description Example & Explanation
No.

1 Anode Zn

2 Cathode Carbon rod

3 Electrolytic solution Paste of Zn + MnO2 + KOH , starch

4 Voltage per cell 1.5 V

5 Cell representation Zn // MnO2, KOH / C

6 Anode reaction Zn + 2OH-  Zn(OH)2 + 2e-

7 Cathode reaction 2 MnO2 + H2O + 2e-  Mn2O3 + 2OH-

8 Net reaction Zn + 2 MnO2 + H2O  Zn(OH)2 + Mn2O3

1. Zinc does not readily dissolve in basic medium

2. Longer life time than dry battery

Advantages of
9 alkaline battery over
3. Voltage consistency
dry battery
4. Used in calculators, watches, torch lights, transistor
radios

10 Disadvantages Not rechargeable

18
 2. SECONDARY BATTERIES
I. LEAD ACID STORAGE BATTERIES (OR) ACCUMULATOR

1. Battery is the combination of electro chemical cells connected in series. It is used as a source
for DC (Direct Current). The rechargeable and reusable batteries are known as secondary
batteries. The electrode reactions can be reversed by passing an external electrical energy.
2. Lead acid battery is a reproducible secondary battery. Initially it acts as electrochemical cell
to produce electrical energy. This is called discharging.
3. Afterwards, it acts as electrolytic cell where by passing current, it is recharged.
4. The cathodic and anodic plates are separated from the next one by insulators. (Nylon cloth).
5. The container is made up of polypropylene.
6. During the reaction, sulphuric acid is used up and hence its concentration is decreased from 1.3
g/ml to 1.2 g/ml.
7. Using a hydrometer, the density of sulphuric acid can be measured periodically.
8. The Pb and PbO2 plates are converted as PbSO4. So, battery needs recharging.
9. By passing current on opposite direction, the reaction is reversed and recharged.
10. Sometimes, an increase in viscosity at low temperature may cause break down of battery.
Itshould be warmed to room temperature to bring it back to working condition.

Diagram:

19
 Details of Lead acid Battery:

S. No. Description Example & Explanation

1 Anode Lead plates

Lead oxide strips (Cathode and anode are separated by

2 Cathode
nylon insulator)

38% H2SO4 (specific gravity of 1.3g/ml). It is taken in

3 Electrolytic solution
a polypropylene container.

2V ( Normally 3 to 6 voltaic cells are connected in series

4 Voltage per cell
to get 6 – 12 V battery)

5 Cell representation Pb/PbSO4 // H2SO4 / PbO2/PbSO4

6 Anode reaction Pb + SO42-  PbSO4 + 2e-

2- -
7 Cathode reaction PbO2 + 4H+ + SO4 + 2e  PbSO4 + 2H2O

Net reaction
8 Pb + PbO2 + 2 H2SO4  2 PbSO4 + 2H2O + 2V
during
discharging

9 Recharging reaction 2 PbSO4 + 2H2O  Pb + PbO2 + 2 H2SO4

1. Batteries with power of 50Ampere hour are used in

automobiles, vans, motorcycles for SLI (Starting,
Lighting and Ignition) operations.

2. Batteries with power of 1000 Ampere are used in gas

10 Advantages and uses engine ignition, hospitals, and telephone exchanges.

3. They are also used in computer UPS.

4. The self-discharging rate is low when compared to

other rechargeable batteries.
i) Large size and heavy weight
11 Disadvantages
ii) During waste disposal, Lead and sulphuric acid are
non eco-friendly.
20
 II. NICKEL CADMIUM CELL (OR) NICAD BATTERIES:

1. Battery is the combination of electro chemical cells connected in series. It is used as a source
for DC (Direct Current). Ni-Cd battery is a reproducible secondary battery.

2. Initially it acts as electrochemical cell to produce electrical energy. This is called discharging.

3. Afterwards, it acts as electrolytic cell where by passing current, it is recharged.

4. Two types: a) Pocket plate cells (10 - 1000 Ah) – They have long shelf life.
b) Sintered plate cells (50 - 500 Ah) – They have long cycle life.

5. Pocket plate model (Button model) -

i) Two Nickel coated long steel strips are taken. The bottom strips is
bent as a pocket. The pocket should be filled with active material.
ii) For anodic pockets, Cd(OH)2 + Fe + Ni + Graphite are taken.
iii) For cathodic pockets, Ni(OH)2 + Hydroxides of Ba, Co are taken.

7. The commonly used cells are of sintered type. Here, Cadmium is anode and a metal grip
containing a paste of NiO2 is acting as cathode. KOH is used as electrolyte.

21
Details of Nickel – Cadmium Battery: (Sintered type)

S. No. Description Example & Explanation

1 Anode Cd

2 Cathode NiO2

3 Electrolytic solution KOH

4 Voltage per cell 1.4V

5 Cell representation Cd/Cd(OH)2//KOH/NiO2/Ni(OH)2

6 Anode reaction Cd + 2OH-  Cd(OH)2

NiO2 + 2H2O + 2e-  Ni(OH)2+ 2OH

7 Cathode reaction

Net reaction
8 Cd + NiO2 + 2 H2O  Cd(OH)2 + Ni(OH)2 + 1.4V
during
discharging

9 Recharging reaction Cd(OH)2 + Ni(OH)2  Cd + NiO2 + 2 H2O

1. Smaller and lighter

2. Longer life time

3. Leak proof package

10 Advantages and uses 4. No gaseous product formation

5. Used in calculators, cordless appliances, watches

6. Used in laptops, digital cameras, pagers

7. Used in electronic trimmer, shavers, emergency lamps

1. More expensive.
11 Disadvantages 2. Toxicity due to Cd.
3. Overcharging of this battery causes explosion.

22
 III. LITHIUM BATTERY
Battery is the combination of electro chemical cells connected in series. It is used as a
source for DC (Direct Current). The rechargeable and reusable batteries are known as secondary
batteries. The electrode reactions can be reversed by passing an external electrical energy.
Lithium battery is a reproducible secondary battery. Initially it acts as electrochemical cell
to produce electrical energy. This is called discharging. Afterwards, it acts as electrolytic cell
where by passing current, it is recharged.
It is a solid state battery because all components are solids in this battery.
Construction:
The lithium ion battery consists of four important components.
(a) Cathode – TiO2
(b) Anode – Li
(c) Electrolyte – Polymer (Solid)

Working:
Discharging:
During discharging, Li+ ions flow from anode to cathode through the electrolyte. The electrons are
also flowing from anode to cathode through wire. The cathode is a material capable of receiving
electrons and Li+ ions.
At anode: Li Li+ + e-
At cathode: TiS2 + e- TiS2 -
Overall reaction: Li + TiS2 Li+ + TiS2 - LiTiS2
Recharging:
During recharging, Li+ ions flow back from the cathode to anode through the electrolyte.
The electrons also flow from the cathode to anode through the wire. The electrons and Li+ ions
combine at the anode and deposit there as Li.
At cathode: LiTiS2  Li+ + TiS2-

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Details of Lithium Battery:

S. No. Description Example & Explanation

1 Anode Li

2 Cathode TiS2

3 Electrolytic solution Polymer (Solid)

4 Cell representation Lithium // polymer / LiTiS2

5 Voltage per cell 3V

6 Anode reaction Li  Li+ + e-

7 Cathode reaction TiS2 + e-  TiS2-

Li / CoO2
Li / MnO2
Types of Lithium Li / MoO2
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batteries Li / V2O5
Li / Sulphur
LIB (Lithium Ion Battery)
i) It produces high voltage as 3V.
ii) As it is less weighted, only 7g is required to produce
1 mole ofelectrons.
iii) As it has high negative electrode potential, it
produces veryhigh voltage.
iv) It is available in different sizes and shapes.
9 Advantages and uses
v) It is leak proof.
vi) It can be used between the temperature range of 60 ˚C
to -40 ˚C
vii) It is used in cell phone, note PC, LCD TV,
semiconductor devices, audio systems, electric cars,
memory chips.

i) Lithium coating should be done with utmost care;

10 Disadvantages otherwise voltage production may be hindered.
ii) More expensive

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