Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

In the Philippines, like any other developing countries, waste disposal management has

become a crucial problem over the past decades. The rapid population growth, urbanization

and modernization are the major causes of these problems. According to Arpad Horvath [Link]

[1], “Construction must pay heed to the widespread social interest in environmental

preservation”. Construction is supposed to provide the infrastructure for the ever-developing

lifestyle of the world population. Concrete is frequently utilized as a material to construct

building structures such as column, beam and slab because of sustainability from carrying

large loads. It is one of the most important construction materials in the construction [2]. In

spite of that, concrete strength has limitation when it comes to extreme force exerted that may

lead to concrete failure. In pursuance of overcoming these challenges, identification of

numerous researches on discovery of using waste materials as aggregate has been made.

Eggshells are agricultural waste products produced by hen coops, fast food restaurants,

and households that can litter the environment and cause pollution or environmental problems

that need to be handled properly. The efficiency of putting eggshell to good use becomes a

concept worth embracing in the expanding efforts to turn waste into riches. According to

scientific knowledge, the eggshell is mostly made up of calcium compounds, which are quite

similar to the ingredients in cement. Eggshells contain about 2.2 grams of calcium in the form

of calcium carbonate, which is remarkably comparable to cement, according to the University

of Florida. According to published research, eggshell ash predominantly comprises lime,

calcium, and protein, making it a suitable alternative raw material for making concrete.

Eggshell makes a contribution to the building sector that can lower construction costs and

improve the durability and performance of concrete. As a result, eggshells can be

manufactured as a novel raw material for use in the development of conventional concrete as

an additive.

Furthermore, green mussel (Perna viridis) is a big bivalve with a smooth, elongated

shell that is locally known as tahong in the Philippines. Mussels are raised and cultivated for

their flesh. "Once the meat of green mussels are devoured," Musico [3] writes, "a significant

quantity of shell debris is created, which is generally thrown in landfills or burned." The tons

of solid trash created in the Philippines are largely due to green mussel shells. Solid waste

management was complicated by a scarcity of landfills and disposal places.". The mussel shell

industry in Bulacan is abundant in terms of production. Aquaculture industries are what mostly

occupies the land area while some came from coastal water, specifically in the municipality of

Hagonoy and Paombong, which has ideal ecosystem which has mangroves, corals, and sea

grasses as it is part of the coastal area of Manila Bay. The city is always badly hit whenever

there is a red tide. During a red tide season, thousands of dead seashells spread along the shore,

because green mussel and other mollusk shells are built up of layers of calcium carbonate

(CaCO3), a chemical substance with numerous applications, discarding these shells might be

squandering potential raw materials with multiple uses. Hence, this discarded agricultural

waste materials that are largely considered useless can be used as an additive to concrete

mixture because of its properties that may improve mechanical properties of concrete. These
materials give potential benefit on many levels, both for waste management and especially for

the construction industry.

The major problem that construction professionals are facing is the delays in the

construction due to several reasons. It has been proven that the incapability to finish projects in

time and within a given budget continues to be a persistent issue worldwide [4]. Some roots of

project delay are bad weather condition, tight-budget, unavailability of material, equipment

problems and curing period. Specifically, when it comes to road construction, these kinds of

delays must be addressed rapidly because every road is busy. This kind of delays leads to road

problems such as heavy traffic and increased possibilities of road accidents. [5] In line with

these problems, utilizing mussel shells and eggshells as part of concrete mixture for road

construction will not only speed up the curing duration as Yu Tan et. al stated that these shells

help produce higher early strength in concrete, but rather it can reduce the materials cost as

these shell wastes are free and abundant.

1.2. Significance of the Study

This study will be conducted to obtain significant information on which will produce

the highest compressive strength of concrete using egg shells and mussel shells and its

succeeding benefits to the community. All data that have been collected show significance and

beneficial to the following:

The outcome of this research shall benefit engineers and the construction industry by

giving them alternatives to traditional concrete as the study provides a new range of materials

to improve production of concrete. It also produces opportunities and innovative ideas to work
on, particularly at this time when so many new innovations are being introduced and

considered.

This study is valuable in repurposing eggshell and mussel shell waste for more

exceptional applications. It will minimize the issues of waste disposal of these raw materials

which are very abundant in our country. These eggshells are also considered as useless

agricultural waste and being disposed of as it highly contributes to pollution. Hence, the study

will also be beneficial in minimizing and reducing environmental problems like pollution.

This research will serve as a reference material for future researchers when it comes to

selecting this type of topic. The findings of this study provides useful data and information for

further studies regarding the topic.

1.3. Objectives

1.3.1. Main Objective

This study mainly aims to determine the best suitable proportion of eggshell and

mussel shell as a partial additive in concrete in terms of its physical and mechanical

properties.

1.3.2. Specific Objectives

 To determine the workability of the concrete with eggshell alone, with mussel

alone, and with the combination of both shells using the concrete slump test.

 To determine if the concrete with eggshell alone, with mussel alone, and with

the combination of both shells would attain a higher compressive strength compared to

ordinary concrete mix in accordance to ASTM C39.

  To determine the water absorption rate of concrete with eggshell alone, with

mussel alone, and with the combination of both shells as per procedures mentioned in

ASTM C1585.

1.4. Scope and Delimitations

The researchers will use crushed mussel shells and eggshells as partial additives in

concrete mixture. The goal of the study is to determine the effectiveness of mussel shell alone,

eggshells alone and with the combination of both shells as an admixture in concrete. This

research will use experimental research design where the independent variable will be crushed

mussel shells and eggshells. This study will mainly focus on testing the strength of the

concrete that is mixed with admixture. The ratio for the materials to be used for control sample

is [Link] for Cement, Sand, and Gravel with water to cement ratio of 0.4. And then the

percentages of additives that varies the amount of mussel shells and eggshells. The samples

with shell additives will be compared to the control sample. The researchers will use 3

different tests which are Water Absorption Test, Slump Test and Compressive Strength Test.

The curing period for the concrete will be from 7 and 28 to test its early strength and its

maximum strength.
1.5. Conceptual Framework

6
 Figure 1. Conceptual Framework

The paradigm shows that the study will be conducted to know the effects of

different concrete mixtures to the physical and mechanical properties of the concrete.

The study uses different concrete mixtures including the one with eggshell alone,

with mussel shell only and with combination of both egg shell and mussel shell to show

the effect of these aforementioned variables to the physical properties (like texture and

brittleness) and mechanical properties (such as compressive strength and water

absorption) of the concrete.

1.6. Definition of Terms

Compressive Strength - It is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand

forces and loads that reduce the size of the material. It is

tested in accordance with ASTM C39.

Economical - It is defined as using materials in the best possible way

7
 without wasting anything.

Egg Shell - It is the outer covering of an egg which is made almost

entirely of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) crystals. A

chemical compound that will serve as an additive in

concrete mixture.

Mussel Shell - (Pernaviridis). It is symmetrical in shape hinged together

to protect mussels and composed of calcium carbonate.

Water Absorption - It is the rate of water absorbed by a material. It is tested

in accordance with ASTM C1585 to determine the

percentage increase in weight of the material.

Slumptest - It is used to determine the workability of a concrete mixture

In accordance with ASTM C143.

8
 Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter discusses the material and the method that was used in the past studies.

These researches will be used as reference to conduct the research.

1.7. Eggshell

Eggshell is the hard, outer covering of an egg that protects and supports the internal soft

structures. Calcium carbonate makes up about 2.2 grams of calcium across most reasonably

priced eggshells in the market. Approximately 95% of 5.5 grams calcium carbonate makes up the

dry eggshell. The macro and micro nutrients that are found in eggshell are both 3% of

phosphorus and magnesium, traces of sodium, manganese, potassium, zinc, iron and copper [6].

According to Amu et. al, eggshell powder has a potential to be an alternative material for

lime used in construction industry because of the materials comparable chemical composition

[7]. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is an alternative to limestone, which can be found in eggshells.

Provened by various studies that 96-97% of CaCO3 are found in eggshells, with 3-4% organic

matter [8]. Calcite which is a refined and stronger form of CaCO3 are found in eggshells, while

in limestone impurities such as clay, sand, and other minerals are present.

9
1.7.1. Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)

In some of the earliest civilization of mankind, carbonate rocks containing

calcium carbonate (CaCO3) such as marble and limestone, have been long used as

construction materials [9]. Calcium Carbonates are important to the construction industry

worldwide, both as a limestone aggregate, building material, and as an ingredient in

various products. According to Abdullah et al. [10] various tests have been conducted

and concludes that there is an increase in slump with CaCO 3 replacement on concrete,

which improves the workability. The CaCO3 aids in increasing initial strength by havig an

accelerator effect and high rate of hydration, which causes a faster concrete solidification.

When compared to concrete without the CaCO 3, the concrete with CaCO3 has a weaker

strength at maturity, but is still within the required strength range.

1.7.2. Eggshell Ash

Studies have proven that the extra calcium oxide found in eggshell ash accelerates

cement bound materials. This would be beneficial for road construction in occurence

of the rainy season to reduce the time it takes for stabilized road pavements fully set.

Mtalib et al. said that there is a decrease in time for cement to set when eggshell is added

to an Ordinary Portland Cement [11]. Their findings shows that the eggshell ash is an

effective accelerator in a concrete, and that higher eggshell ash content (ESA), produces

greater the accelerating effect.

Furthermore, Okonwo et al. concludes that there is an increase in the strength of

cement stabilized matrix qualities by approximately 35% on average if the eggshell ash

content is increased. According to the finding, using eggshell as a concrete additive

10
 increases the strength [12]. As reported by Afolayan, addition of eggshell ash in concrete

mix has a significant increase in compressive strength with increase in curing ages of 7,

14, 21 and 28 days. This studies also concluded the optimum replacement level of

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) with eggshell is 10% [13].

In conclusion, previous research has shown that the egshells chemical properties

efficiently improves workability, compressive strength, and time to set. The objective of

this research is acceptable to prove the strength of the concrete affected by the addition of

eggshell.

1.8. Mussel Shell

Mussels are a type of shellfish that is widely used in seafood recipes and is distinguished

by its oblong shell form. It can be found all over the world such as in lakes, ponds, rivers, and

streams. The term "mussels" refers to clams that have these qualities. Mussel shells are usually

often asymmetrical or wedge shaped. Mussel shells are almost invariably asymmetrical or

wedge-shaped. Shells are typically longer than they are wide. The shells are dark in color, and on

the outside, it is usually blue or brown. Mussels' shells defend them from predators while also

supporting the soft tissue inside [14].

Mussel shell is one of the materials that contains calcium carbonate (CaCO3) that has a

composition of more than 90%, which is higher than the CaCO3 content of limestone, which is

only around 75%. In this matter, an initial experimentation shows that high content of calcium

carbonate from green mussel shells’chemical structure pragmatically equalled themcalcium

content in a common Portland cement and was closely similar to the limestone used to create

11
regular Portland cement. With 95.25%, 95.6%, and 95.7% by weight, calcium carbonate

(CaCO3) was discovered to most abundant chemical in green mussel shell [15].

1.8.1. Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)

Calcium carbonate contains filler properties which consist of fine particle sizes

compared to Portland cement. It is also being used to potentially improve the workability

of concrete and reduce the amount of water utilized. Because mussel shell contains filler

qualities due to higher CaCO3 content, it was believed that incorporating this between

cementitious products into concrete would minimize porosity and permeability. [16].

1.8.2. Crystalline Structure

The araganite and calcite in the green mussels crystalline structure contribute to

the green mussels higher strength and density than normal limestone. The exterior layer

of a seashell is formed of calcite, but the interior layer, referred to as nacre, contains

calcium carbonate.

In the study conducted by Yin et al, last [17], aragonite and calcite calcium

carbonate whiskers can also be utilized in cementitious composites as a microfiber and

filler. These impacts increased the microstructure of the cement paste, increasing its

flexural and compressive strength.

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 1.8.3. Mussel Shell Ash

Concrete strength increases when ashes generated from green mussel shell where

used as filler in the concrete pores. According to the research carry out by Ishmail et al,

last 2019, green mussel shells were combined to the concrete mixture at varying

percentages of 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4% after being dried, crushed, ground, and sieved. The

study focuses on the material characterization of mussel shell ash in terms of physical

qualities. The setting time analysis, specific gravity test, and particle size distribution

were used to determine the physical parameters of mussel shell ash. The workability of

the wet concrete was further confirmed by the slump test. [15].

The result of the study shows that the mussel shells’ high calcium carbonate

(CaCO3) content served as a filler within the pores of the cured concrete. Furthermore,

concrete specimens containing mussel shell ash (GMSA2) showed greater abrasion

resistance. When compared to the control specimens, the compressive strengths are

significantly higher. This study found that adding mussel shell ash to hardened concrete

increased the mechanical qualities of the concrete, in addition to supporting the

sustainability notion.

1.9. Concrete

13
 With cement, coarse and fine Aggregates, and water froms concrete. These concrete

components are categorized by the prescribed rate of mixing specification. It is vital primary

material used in construction. In concrete mixture, coarse and fine aggregates are inert materials,

while the active ingredients are cement and water. Consequently, producing quality concrete

requires proper study on the concrete mix specification. Concrete has a high compressive

properties, it is also an exceptional fire resistance material and has the ability to retain its form

for a long period of time. Utilizing high-strength concrete has imparted advantages such as

reducing the size of beams and columns [18].

1.9.1. Cement

Globally, the most commonly used for all general concrete construction is

Portland cement. Natural occurring rocks such as limestone containing calcium oxide

(CaO), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), and silica (SiO2) are the primary materials of a Portland

cement. In this study, the researchers uses Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) as primary

cement. According to ASTM C219-03, “Portland cement is defined as a hydraulic

cement produced by pulverizing portland-cement clinker, limestone, and usually

containing calcium sulfate” [19]. It is also stated in ASTM C150-12 that the limestone

used shall be naturally occurring of at least 70% by mass of one or more the mineral

forms of calcium carbonate [20]. When combined with water, the hydration process of

OPC causes solidification and improves strength gain. The quality of concrete generated

is determined by the raw materials quality being used, such as aggregate, cement and

water, including the means of mixing and methods of transporting its compactions. If the

raw materials utilized are of poor quality, then the resulting concrete will have poor

quality, resulting in concrete that is weak and does not meet their specification [21].
14
 A Portland cement clinker is a hydraulic material which shall consist of at least

two-thirds by mass of calcium silicates (3CaO.SiO2 and 2CaO.SiO2), the remainder

consisting of aluminum and iron containing clinker phases and other compounds [22].

Portland cement was created in the early nineteenth century from British cements (or,

more accurately, hydraulic limes), and the name came from its resemblance to Portland

stone, a type of building stone found on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England. In 1824,

a British bricklayer named Joseph Aspdin was granted a patent for a method of producing

Portland cement [23].

Mainly of alumina, iron oxide, and silica are the Primary raw materials used in the

manufacture of Portland cement consists. The composition of cement make up more than

90% oxide [24].

The qualities of raw materials used, such as aggregate, cement, water, its mixture,

and ways and means of transport are dependant variable of concrete quality being

produced. If the raw materials utilized are of poor quality, then the resulting concrete will

have poor quality, resulting in concrete that is weak and does not meet their specification.

1.9.2. Coarse Aggregates

Aggregates are vital granular materials that provide durability and strength to

concrete structures. The specific gravities of most aggregates are in the range of 2.6 to 2.7

[25]. Aggregates function is to improve wear resistance and dimensional stability.

Casting of large neat cement paste would virtually fail without the presence of any

aggregate. Coarse aggregates are particles with a diameter of more than 4.75 mm but

typically ranging from 9.5 mm to 37.5 mm. Aggregates might come from primary,
15
secondary, or repurposed materials, because aggregates make up around 75% of the

volume of concrete, their qualities have a significant impact on the concretes properties

as a result, aggregate selection is critical for the concrete mixture because it affects the

concretes workability [21].

Minerals that are improper or undesired in aggregates detects failure. In Simplier

word, coarse aggregate has a substantially higher compressive strength than a concrete

mixture. About 80MPa is the lowest coarse aggregate compressive strength ever

measured. This figure has the potential to reach 530 MPa Concretes strength will also be

affected by coarse aggregate surface texture such as smoothness features and the

introduction of foreign elements attached to it such as dry muck, soil, or organic stuff. A

rough texture on the surface when compared to a smooth texture will result in a stronger

rough connection. As a result, these qualities will be beneficial to make concrete with a

high strength [26].

1.9.3. Fine Aggregates

According to Chang et al., the importance of fine aggregates in concrete mixture

is to have a greater effect on the qualities of fresh concrete and hardened in high

performance concrete. The size of fine aggregate particles used by geologists ranges from

0.0625mm to 2mm which are referred to as gravel grain. It is followed by small stones

which the sizes range from 2mm to 64mm. These size specifications remained unchanged

for more than a century, until the 20th century when the Albert Atterbeerg standard used

to define fine aggregates with circumferences of 0.02mm. [27].

16
1.9.4. Demand on Concrete Mixture

According to a local news reported by Cahiles-Maglikat, from an industry

participant, cement consumption in the country is increasing despite lower costs since

large commercial projects have yet to begin [73]. There is a 12% expected growth in the

demand of cement in 2021 from a 10% decline in 2020 since the constructions in the

Philippines was postponed due to the pandemic [74]. Other countries’ demand in cement

has already increased. This would also put supply constraints on imports, resulting in

reduced volume importation overtime.

Given a number of previously halted infrastructure projects resuming under

President Rodrigo Duterte’s administration, demand for construction materials has hit a

record high. The wholesale price of building materials hit a five-year high in the fourth

quarter of 2017. According to data from PSA (Philippine Statistic Authority, the

construction materials wholesale price index (CMWPI) in the NCR alone increase by

4.7% in 2017. In the first quarter of 2018 concrete and aggregates which are sand and

gravel are one of the primary contributors to CMWPI growth, which are 5.2% and 2.3%

[74].

In summary, there is an increased in the demand of concrete mixture specifically

with cement and aggregates in construction industry, it is also expected to rise in the

future since everything is going back to normal. Hence, this study is relevant in the

construction industry, given the adundant resources from the raw shells.

17
1.10. Properties of Cement-Based Materials

Cement-Based materials are hydraulic binders; the chemical, mechanical, and physical

properties of the produced hard matrix will improve by hydration. The major component of

cement functions as a hydraulic binder, increasing the binding between shattered particles and

allowing them to be used in a variety of applications. [28] Cement-based materials are complex

systems with a variety of physical and mechanical properties that change over time. The slow

aging process in colloidal hydration products is responsible for this phenomena. [29].

1.10.1. Hydration Heat

The reactions that cause hydraulic cement pastes to solidify are exothermic,

meaning, they are accompanied by the liberation of heat. The hydration heat is a vital

element in mass concrete [30]. Mass concrete as any volume of concrete with large

enough dimention requires that measures must be taken in coping with generated heat

from cement hydration and the resulting volume changes to lessen the cracking. The rate

of cement solidification is accelerated by the release of hydration heat, which plays a

significant role in determining the setting time [31]

1.10.2. Setting Time

The transition of fresh concrete from initial liquid phase to final solid phase

identifies the setting of concrete time [32]. This phase change to plan transporting and

placing of concrete is vital to identify. ASTM C403 is the base of the current practice of

determining initial setting time of concrete. This test technique involves measuring

18
 penetration resistance on mortar sieved from the concrete mixture to determine the

duration of setting of concrete with a slump larger than zero [33].

1.10.3. Strength

The most essential attribute of cured cement is the strength. The rate at which

cement hardens is determined by the cements chemical and physical qualities, as well as

the curing circumstances and the water-cement ratio. The strength of the concrete is a key

parameter to measure and evaluate the safeness of the structure. Hardened concrete is

expected to be high-strength, resistant, and cost-effective. The basic factors that should

be considered in reinforced concrete buildings under earthquake impact are sufficient

rigidity, strength, and ductility. [34]. After earthquakes, the damage is mostly connected

to the concrete strength in reinforced concrete structures. As the structure's igidity

improves, so does the materials strength. [35].

1.11. Agricultural Waste

Agricultural waste is any waste produced from different agricultural activities that is

arising every year. It decomposes due to natural organic component decomposition mechanisms.

However, increased agricultural activity generates large amounts of trash, which surpass the

natural process' maximal capability. Improper agricultural activities can result in the

accumulation of pollution. According to Abdulrahman et al, adequate utilization of agricultural

waste reduces environmental problems caused by irresponsible disposal of the waste [36].

Excessive wastes are critical for humans, animals, and vegetations when its concentration is high

enough. Major gas pollutants from livestock and poultry production include ammonia, hydrogen

sulphide, methane, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, and other odorous gases [37]. To prevent such

19
environmental and health problems, proper agricultural waste management is important, and

utilization of waste is widely encouraged.

According to the Department of Agriculture, the Philippines is one of Southeast Asia’s

greatest agricultural countries, with a land area of 30 million hectares, 47 % of which is

agricultural land. The best agricultural fields are found near major cities and places with a high

population density. In 2018, a total of 28,573 hectares of agricultural land was distributed and

registered to qualified farmer-beneficiaries nationwide [38]. Before the pandemic happens, the

agricultural production increases by 0.5 percent in the second quarter of 2020 compared to the

second quarter of 2019 (Refer to Figure 2).

Q2 2020

Production in agriculture increases so thus its waste. Many agricultural wastes have been

described as beneficial feedstock in the manufacture of useful products, but it is not enough to

overcome the residue of waste. Usually, the excess agricultural waste which has no more use is

dumped in landfills and dumpsites. Some are treated by burning which is not economically

acceptable as it causes air pollution. Some are dumping it directly into creeks, rivers, and other

receiving water bodies which also resulted in the pollution of these surface waters. Meaning an

increase in in agricultural production, is an increase to pollution in both air and water. A study
20
conducted by the World Health Organization in 2018 said that the Philippines ranked number 3

in the world with air-pollution related deaths with 45.3 deaths for every 100,000 people behind

Mongolia’s 48.8 deaths per 100,000 people and China’s 81.5 pollution related-deaths. [39].

Using agricultural wastes into high-value goods is gaining traction, not just because it

decreases waste but also because it addresses severe environmental issues. This waste is readily

available and cheap so we must practice the 3R’s (reuse, reduce, and recycle) with an additional

R for research to achieve a sustainable and healthy environment, and established a zero-waste

country.

1.11.1. Egg shell waste

Eggshell is one of the most common forms of food waste coming from poultry

farms and food processing technologies. The production worldwide is 50,000 tons per

year [40]. With substantial underutilized volume, these eggshells are found as wastes in

households and hatchery of poultry industries. According to [41] Mignardi, S. et al.,

(2020), Global egg production will increase to about 90 million tons by 2030. With no

further use, these empty shells will be thrown away and wait until it decomposes. A

survey conducted by MacNeil, (2007) [7] showed that waste eggshells ended up as

fertilizers (27%), animal feeds (21%), municipal dumps (26%) and a wide variety of

limited applications (16%).

In the Philippine Statistics Authority 2021 [42] selected statistics on agriculture,

the data shows that the poultry production was down by -3.5% from 2019 to 2020.

Chicken and Duck recorded reductions in production while the production of eggs

increased by 3.8% Refer to Table 2).

21
 Table 1. Livestock and Poultry: Volume of Production by Type,

Philippines, 2016-2020

With a production of several tons per day, eggshell is mostly sent to the landfills

with a high management cost. It is economical to use the eggshell waste to new values. A

quarter of eggshell waste percentage going to dumpsites is still a large amount hence it

can be utilized as an additive in concrete mixture. Eggshells is basically consisting of two

parts: the eggshell itself, which is mainly of calcium carbonate and the other is eggshell

membrane, which is a proteinous structure. It will be a useful material in construction

industry because of its chemical component that mostly contains calcium carbonate

(CaCO3) which is proven to increase the workability of a concrete mixture. [10].

1.11.2. Mussel Shell waste

The Philippines are made up of 7,107 islands with a total land area of 299,764

square kilometers. Given that it is an archipelago country, marine life is abundandant

specifically mussels. Mussels shells are often discarded in the Philippines from homes,

restaurants, marketplaces, and along coastal areas such Manila Bay, Bulacan, Pampanga,
22
Cavite, Bataan, and other parts of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. [44]. With no further

use other than reproduction, empty mussels are just waste. In a study conducted by Cebu

and Orale in 2019 [45] green mussel farmers from Samar, Philippines practices mussel

shells disposal by burning it and disposing back to the water along coastal zone and

shores. These practices are considered to be improper way of disposing waste formulated

by the government law RA 9003 or the Ecological Solid Waste Management act of 2000.

In the Philippine Statistics Authority (2021), fisheries statistics of the Philippines

from 2018-2020, [46] the data shows that the fisheries production in all sectors are stable

in volume. But breaking it down to aquacultures, the production of mussels from 2019 to

2020 decreases a value of -24.36%.

Table 2. Volume of Fisheries Production by Sector, Philippines 2018-2020

Given the fact that the volume of production of mussels decreased, it will be

certain that these mussel shell waste will increase in volume. Hence, over supply of

mussel shell waste can be utilized to be an additive in concrete mixture. As mussel shells

contains calcium carbonate (CaCO3) that has a composition of more than 90%, higher

than the CaCO3 content of limestone, which is only around 75% (Ismail et al 2019) [15].

23
 Utilizing it will not only reduce the volume of waste, but also help to protect the marine

life and the environment against pollution.

1.12. Eggshell as Partial Replacement for Ordinary Portland Cement

In most parts of the globe, eggshell is rarely utilized as a stabilizing material. However,

according to Amu and Salami [47] During roadwork, common salt in eggshell was employed to

strengthen lateritic soil in the subgrade. Furthermore, despite a modest binding characteristics,

eggshell powder greatly increased the subgrade soil's strength. After the Atterberg's limit test and

the assessment of engineering parameters of each sample, stabilizing material was added to each

soil sample in various percentages of 2 %, 4 %, 6 %, and 8 % of the soil by weight of eggshell.

[48].

Furthermore, Yu Tan et. Al [49] investigates eggshell as partial replacement for concrete.

The percentages of eggshell powder substitution were 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%, respectively, by

volume. After 24 hours, all of the concrete cubes were demolded and subjected to water and air

curing. The compressive and flexural strengths of water-cured eggshell concrete are found to be

6-7% and 3-2% greater, respectively, than those of air-cured eggshell concrete. The hydration of

the eggshell concrete was expedited, resulting in better early strength. Eggshell concrete,

according to this study, is appropriate for use in pre-cast industries due to its high early strength.

Because eggshell concrete has a high early strength, it can speed up the construction process by

requiring less time for strength development. However, there study also found out that the

durability of concrete mix decreased, hence it is not recommended to use eggshell concrete in

strong acid or sulfate environment. Additionally, Pliya et al. [50] investigate the effect of

eggshells, which are used as a replacement for OPC, and concluded that it decreases the

compression and flexural strength of the concrete. It appears that the eggshell particles have an
24
irregular morphology due to the grinding process utilized in the study. The strength of the

mortars was greatly affected by the addition of various limestone materials.

1.12.1. Workability

The amount of beneficial internal labor required to achieve complete compaction

can be characterized as concrete's workability. Workability is defined by consistency,

mobility, and compactness. Workability is influenced by factors such as component

materials and ambient conditions. [51]. Effects of ESP on the workability of concrete is

also investigated, The increased water absorption of eggshell powder, according to Jhatial

et al. [52], has a direct impact on workability. Fine materials absorb a large quantities of

water while mixing, reducing the mix's workability, but coarser materials does not absorb

nearly as much water, resulting in a large drop in workability [53]. The use of fine

CaCO3 as a filler can speed up the hydration of cement, especially tri-calcium silicate

(C3S), which is the main component of cement and serves as a nucleation site for the

hydration products to form [54].

1.12.2. Compressive Strength

Compressive Strength of concrete are vital properties of concrete, it is the

capacity of material to withstand axially directed pushing forces. Ujin et. Al [54]

concluded that the use eggshell ash as a partially cement replacement in the concrete mix

in this study affected significantly to the strength development of concrete. The addition

of eggshells ash in concrete mix increased the strength at 3, 7, and 28 days of curing

with0.47, 0.55 and 0.70 water cement ratio which the strength of the concrete with 1%

25
 and 2.5% of eggshells ash is higher than the 0% of eggshells ash. Shown on the graph as

follows [54]:

In addition, another study discovered that the fineness of eggshell powder had a

substantial impact on concrete compressive strength. The compressive strength growth

was better with the 50-micron eggshell powder over the curing period. However,

regardless of the fineness of the eggshell powder, the optimal cement replacement was

found to be 10%, which resulted in the highest compressive strength. Increased cement

substitution led to a reduction in compressive strength. [51,54].

1.13. Decomposition of Egg Shell and Mussel Shell

Decomposition, or the breakdown of raw organic materials into finished compost, is a

slow and complex process that requires both chemical and biological processes. Also,

decomposition (stabilization) of organic materials by biological activity has occurred in nature

from the beginning of life on our planet. Man has recently sought to guide and manage the

26
process of sanitary recycling and recovery of organic waste materials. This technique can

transform otherwise discarded organic resources like vegetable debris, animal manure, and other

organic trash into a more stable form for use as a soil supplement [55].

1.13.1. Eggshell

It takes more than three years for eggshells to decompose. The exterior shell of an

eggshell was found unbroken after a year underground in an eggshell breakdown

investigation. There are no symptoms of breakdown after three years in the soil on the

same. The shell in a container looked exactly the same. It demonstrates that eggshells

take an unusually long time to disintegrate. The sole exception is that under certain

conditions, eggshells can degrade in a fair amount of time. While adding an acidic soil

foundation, grind eggshells into fine bits. You can speed up the breakdown process by

doing so. In either soil or compost, eggshells are quite stable. They can break down a

little faster than normal with a little help (water and acidic soil) [56].

1.13.2. Mussel Shell

The deterioration of bivalve shells has ecological implications because other creatures

use the wasted shells to create habitat. Smaller creatures may live in the shell, which is

especially useful in soft sediments. In both lentic and lotic environments, shells play a vital

role in CO2 and Ca2+ cycling. Despite its importance in freshwater systems, shell

deterioration is a subject that is seldom investigated. CaCO3 concentrations vary greatly in

freshwater habitats, hence bivalve mortality assemblage shell degradation is very varied.

Shell degradation rates in freshwater environments have been found to be highly dependent

on water chemistry, flow, and species of varying size and composition [57].

27
 Mussels have been collecting and storing mussel shells for centuries. Shells of conserved

museum specimens can also serve as some of the sole records of a rare or extinct animal's

existence, including vital genetic information. Malacologists and field biologists used to rely

only on morphological shell traits for both identification and occurrence data until recent

advances in sequencing technology and molecular biology. Freshwater mussels' shells are

generated by an accretionary development process, which keeps this protective outer-

covering present and expanding throughout the animal's existence [58].

1.14. Road Construction in the Philippines

The Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) is the responsible for the

construction of national roads. The Philippines road system is comprised of hundreds of

thousands of kilometers of roads. The vast majority of which are classified as local roads and fall

under the jurisdiction of a variety of local government units. National roads fall under the

jurisdiction of the DPWH, which account for around 15-20% of all roadways. According to

Oxford Business Group, [59] 32,526.5 km of national roads in the system at the end of 2014,

34% (11,057 km) were assessed as being in “good condition” and 31% (10,232 km) classified as

in “fair condition”. According to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation

Officials' 1993 "Guide for Design of Pavement Structures" and the Department of Public Works

and Highways' "Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards for Public Works and Highways," the

pavement design era must be 20 years before rehabilitation is performed. [60] The rehabilitation

or maintenance in roads consist of pavement patching and repair (including repair of potholes

and crack sealing), spot re-gravelling & reshaping on unpaved roads and grading in unpaved

roads. The two most common materials used for pavement construction are asphalt and cement

concrete which is often reinforced with steel. The duration for primary road projects in urban

28
areas ranges from 18 calendar days up to 365 days depending on the budget of the project. (Refer

to the figure below) [61]:

Table 3. Standard Duration for DPWH Critical Road Projects in Urban Areas (Primary
Roads/Main Throughfare)

1.14.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of using Concrete Pavements

Concrete is capable of withstanding heavy loads, such as heavy vehicles, with less

deformation. It serves for years with minimal maintenance. These attributes are becoming

increasingly important in high-traffic, heavy-truck areas, where delays are costly, and a

smooth ride is expected. [62] A study conducted at Michigan State University’s

Pavement Research Center for Excellence showed concrete interstates lasted nearly twice

if asphalt counterparts. Concrete, on average, had a life of 24.2 years, while asphalt had

an average lifespan of 12.4 years. Also, concretes’ rigid surface provides safer traction

and fewer potholes to help prevent accidents and injuries. But the disadvantage of using

concrete pavements is the initial cost of concrete in roads is high and it requires a long

time for curing which cannot be opened to traffic earlier which cause delays and traffic in

everyday life. [63] That is why, with the utilization of mussel shell and eggshell wastes,
29
 reduces working days of road construction which helps to resume the daily travel earlier

and to ensure the safety of the people who uses the road.

1.15. Mussel Shell as Partial Replacement for Concrete

Seashells should be able to boost the strength of concrete or at the very least match the

strength of standard concrete. The calcium carbonate composition in mussel shell is particularly

high, at 90%. (CaCO3). In contrast to the calcium concentration of limestone, it only comprises

75 % calcium carbonate if required (CaCO3). The fishing business may produce more than a

million tons of garbage every year, making it the world's most serious problem. [64,65].

Utilizing mussel shell as partial replacement of concrete is significant to reduce the effects in the

environment of these major problems.

The impacts of Fly ash and Powdered Green Mussel Shells for masonry blocks were

researched by Lejano et al. [66], and it was discovered that partial cement substitution with Fly

Ash (FA) or Mussel Shells (MS) increased the compressive strength of CHB. MS was shown to

be more successful at 10% cement substitution, whilst FA was found to be more effective at 30%

[66]. Furthermore, another study found that the ideal percentage for sea shell is 5% partial fine

aggregate combination and 2-6 percent partial cement mixture for mussel shell. The study

concluded, however, that the smaller the amount of seashells in the combination, the higher the

concrete strength of the mixture [67].

Concrete containing Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) and Mussel Shell

Ash had better compressive strength than control concrete after 90 days, according to Hamid et

al. [68]. The best combination of 40% GGBS and 5% MSA for partial cement substitution is

40% GGBS and 5% MSA. Due of the difference in specific gravity between GGBS and OPC,

30
the concrete has a lower density. As a result, replacing cement with alternative building materials

such as GGBS and MSA can improve concrete performance while also lowering carbon

emissions, resulting in a more sustainable construction sector [68].

Furthermore, Based on its chemical and mechanical properties, Binag concluded that

mussel and oyster shell ash cement can be used as a substitute for Portland cement in the

production of locally-based masonry cement mortar and bricks for the community at a mix ratio

of 5%, 10%, and 15% mussel or oyster shell ash cement to 95 percent, 90 percent, and 85 percent

Portland cement, respectively. These past studies inferred that the utilization of Mussel Shells as

partial replacement for cement has a significant effect in the compressive strength of concrete

[69]. Hapinat et al. added that concrete hollow blocks containing discarded oyster shells, glasses

and plastics are highly resistant to water, increases the compressive strength of the concrete

material. In terms of durability and compressive strength, powdered oyster shells, plastics, and

glasses are efficient composite materials for creating concrete hollow blocks [70].

In summary, addition of powdered seashells, specifically mussel shells are effectively

increased the compressive strength of concrete. Likewise, local governments with abundant

source of shells can utilized this waste to lessen our problems in solid waste; conserving ecology;

save our mountains from excessive quarrying of sand and cement production and to lower the

material production cost. Utilization of these materials could provide alternative livelihood to our

local people.

1.16. Synthesis of Literature

31
 Synthesis is the composition in an effort to shape an entire usage of Mussel Shell and

Eggshell as partial additive in concrete mixture. The researcher will connect or summarize the

review of related literature that they gathered that might help the study.

According to the first author that the review of literature has Amu et. al [7] Eggshell

powder has been shown to be a great alternative for commercial lime due to their chemical

similarities. Studies proved that eggshells incorporate 96–97% of CaCO3, wherein 3–4% is

natural matter. Eggshells have a natural and greater solid shape of CaCO3 known as calcite,

while limestone can also additionally incorporate impurities inclusive of sand, clay, and different

minerals. But, According to Abdullah et al. [10] the concrete containing CaCO3 as an alternative

has a superior slump, which improves workability. CaCO3 increases early strength due to the

accelerator effect and high rate of hydration, which causes the concrete to solidify faster. Mtalib

et al. [11] claimed that adding eggshell ash to Ordinary Portland Cement reduces the time it takes

to place the cement. Their findings show that eggshell ash is an excellent concrete accelerator, in

addition they proved that the better eggshell ash content (ESA), the extra the accelerating effect.

Afolayan [13] addition of eggshell ash in concrete blend has a big growth in compressive

electricity with growth in curing a while of 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. This research additionally

concluded the choicest substitute stage of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) with eggshell is

10%. Also, Mussel shell is one of the substances that consists of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) that

has a composition of greater than 90%, that is better than the CaCO3 content material of

limestone, that is handiest round 75%. In this regard, an initial research found that excessive

calcium carbonate content material within side the chemical composition of inexperienced

mussel shells almost matched the calcium content material in everyday Portland cement and

changed into almost akin to the limestone used to make Portland cement. We can also connect,

32
Calcium carbonate contains filler properties that accommodates tiny particle sizes compared to

Portland cement. It is conjointly being employed to doubtless improve the workability of

concrete and scale back the quantity of water utilized. Yin et al, last [15], claims that mineral and

spar carbonate whiskers also can be utilized in building material composites as a microfiber and

filler. These impacts multiplied the microstructure of the cement paste, increasing its flexural and

compressive strength.

According to the observe carried out through Ishmail et al, remaining 2019,

inexperienced mussel shells have been brought to the concrete blend at various probabilities of

one percentage, 2 percentage, three percentage, and four percentage after being dried, crushed,

ground, and sieved. The observe specializes in the cloth characterization of mussel shell ash in

phrases of bodily characteristics. The end result of the observe suggests that the mussel shell's

excessive calcium carbonate (CaCO3) content material served as a filler in the pores of the cured

concrete. This observe observed that including mussel shell ash to hardened concrete accelerated

the mechanical characteristics of the concrete, further to helping the sustainability notion. It is

likewise emphasizes that, concrete is a combination of cement, coarse and exceptional

Aggregates, and water. These substances are categorized in line with the prescribed blending

price specification. Concrete has an excessive compressive properties, it's also an extraordinary

hearthplace resistance fabric and has the cap potential to keep its shape for a protracted length of

time. Utilizing excessive-electricity concrete has imparted blessings inclusive of lowering the

scale of beams and columns.

ASTM C219-03 [19], Portland cement is described as a hydraulic cement produced with

the aid of using pulverizing portland-cement clinker, limestone, and generally containing

calcium sulfate. Portland cement is the maximum normally used for all standard concrete
33
construction. Natural rocks which includes limestone containing calcium oxide (CaO), aluminum

oxide (Al2O3), and silica (SiO2) are the number one substances of a Portland cement. In this

study, the researchers makes use of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) as number one cement.

Quality of concrete produced relies upon at the exceptional of the uncooked fabric used, which

includes cements, mixture and water, the mixture, ways, and way of shipping its compactions.

We additionally insists that aggregates are essential granular substances that offer sturdiness and

energy to concrete structures. The precise gravities of maximum aggregates are withinside the

variety of 2.6 to 2.7. In addition, coarse combination has a drastically better compressive energy

than a concrete mixture. About 80MPa is the bottom coarse combination compressive energy

ever measured. Chang et al. [27], claims the significance of satisfactory aggregates in concrete

aggregate is to have a extra impact at the features of sparkling concrete and hardened in

excessive overall performance concrete. The length of satisfactory combination debris utilized by

geologists tiers from 0.0625mm to 2mm which might be known as gravel grain. These length

specs remained unchanged for greater than a century, till the 20th century whilst the Albert

Atterbeerg popular used to outline satisfactory aggregates with circumferences of 0.02mm.

We also show that cement-based compounds are hydraulic binders, meaning that

hydration enhances the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of the resulting tough

matrix. The main component of cement functions as a hydraulic binder, which strengthens the

binding between the two materials. Cement-primarily based totally substances are complicated

structures which have temporary bodily and mechanical homes. This phenomenon is associated

with the gradual growing old system in colloidal hydration products. This hydration warmth is

also important in bulk concrete [30]. Any amount of concrete with dimensions large enough to

necessitate methods to cope with the generation of heat from hydration of the cement and the

34
resulting quantity alternate to limit cracking is referred to as mass concrete. Furthermore, the

transition of sparkling concrete from liquid to stable section is called as concrete pouring. This

check technique covers the dedication of the time of putting of concrete, with droop more than

zero, through penetration resistance measurements on mortar sieved from the concrete mixture.

Also, the energy of hardened cement is its maximum critical property. The energy of the

concrete is a key parameter to degree and compare the safeness of the structure. Hardened

concrete is expected to be high-energy, robust, and cost-effective. The main principles that must

be addressed inside the strengthened concrete dwellings under the influence of earthquakes are

sufficient stiffness, energy, and ductility.

Abdulrahman et al, [36] usage of agricultural waste reduces environmental issues as a

result of irresponsible disposal of the waste. Agricultural waste is any waste constituted of

exclusive agricultural sports this is bobbing up each year. It decomposes via the assist of herbal

techniques concerning natural compounds. Excessive wastes are essential for humans, animals,

and vegetations whilst its attention is excessive enough. Major fueloline pollution from cattle and

fowl manufacturing consist of ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, methane, nitrous oxide, carbon

dioxide, and different odorous gases. The Philippines, according to the Department of

Agriculture, is one of Southeast Asia's most significant agricultural nations, having 30 million

hectares of land, 47% of which is used for agriculture. The best agricultural land is spotted near

major cities and densely populated areas. A total of 28,573 hectares of agricultural land were

distributed and registered to verified farmer-beneficiaries across the country in 2018. A look at

performed via way of means of the World Health Organization in 2018 stated that the

Philippines ranked variety three withinside the international with air-pollutants associated deaths

35
with 45.3 deaths for each 100,000 humans at the back of Mongolia’s 48.8 deaths according to

100,000 humans and China’s 81.5 pollutants associated-deaths.

Eggshell is one of the maximum not unusual place varieties of meals waste coming from

chicken farms and meals processing technologies. According to Mignardi, S. et al. [41], Global

egg manufacturing will boom to approximately ninety million heaps via way of means of 2030.

With no in addition use, those empty shells might be thrown away and wait till it decomposes.

There is also a survey performed via way of means of MacNeil [42] revealed that discarded

eggshells were used as fertilizers (27%), animal feeds (21%), municipal dumps (26%), and a

variety of other restricted purposes (16 percent ). Philippine Statistics Authority 2021 decided on

facts on agriculture, the records indicates that the chicken manufacturing become down via way

of means of -3.5% from 2019 to 2020. Eggshells is largely including parts: the eggshell itself,

that's in particular of calcium carbonate and the alternative is eggshell membrane, that's a

proteinous structure. It might be a beneficial fabric in creation enterprise due to its chemical

thing that typically consists of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) that is confirmed to boom the

workability of a concrete mixture.

Mussels shells are commonly discarded in the Philippines from homes, restaurants,

marketplaces, and along coastal regions such as Manila Bay, Bulacan, Pampanga, Cavite,

Bataan, and various parts of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. These practices are taken into

consideration to be wrong manner of disposing waste formulated via way of means of the

authorities regulation RA 9003 or the Ecological Solid Waste Management act of 2000.

According to the Philippine Statistics Authority [43], fisheries facts of the Philippines from

2018-2020, the information suggests that the fisheries manufacturing in all sectors are solid in

extent. But breaking it right all the way down to aquacultures, the manufacturing of mussels
36
from 2019 to 2020 decreases a fee of -24.36%. Nonetheless, over deliver of mussel shell waste

may be applied to be an additive in concrete mixture. As mussel shells consists of calcium

carbonate (CaCO3) that has a composition greater than 90%, better than the CaCO3 content

material of limestone, which is handiest round 75% [15]. Utilizing it will now no longer handiest

lessen waste extent, however additionally assist to shield the marine existence and the

surroundings in opposition to pollution.

Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY

1.17. Research Method and Design

This study utilized an experimental method of research. In this method, the researchers

manipulated the independent variables which are the amount of mussel shell and eggshell as

partial additive in concrete. The method was appropriate since this study aims to determine the

effect of the concrete mix (1) concrete with eggshell (2) concrete with mussel shell and (3)

concrete with both materials to the quality and strength of the concrete.

37
1.18. Materials

The concrete in this study was composed of four common ingredients: cement, water,

coarse aggregates, and fine aggregates along with the partial additive of it using Eggshells and

Mussel Shells.

1.18.1. Preliminary Gathering of Eggshells and Mussel Shells

The eggshells will be gathered from the from poultry farms, food processing

technologies and in the market. The eggshells are washed with running water, avoiding

soaking them to eliminate any trace of impurity and then dried. The next step would be

crushing the shells using a Los Angeles machine. The dehydration process will be

executed in an oven at 110 ° C ± 5 ° C for 24 hours. Lastly, the shells will be grinded

again into powder using a blender and sieved using No. 4 sieve.

The type of mussel shells that will be gathered are the green ones which are also

known as Perna Viridis from the town of Hagonoy and Paombong. First, the mussel

shells will be washed with running water to eliminate any trace of impurity and then

dried. The next step would be crushing the shells using a Los Angeles machine. The

dehydration process will be executed in an oven at 110 ° C ± 5 ° C for 24 hours. Lastly,

the shells will be grinded again into powder using a blender and sieved using No. 4 sieve

[71]

1.18.2. Gathering of Other Concrete Materials

These are the materials of concrete mixtures that is used in the study:

[Link]. Aggregates

38
 Figure 4. Sieve Analysis Particle Size

Distribution

Aggregates are classified according to their particle size. The aggregates

that are passing the No. 4 sieve or 4.75mm sieve were noted as fine aggregate.

The particles retained on this sieve are designated as coarse aggregate. Sand is

most used for its purpose as a fine aggregate in cement concrete mixtures. In this

study, the researchers uses coarse aggregates that is retained on No. 3/4 sieve or

19mm and fine aggregates that passes through No. 4 sieve. The type of sand that

used on the design mix was screened sand. The fine aggregates are clean, durable,

and free from injurious amounts of dust, clay, flaky particles, alkali, organic

materials, and other deleterious matter.

[Link]. Cement

The cement type that was used in the design mix was Ordinary Portland

Cement (Type 1), the most common type of cement that is used. Ordinary

Portland cement is the binding material used in concrete. Cement is the highest
39
 priced material per unit weight of concrete; so, to neutralize this, fine aggregates

are mixed in such proportions so that it would be workable and has minimum

cement for desired quality.

[Link]. Water

The water used in the concrete serves two purposes; it combines with the

cement to form a paste and it lubricates the aggregates to form a plastic and

workable mass. The amount of water that used in this study depends on the design

mix of the samples. The water that will be used for mixing and curing should be

potable, clean, and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, salts, sugar,

and organic material.

1.19. Apparatus and Equipment

The apparatus and equipment that will be used are Los Angeles Machine, Universal

Testing Machine (UTM), blender, concrete molder, mechanical sieve shaker, sieve set, pallet,

slump cone set, oven, hot plates, mixing apparatus, water bath, weighing balance wherein some

of this equipment are available in FEU-FIT Materials Laboratory

1.20. Preparation of Samples

40
 Figure 5. Flowchart of Experimentation

All procedures are based on ASTM/AASHTO standards to have uniform and proper way

of testing samples. All apparatus and equipment are specified in Chapter 3.3. The primary

materials to be prepared are water, sand, cement, gravel and the additive fine aggregates

Eggshells and Mussel Shells. Crushed using Los Angeles Machine and blender.

After pulverizing the shells, it will be sieved along along with the coarse and fine aggregates and

will only use the particles which pass through No. 4 sieve and retained at N0. 3/4 sieve. After

obtaining the significant particles, all materials are now ready for mixing. First mix is the control

sample with W/C ratio of 0.4, and a [Link] ratio for Cement, Sand and Gravel. Second Mixture is

with the same amount as control sample but with additive of 5% and 10% of Mussel Shell. Third

Mixture is with the same amount as control sample but with additive of 5% and10% of Egg

Shell. And the last mixture will be the combination of both shells with 2.5% and 5% of each

shell added to the concrete mixture.

After the machine mixing, the researchers proceeds to the next ASTM standard test

which is the slump test (ASTM C143). This test is necessary to determine the workability of the
41
concrete mixture and tells how fluid the concrete will be. The researchers will stick to a

minimum slump of 4 inch or 100mm. If the slump test does not reach the minimum required

slump, the researchers will review and revise particle percentages and proceed again for testing.

After the good slump is achieved, the concrete mixture is now ready for molding, curing

and drying. For drying it is required to store the concrete only at a room temperature with a

minimum of 7 days and a maximum of 28 days.

After drying, the last test will be for testing the compressive strength of the concrete

using Universal Testing Machine (UTM) in accordance with ASTM C39 (Concrete Cylinder

Compression Testing) which is only limited to concrete having a unit weight in excess of 50

lb/ft3 (800 kg/m3). If the test does not reach the typical compressive strength, the researchers

will dry the sample for a few more days or review and revise particle percentages and proceed

again for testing. If the required strength does meet, then it is ready for the last test which is the

Water Absorption Test. It will be used to determine the water-tightness of the concrete. To

acquire the most accurate results, the concrete samples that have been cured for 28 days are

tested rather than the early stages of curing as per procedures mentioned in ASTM C1585. If

water absorption rate is good enough, then researchers have their finished product and will be

ready for results and conclusion.

1.20.1. Water Cement Ratio

Table 4. Minimum Cement Content, Maximum Water-Cement Ratio and Minimum

Grade of Concrete for Different Exposures with Normal Weight aggregates of
20mm Nominal Maximum Size
(Clauses 6.1.2, [Link] and 9.1.2)

42
Table 5. Maximum Water-Cementitious Material Ratios and Minimum
Design Strengths for Various Exposure Conditions.

43
 The Water Cement Ration is the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of

cement added to concrete. The w/c ratio directly affects the strength of the concrete

mix. The typical water cement ratio for different grades of concrete varies

between 0.40 to 0.60. [72].

1.20.2. Curing Period

Table 6. Schedule of Sample

44
 W/C Ratio: 0.40 CURING PERIOD

Cement, Sand, Gravel,

7 Days 28 Days
Additives Ratio

CONTROL SAMPLE SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 1

MS 0% + ES 0% SAMPLE 2 SAMPLE 2
SAMPLE 3 SAMPLE 3
[Link]
SAMPLE 4

SAMPLE 1
SAMPLE 1
CS + MS 5% SAMPLE 2
SAMPLE 2
SAMPLE 3
[Link].05 SAMPLE 3
SAMPLE 4

SAMPLE 1
SAMPLE 1
CS + MS 10% SAMPLE 2
SAMPLE 2
SAMPLE 3
[Link].1 SAMPLE 3
SAMPLE 4

CS + ES 5% SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 1
[Link].05 SAMPLE 2 SAMPLE 2
SAMPLE 3 SAMPLE 3

SAMPLE 4

CS + ES 10% SAMPLE 1
SAMPLE 1
[Link].1 SAMPLE 2
SAMPLE 2
SAMPLE 3
SAMPLE 3
SAMPLE 4

CS + MS 2.5% + ES 2.5% SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 1

[Link].025:0.025 SAMPLE 2 SAMPLE 2
SAMPLE 3 SAMPLE 3

SAMPLE 4

CS + MS 5% + ES 5% SAMPLE 1
SAMPLE 1
45
[Link].05:0.05 SAMPLE 2
SAMPLE 2
SAMPLE 3
SAMPLE 3
SAMPLE 4
 Each sample with the same design mix will be cured at 7 and 28 days. Every

curing time, samples are tested to determine the changes in its properties. Three sets of

samples are made for the control sample and each specific percentage of ES (eggshell)

and MS (mussel shell) for the 7-days period curing time. The samples 1, 2, and 3 will be

allotted for the compressive strength test of the concrete. Furthermore, four sets of

samples are made for the 28-days period so that sample 4 will be allotted for the water

absorption test. These amount samples were based from previous studies conducted by

Binag and Hapinat.

1.20.3. Amount of Materials in the Concrete Design Mix

Figure 6. Sample Concrete Mixing with Varying Percentages of Additive

Mixtures

Cement, sand, gravel and water together with Eggshell (ES) and Mussel Shell

(MS) will be mixed together with a water to cement ratio of 40%. ES and MS will serve

as a partial additive with varying percentages. Specifically, a proportion of [Link] for

Cement, sand, and gravel plus the percentages of ES and MS that is 5% and 10% for

mussel shell and eggshell alone and 2.5% and 5% for both mussel shell and eggshell
46
 respectively for the concrete design mix. Amount of materials will be calculated and

specified in terms of volumetric method upon the execution of the actual experiment of

this study.

1.21. Tests

1.21.1. Physical Property

[Link]. Concrete Slump Test

A slump cone will be used to determine the workability of the various

samples of concrete mix. It measures the consistency of a concrete batch to see

how easily the concrete will flow. It also identifies defects in a mix, giving the

operator a chance to amend the mix before it is poured on site. It will be carried

out for each sample to check the uniform quality of the concrete as per procedures

mentioned in ASTM C143 (Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete).

[Link]. Water Absorption Test

Absorption test will be used to determine the water-tightness of the

concrete. To acquire the most accurate results, the concrete samples that have

been cured for 28 days are tested rather than the early stages of curing as per

procedures mentioned in ASTM C1585 (Standard Test Method For Measurement

Of Rate Of Absorption Of Water By Hydraulic-Cement Concretes).

1.21.2. Mechanical Property

[Link]. Compressive Strength Test

47
 Universal Testing Machine (UTM) will be used to test the compressive

strength of the samples with varying percentages of Eggshells and Mussel Shells

as partial additive in concrete. Specifically, the samples will be subjected into a

compression load as per procedures mentioned in ASTM C39 and its strength will

be evaluated based on the data gathered from the UTM.

1.22. Data Analysis Procedure.

Upon the preparation of various samples of concrete mix, the workability of the concrete

will be analyzed through the slump test. After the samples are cured, the concrete with a

percentage of 5% and 10% of Eggshell, 5% and 10% Mussel shell and 2.5% and 5% of each

shell combined respectively will be subjected to a load to test its compressive strength.

Specifically, every curing period, three sets of samples and control sample will undergo a test to

determine if it will pass the standard compressive strength of load based on the control sample

and in accordance to the Philippine National Standard (PNS) and ASTM C39. For the 28th day

curing period, the remaining samples will undergo a water absorption test to determine if the

samples will pass the average absorption which shall not be greater than 5% with no individual

unit greater than 7% as indicated in the ASTM C1585. After the experiments are done, the

researchers will compare the data gathered from the tests made to determine the optimum design

mix of the concrete among all the samples made that will be further elaborated in the conclusion

and findings of this study.

48
 1.22.1. Timetable of Schedule

Table 7: 4Y2T of Thesis Making (Writing of Chapters 1-3)

Month January February March April

Week 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Signing of Letters

Initial Thesis Planning

Thesis Adviser Topic

Writing of Chapter 1

Revision of Chapter 1

Writing of Chapter 2

Writing of Chapter 3

Thesis Adviser Consultation

Revisions

Mock Defense

Actual Title Defense

Revisions

Signing of grades and manuscript

49
Table 8. 5Y1T of Thesis Making (Experimentation and Results)

1.22.2. Mode of Data Analysis

50
 The researchers will use One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to analyze and

interpret the gathered data. Since there are more than 2 sample groups, z-test and f-test

will not be considered. One-way ANOVA determines whether the means of sample

groups are statistically different. Hence, it evaluates the similarities of means. The

researcher will use ANOVA to compare the mean compressive strength of the traditional

concrete and the concrete with different proportions of eggshell and mussel shell. On the

other hand, to evaluate the similarities of variances, a Post-Hoc test will be used. Since

there are 3 sample groups including the control sample, the Post-Hoc test should be

completed to check if the variances and standard deviation of at least three groups are

statistically equal or not. It determines the equality of variances. It tests the null

hypothesis of no difference in variances between the groups. The software to be used to

perform the tests are Microsoft Excel and JAMOVI software for the Post-Hoc test.

51
 Chapter 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter contains a detailed presentation and discussion of data analysis and the

results of this study presented in Chapter 3 Methodology. The findings are presented under the

following tests: compressive strength test; water absorption test; slump test among the different

concrete mixtures with additive percentage of mussel shell and eggshell. The main determining

factor is which has the most suitable proportion of mixture that will give the highest compressive

strength in 7 and 28 days sample period

1.23. Design Mix.

For one mixture sample, the design mix proportions used were:

Table 9. Design mix

Design Mix [Link] ratio (Kg)

100mmx200mm
Cylinder per 3 Cement Sand Gravel Water Additive
sample
CS 2 4 6 0.8 0
ES 5% 2 4 6 0.8 0.1
ES 10% 2 4 6 0.8 0.2
MS 5% 2 4 6 0.8 0.1
MS 10% 2 4 6 0.8 0.2
MIX 2.5% 2 4 6 0.8 0.05 each
MIX 5% 2 4 6 0.8 0.1 each

1.24. Slump Test.

52
 A slump cone will be used to determine the workability of the various samples of

concrete mix. It measures the consistency of a concrete batch to see how easily the concrete will

flow. The smaller the stone or gravel size in the batch, the more water will need to be added, as

Table 10. Concrete Slump Test Results

Concrete Slump Test

Concrete Mixture Slump Value (mm)

Eggshell Alone 144

Mussel Shell Alone 113

Combination of both Shells 106

Table 10 presents the concrete slump test results of the concrete mixture with Eggshell

alone, Mussel Shell alone and combination of both shells. The result shows that concrete mixture

with Eggshell alone is the most workable concrete among the 3 samples with a slump value of

144 mm. On the other hand, the mixture with Mussel Shell alone has a slump value of 113 mm

which is less workable than the mixture with Eggshell alone. The least workable concrete

mixture with a slump rating of 106 mm is the mixture with both eggshell and mussel shell.

1.25. Compressive Strength Test.

The compressive strength test is a mechanical test that determines the maximum

compressive load that a material can withstand before breaking. A gradually applied load

compresses the test item, which often takes the shape of a cube, prism, or cylinder, between the

plates of a compression-testing machine called Universal Testing Machine. This test is in

accordance with the ASTM C39 standard test for concrete cylinders.

53
1.25.1. Control Sample.

To determine which proportions of eggshell and mussel shell are more suitable for

concrete mix, the researchers use a control sample which will be the basis for the

compressive test results. The design mix for the control sample is with the ratio of [Link]

for Cement, Sand and Aggregates with a water/cement ratio of 0.4. It is molded in a

100mm diameter x 200mm height cylinder and cured for 7 days and 28 days. Below are

the results of compressive test performed in the control sample.

Table 11. Compressive Strength Test results for

7 days cured Control Sample
Control
Sample Max. Load (kN) Strength (MPa)
7 days
Sample 1 75.20 9.57
Sample 2 77.36 9.85
Sample 3 81.02 10.32
Average 77.86 9.91

Compressive Strength Test Results

CS - 7 Days

Sample 3

Sample 2

Sample 1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Stress (Mpa) Max Load (kN)

Figure 7. Test Results for Sample 1, 2, and 3 of

7 days cured Control Sample
Table 11 shows the test results for compressive strength of control samples cured

for 7 days. It indicates that the average compressive strength of the 3 control samples

with 7 days curing period is 9.91 MPa. It also shows that the average maximum force or
54
load that these samples can withstand is 77.86 Kn. These results are the basis for the

succeeding samples that includes eggshell, mussel shell and combination of the two as

partial additives.

Table 12. Compressive Strength Test results for 28 days cured Control
Sample
Control
Sample Max. Load (Kn) Strength (Mpa)
28 days
Sample 1 123.40 15.71
Sample 2 150.61 19.18
Sample 3 142.44 18.14
Average 138.82 17.68

Compressive Strength Test Results

CS - 28 Days

Sample 3

Sample 2

Sample 1

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Stress (Mpa) Max Load (kN)

Figure 8. Test Results for Sample 1, 2, and 3

of 28 days cured Control Sample

Table 12 shows the test results for compressive strength of control samples cured

for 28 days. It indicates that the average compressive strength of the 3 control samples

with 28 days curing period is 17.68 Mpa. It also shows that the average maximum force

or load that these samples can withstand is 138.82 Kn. In comparison to the results of the

7-days cured samples, the compressive strength and the maximum load of the samples

55
with 28 days curing period are way higher, it almost doubles the values obtained from the

7 days curing period.

1.25.2. Eggshells with 5% and 10% additive.

The data below shows the results of compressive test on concrete with 5% and 10%

eggshell additives cured for 7 and 28 days. The compressive strength was obtained using

the Universal Testing Machine. Each mixture has 3 samples from where the average

maximum load and compressive strength was obtained.

Table 13. Compressive Strength Test results for 7 days cured sample with 5%
Eggshell Additive.

5% Eggshell additive
Max. Load (Kn) Strength (Mpa)
7 days
Sample 1 86.44 11.01
Sample 2 88.58 11.28
Sample 3 83.75 10.66
Average 86.26 10.98

Compressive Strength Test Results

5% ES - 7 days

Sample 3

Sample 2

Sample 1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Stress (Mpa) Max Load (kN)

Figure 9. Test Results for Sample 1, 2, and 3 of 7 days

cured sample with 5% Eggshell Additive.

56
Table 13 shows the test results for compressive strength of three samples with 5%

Eggshell additive cured for 7 days. It indicates that the average compressive strength of

the 3 samples with 7 days curing period is 10.98 Mpa. It also shows that the average

maximum force or load that these samples can withstand is 86.26 Kn. In comparison to

the results of the control samples cured for 7 days, the compressive strength of samples

with 5% Eggshell additive cured for the same period of time is 10.79% higher.

Table 14. Compressive Strength Test results for 28 days cured sample with 5%
Eggshell Additive.

5% Eggshell additive
Max. Load (Kn) Strength (Mpa)
28 days
Sample 1 176.64 22.49
Sample 2 168.10 21.40
Sample 3 193.32 24.61
Average 179.35 22.83

Compressive Strength Test Results

5% ES - 28 days

Sample 3

Sample 2

Sample 1

0 50 100 150 200 250

Stress (Mpa) Max Load (kN)

Figure 10. Test Results for Sample 1, 2, and 3 of 28 days cured sample with 5%
Eggshell Additive.

Table 14 shows the test results for compressive strength of three samples with 5%

Eggshell additive cured for 28 days. It indicates that the average compressive strength of

57
the 3 samples with 28 days curing period is 22.83 MPa. It also shows that the average

maximum force or load that these samples can withstand is 179.35 kN. In comparison to

the results of the control samples cured for 28 days, the compressive strength of samples

with 5% Eggshell additive cured for the same period of time is around 29.10% higher.

Table 15. Compressive Strength Test results for 7 days cured sample with 10%
Eggshell Additive.

10% Eggshell additive

Max. Load (kN) Strength (MPa)
7 days
Sample 1 71.22 9.07
Sample 2 68.09 8.67
Sample 3 75.39 9.60
Average 71.57 9.11

Compressive Strength Test Results

10% ES - 7 days

Sample 3

Sample 2

Sample 1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Stress (Mpa) Max Load (kN)

Figure 11. Test Results for Sample 1, 2, and 3 of 7 days cured sample with 10%
Eggshell Additive.

Table 15 shows the test results for compressive strength of three samples with 10%

Eggshell additive cured for 7 days. It indicates that the average compressive strength of

the 3 samples with 7 days curing period is 9.11 MPa. It also shows that the average

maximum force or load that these samples can withstand is 71.57 kN. In comparison to

the results of the control samples cured for 7 days, the compressive strength of samples

with 10% Eggshell additive cured for the same period of time is 8.078% lower. It only
58
means that the proportion of Eggshell additive greater than 5% with 7 days curing period

impacts the compressive strength negatively making the sample weak in terms of its

strength.

Table 16. Compressive Strength Test results for 28 days cured sample with 10%
Eggshell Additive.

10% Eggshell additive

Max. Load (kN) Strength (MPa)
28 days
Sample 1 142.20 18.11
Sample 2 157.88 20.10
Sample 3 146.72 18.68
Average 148.93 18.96

Figure 12. Test Results for Sample 1, 2, and 3 of 28 days cured sample with 10%
Eggshell Additive.

Table 16 shows the test results for compressive strength of three samples with 10%

Eggshell additive cured for 28 days. It indicates that the average compressive strength of

the 3 samples with 28 days curing period is 19.71 MPa. It also shows that the average

maximum force or load that these samples can withstand is 154.80 kN. In comparison to

the results of the control samples cured for 28 days, the compressive strength of samples

with 10% Eggshell additive cured for the same period of time is around 7.30% higher.

59
Though the samples have greater than 5% Eggshell additive, it produces higher

compressive strength compared to the control sample cured for 28 days.

Lastly, comparing the samples with 5% Eggshell and 10% Eggshell additive, the test

results shows that the optimal proportion of Eggshell to be added in the concrete mixture

is 5% as it produces greater compressive strength in both 7- and 28-days curing period,

1.25.3. Mussel Shell with 5% and 10% additive.

The data below shows the results of compressive test on concrete with a 5% and

10% mussel shell additive for 7 days and 28 days samples. Compressive strength was

obtained using the Universal Testing Machine. Each mixture has 3 samples from where

the average maximum load and compressive strength was obtained.

Table 17. Compressive Strength Test results for 7 days cured sample with 5%
Mussel shell Additive.

5% Mussel shell additive Max. Load

Strength (MPa)
7 days (kN)
Sample 1 88.16 11.22
Sample 2 93.72 11.93
Sample 3 90.44 11.52
Average 90.77 11.56

Compressive Strength Test Results

5% MS - 7 days
60

Sample 3

Sample 2
 Sample 1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Stress (Mpa) Max Load (kN)

Figure 13. Test Results for Sample 1, 2, and 3 of 28 days cured sample with 5%
Mussel shell Additive.

Table 17 exhibits the test results for compressive strength of three samples with 5%

Mussel Shell additive cured for 7 days. It indicates that the average compressive strength

of the 3 samples with 7 days curing period is 11.56 MPa. It also shows that the average

maximum force or load that these samples can withstand is 90.77 kN. In comparison to

the results of the control samples cured for 7 days, the compressive strength of samples

with 5% Mussel Shell additive cured for the same period of time is 16.65% higher.

Table 18. Compressive Strength Test results for 28 days cured sample with 5%
Mussel shell Additive.

5% Mussel shell additive Max. Load

Strength (MPa)
28 days (kN)
Sample 1 145.08 18.47
Sample 2 155.39 19.78
Sample 3 137.68 17.53
Average 146.05 18.59

Compressive Strength Test Results

5% MS - 28 days

Sample 3

61
Sample 2

Sample 1

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

 Figure 14. Test Results for Sample 1, 2, and 3 of 28 days cured sample with 5%
Mussel shell Additive.

Table 18 presents the test results for compressive strength of three samples with 5%

Mussel Shell additive cured for 28 days. It indicates that the average compressive

strength of the 3 samples with 28 days curing period is 18.59 MPa. It also shows that the

average maximum force or load that these samples can withstand is 146.05 kN. In

comparison to the results of the control samples cured for 28 days, the compressive

strength of samples with 5% Mussel Shell additive cured for the same period of time is

around 5.15% higher in strength.

Table 19. Compressive Strength Test results for 7 days cured sample with 10%
Mussel shell Additive.

10% Mussel shell additive

Max. Load (kN) Strength (MPa)
7 days
Sample 1 62.46 7.95
Sample 2 64.86 8.26
Sample 3 60.90 7.75
Average 62.74 7.99

62
 Compressive Strength Test Results
10% MS - 7days

Sample 3

Sample 2

Sample 1

Figure 15. Test

0 Results
10 for20Sample301, 2, and
40 3 of 750days cured
60 sample
70 with 10%
Mussel shell Additive.
Stress (Mpa) Max Load (kN)
Table 19 shows the test results for compressive strength of three samples with

10% Mussel Shell additive cured for 7 days. It indicates that the average compressive

strength of the 3 samples with 7 days curing period is 7.99 MPa. It also shows that the

average maximum force or load that these samples can withstand is 62.74 kN. In

comparison to the results of the control samples cured for 7 days, the compressive

strength of samples with 10% Mussel Shell additive cured for the same period of time is

19.40% lower. It only means that the proportion of Mussel Shell additive greater than 5%

with 7 days curing period greatly affects the compressive strength negatively making the

sample weak in terms of its strength.

Table 20. Compressive Strength Test results for 28 days cured sample with 10%
Mussel shell Additive.

10% Mussel shell additive

Max. Load (kN) Strength (MPa)
28 days
Sample 1 *163.82 *20.86
Sample 2 123.30 15.70
Sample 3 135.41 17.24
Average 129.36 16.47
* - Outlier

63
 Figure 16. Test Results for Sample 1, 2, and 3 of 28 days cured sample with 10%
Mussel shell Additive.

Table 20 shows the test results for compressive strength of three samples with

10% Mussel Shell additive cured for 28 days. It indicates that the average compressive

strength of the 3 samples with 28 days curing period is 16.47 MPa. It also shows that the

average maximum force or load that these samples can withstand is 129.36 kN. In

comparison to the results of the control samples cured for 28 days, the compressive

strength of samples with 10% Mussel Shell additive cured for the same period of time is

6.80% lower. The samples have greater than 5% Mussel Shell additive, and produce

lower compressive strength compared to the control sample cured for 28 days.

Lastly, comparing the samples with 5% Mussel shell and 10% Mussel shell additive, the

test results shows that the best proportion of Eggshell to be added in the concrete mixture

is 5% as it produces greater compressive strength in both 7- and 28-days curing period.

1.25.4. Combination of both Eggshell and Mussel Shell with 5% and 10% additive.

64
 The data below shows the results of compressive test on concrete with a 2.5% and

5% of both mussel shell and eggshell forming 5% and 10% for 7 days and 28 days

samples. Compressive strength was obtained using the Universal Testing Machine. Each

mixture has 3 samples from where the average maximum load and compressive strength

was obtained.

Table 21. Compressive Strength Test results for 7 days cured sample with 2.5%
Eggshell + 2.5% Mussel shell Additive.

2.5% Eggshell +2.5% Mussel shell Max. Load Strength

additive 7 days (kN) (MPa)
Sample 1 87.26 11.11
Sample 2 84.67 10.78
Sample 3 93.51 11.91
Average 88.48 11.27

Compressive Strength Test Results

2.5% ES + 2.5% MS - 7 days

Sample 3

Sample 2

Sample 1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Stress (Mpa) Max Load (kN)

Figure 17. Test Results for Sample 1, 2, and 3 of 7 days cured sample
with 2.5% Eggshell + 2.5% Mussel shell Additive.

Table 21 shows the test results for compressive strength of three samples with

2.5% Eggshell and 2.5% Mussel Shell additive cured for 7 days. It indicates that the

average compressive strength of the 3 samples with 7 days curing period is 11.27 MPa. It

65
also shows that the average maximum force or load that these samples can withstand is

88.48 kN. In comparison to the results of the control samples cured for 7 days, the

compressive strength of samples with 2.5% Eggshell and 2.5% Mussel Shell additive

cured for the same period of time is 13.70 almost 14% higher.

Table 22. Compressive Strength Test results for 28 days cured sample with 2.5%
Eggshell + 2.5% Mussel shell Additive.

2.5% Eggshell +2.5% Mussel shell Max. Load Strength

additive 28 days (kN) (MPa)
Sample 1 131.56 16.75
Sample 2 170.62 21.72
Sample 3 176.85 22.52
Average 159.68 20.33

Compressive Strength Test Results

2.5% ES + 2.5% MS - 28 days

Sample 3

Sample 2

Sample 1

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Stress (Mpa) Max Load (kN)

Figure 18. Test Results for Sample 1, 2, and 3 of 28 days cured sample with 2.5%
Eggshell + 2.5% Mussel shell Additive.

Table 22 shows the test results for compressive strength of three samples with

2.5% Eggshell and 2.5% Mussel Shell additive cured for 28 days. It indicates that the

average compressive strength of the 3 samples with 28 days curing period is 20.33 MPa.

It also shows that the average maximum force or load that these samples can withstand is

159.68 kN. In comparison to the results of the control samples cured for 28 days, the

66
compressive strength of samples with 2.5% Eggshell and 2.5% Mussel Shell additive

cured for the same period of time is 15% higher.

Table 23. Compressive Strength Test results for 7 days cured sample with 5%
Eggshell + 5% Mussel shell Additive.

5% Eggshell + 5% Mussel shell additive Max. Load Strength

7 days (kN) (MPa)
Sample 1 77.24 9.83
Sample 2 81.22 10.34
Sample 3 78.11 9.95
Average 78.86 10.04

Compressive Strength Test Results

5% ES + 5% MS - 7 days

Sample 3

Sample 2

Sample 1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Stress (Mpa) Max Load (kN)

Figure 19. Test Results for Sample 1, 2, and 3 of 7 days cured sample with 5%
Eggshell + 5% Mussel shell Additive.

Table 23 shows the test results for compressive strength of three samples with 5%

Eggshell and 5% Mussel Shell additive cured for 7 days. It indicates that the average

compressive strength of the 3 samples with 7 days curing period is 10.04 MPa. It also

shows that the average maximum force or load that these samples can withstand is 78.86

kN. In comparison to the results of the control samples cured for 7 days, the compressive

67
strength of samples with 5% Eggshell and 5% Mussel Shell additive cured for the same

period of time is almost 1.3% higher.

Table 24. Compressive Strength Test results for 28 days cured sample with 2.5%
Eggshell + 2.5% Mussel shell Additive.

5% Eggshell +5% Mussel shell additive Max. Load Strength

28 days (kN) (MPa)
Sample 1 125.98 16.04
Sample 2 141.74 18.05
Sample 3 136.46 17.50
Average 134.73 17.2

Compressive Strength Test Results

5% ES + 5% MS - 28 days

Sample 3

Sample 2

Sample 1

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Stress (Mpa) Max Load (kN)

Figure 20. Test Results for Sample 1, 2, and 3 of 28 days cured sample with 5%
Eggshell + 5% Mussel shell Additive.

Table 24 shows the test results for compressive strength of three samples with 5%

Eggshell and 5% Mussel Shell additive cured for 28 days. It indicates that the average

compressive strength of the 3 samples with 28 days curing period is 17.2 MPa. It also

shows that the average maximum force or load that these samples can withstand is 134.73

kN. In comparison to the results of the control samples cured for 28 days, the

compressive strength of samples with 5% Eggshell and 5% Mussel Shell additive cured

68
for the same period of time is 2.7% lower. It only means that the proportion of Eggshell

and Mussel Shell additive greater than 2.5% each with a total of 5% cured for 28 days

affects the compressive strength making the sample weaker in terms of its strength.

Lastly, comparing the samples with 2.5% Eggshell and 2.5% Mussel Shell and 5%

Eggshell and 5% Mussel Shell additive, the test results shows that the most suitable

proportion of Eggshell to be added in the concrete mixture is 2.5% each of both additive

as it produces greater compressive strength in both 7- and 28-days curing period.

1.25.5. Average Compressive Strength.

Table 25. Average Compressive Strength per Mixture.

7 day (MPa) 28 day (MPa)

CS 9.91 17.68
ES 5% 10.98 22.83
ES 10% 9.11 18.96
Figure 21. MS 5% 11.56 18.59 Average
MS 10% 7.99 16.47
Compressive Strength 11.27 20.33
per Mixture.
MIX 2.5%
MIX 5% 10.04 17.20
Figure 21 shows that the

governing percentage of mixtures lies within the 5% Mussel shell for 7 days and 5%

Eggshell alone for 28 days. This states that the lowest percentages of additives added in

the concrete mix can produced the highest compressive strength. This also states that

combining both eggshell and mussel shells will not lead into higher compressive strength

compared to eggshell alone additive and mussel shell alone additive. Meanwhile

comparing all mixtures to the control sample, all samples who has 5% below additives

produced higher compressive strength. This states that when the additive increases

beyond 5%, the compressive strength results will be lower than the control sample.

69
1.25.6. Comparison Based on previous studies.

The compressive test results can be compared and supported by the study of Sainudin

2019 [75] and Dezfouli [76] that the lowest percentage of additive mixtures are the ones

who are producing the highest compressive strength. This states that the increase of

percentage of additives added to a concrete mix lowers its compressive strength as shown

in Figure 22 and 23.

Figure 22. Compressive Strength of Control and MSA concretes [75]

Study shows that utilizing 1% Mussel Shell Ash additive is the suitable proportion of

mixture and that increasing the percentage of the additive decreases the compressive

strength of concrete proving the researchers study.

Figure 23. Average compressive strength of construction designs with Eggshell [76]

70
Study shows that utilizing 10% Eggshell additive is the suitable Proportion of mixture

and that the higher additive percentage decreases the compressive strength of concrete

proving the researchers study.

1.25.7. Mode of Data Analysis.

As mentioned on previous chapter, the researcher will use ANOVA to compare the mean

compressive strength of the traditional concrete and the concrete with different

proportions of eggshell and mussel shell. This statistical method has been used to check if

the varying proportion of the additives such as eggshell, mussel shell and combination of

both will affect the compressive strength of the concrete mixture. ANOVA was also used

since the obtained values of compressive strength has small interval making the values

close to one another.

71
Figure 24: Analysis of Variance for Mixture with 0%, 5% and 10% Eggshell Cured

for 7 Days

Figure 24 shows the statistical treatment using ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)

comparing the sample with no eggshell, with 5% eggshell and 10% eggshell cured for 7

days. It can be seen on the figure that the calculated F-test value is 17.3 which is greater

than the value obtained on the F-table which is only 5.14. The null hypothesis is rejected

since the F-test value is higher than the value found on the F-table. Moreover, the

confidence level is 95% and with this, the significance level is at 5%, meaning there’s a

5% chance of being wrong. Since the p-value of 0.003 is less than the significance level

which is 0.05, there’s enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis that the population

means are all equal. With this being stated, it can be concluded that there is a significant

difference between the proportion of eggshell additives and the compressive strength of

72
the concrete mixture. Therefore, the proportion or the percentage of eggshell as additives

really affects the compressive strength of the concrete cured for 7 days.

Figure 25: Analysis of Variance for Mixture with 0%, 5% and 10% Mussel Shell

Cured for 7 Days

Figure 25 shows the statistical treatment using ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)

comparing the sample with no mussel shell, with 5% mussel shell and 10% mussel shell

cured for 7 days. It can be seen on the figure that the calculated F-test value is 85.3 which

is greater than the value obtained on the F-table which is only 5.14. The null hypothesis is

rejected since the F-test value is higher than the value found on the F-table. Moreover,

the confidence level is 95% and with this, the significance level is at 5%, meaning there’s

a 5% chance of being wrong. Since the p-value is extremely low which is lower than

73
0.001, there’s enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis that the population means are

all equal. With this being stated, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference

between the proportion of mussel shell additives and the compressive strength of the

concrete mixture. Therefore, the proportion or the percentage of mussel shell as additives

really affects the compressive strength of the concrete cured for 7 days.

Figure 26: Analysis of Variance for Mixture with 0%, 5% and 10% Combination of

Eggshell and Mussel Shell Cured for 7 Days

Figure 26 shows the statistical treatment using ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)

comparing the sample with no eggshell and mussel shell, with 5% combined eggshell and

mussel shell and 10% combined eggshell and mussel shell cured for 7 days. It can be

seen on the figure that the calculated F-test value is 9.10 which is greater than the value

74
obtained on the F-table which is only 5.14 The null hypothesis is rejected since the F-test

value is higher than the value found on the F-table. Moreover, the confidence level is

95% and with this, the significance level is at 5%, meaning there’s a 5% chance of being

wrong. Since the p-value of 0.015 is less than the significance level which is 0.05, there’s

enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis that the population means are all equal.

With this being stated, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference between

the proportion of combined eggshell and mussel shell and the compressive strength of the

concrete mixture. Therefore, the proportion or the percentage of combined eggshell and

mussel shell as additives really affects the compressive strength of the concrete cured for

7 days.

With the aforementioned values, it was found out that on 7-days curing period, all the

groups including the eggshell, mussel shell and combination of both shells have rejected

the null hypothesis. It means that there is a significant difference between the proportion

of all these additives and the compressive strength of the concrete mixture. Therefore, the

proportion or the percentage of these additives really affects the compressive strength of

the concrete cured for 7 days.

75
 Figure 27: Analysis of Variance for Mixture with 0%, 5% and 10% Eggshell

Cured for 28 Days

Figure 27 shows the statistical treatment using ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)

comparing the sample with no eggshell, with 5% eggshell and 10% eggshell cured for 28

days. It can be seen on the figure that the calculated F-test value is 7.66 which is greater

than the value obtained on the F-table which is only 5.14. The null hypothesis is rejected

since the F-test value is higher than the value found on the F-table. Moreover, the

confidence level is 95% and with this, the significance level is at 5%, meaning there’s a

5% chance of being wrong. Since the p-value of 0.022 is less than the significance level

which is 0.05, there’s enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis that the population

means are all equal. With this being stated, it can be concluded that there is a significant

difference between the proportion of eggshell additives and the compressive strength of

the concrete mixture. Therefore, the proportion or the percentage of eggshell as additives

really affects the compressive strength of the concrete cured for 28 days.

76
 Figure 28: Analysis of Variance for Mixture with 0%, 5% and 10% Mussel Shell

Cured for 28 Days

Figure 28 shows the statistical treatment using ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)

comparing the sample with no mussel shell, with 5% mussel shell and 10% mussel shell

cured for 28 days. It can be seen on the figure that the calculated F-test value is 0.176

which is less than the value obtained on the F-table which is only 5.14. The null

hypothesis is accepted since the F-test value is higher than the value found on the F-table.

Moreover, the confidence level is 95% and with this, the significance level is at 5%,

meaning there’s a 5% chance of being wrong. Since the p-value of 0.843 is greater than

the significance level which is 0.05, there’s no enough evidence to reject the null

hypothesis that the population means are all equal. With this being stated, it can be

concluded that there is a no significant difference between the proportion of mussel shell

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additives and the compressive strength of the concrete mixture. Therefore, the proportion

or the percentage of mussel shell as additives does not affect the compressive strength of

the concrete cured for 28 days.

Figure 29: Analysis of Variance for Mixture with 0%, 5% and 10% Combination of

Eggshell and Mussel Shell Cured for 28 Days

Figure 29 shows the statistical treatment using ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)

comparing the sample with no eggshell and mussel shell, with 5% combined eggshell and

mussel shell and 10% combined eggshell and mussel shell cured for 28 days. It can be

seen on the figure that the calculated F-test value is 1.83 which is less than the value

obtained on the F-table which is only 5.14. The null hypothesis is accepted since the F-

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 test value is higher than the value found on the F-table. Moreover, the confidence level is

95% and with this, the significance level is at 5%, meaning there’s a 5% chance of being

wrong. Since the p-value of 0.240 is greater than the significance level which is 0.05,

there’s no enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis that the population means are all

equal. With this being stated, it can be concluded that there is no significant difference

between the proportion of combined eggshell and mussel shell and the compressive

strength of the concrete mixture. Therefore, the proportion or the percentage of combined

eggshell and mussel shell as additives does not affect the compressive strength of the

concrete cured for 28 days.

With the aforementioned values, it was found out that on 28-days curing period, only the

eggshell group has rejected the null hypothesis. It means that there is a significant

difference between the proportion of eggshell and the compressive strength of the

concrete mixture. On the other hand, the remaining two groups which are the mussel shell

and combination of both shells have accepted the null hypothesis, implying that the

proportion of these additives does not affect the compressive strength of the concrete.

Therefore, only the proportion or the percentage of eggshell really affects the

compressive strength of the concrete cured for 28 days.

1.26. Water Absorption Rate for 28 day cured samples.

Table 26. Water Absorption Test Results

Water Absorption Rate 28 days

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 Initial Mass (g) Saturated Mass (g) % Absorption
CS 3476 3572 2.69
ES 5% 3646 3724 2.09
ES 10% 3520 3584 1.79
MS 5% 3452 3547.3 2.69
MS 10% 3454 3500.3 1.32
MIX 5% 3552 3619.5 1.86
MIX 10% 3408 3496 2.52

Table 26 shows the water absorption rate obtained from each sample cured in 28

days. The results indicate that the mixture with lowest water absorption rate is the 10%

Mussel Shell additive which possesses only 1.32%. Next to this is the 10% Eggshell

additive which contains water absorption rate of 1.79%. With these values obtained, it

implies that the higher proportion of eggshell alone or mussel shell alone being added to

the mixture, the lesser the concrete absorbs water.

In general, all the values obtained on the Water Absorption Test are complying to

The Civil Engineering Specification for the water industry (CESWI) which follows BS

8007 and states that water absorption rate shall not exceed 3%.

Chapter 5

CONCLUSION

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 Through the results gathered in Chapter 4, the researchers come into the conclusion that

the most suitable proportion of the concrete mixture that produces greatest strength is 5%

additive, while 10% additives weaken its compressive strength. Thus, having a percentage

greater than 5% reduces its strength. The researchers also concluded that the best suitable

proportion of mixtures lies in the 5% Eggshell alone.

Based on the data gathered, the mixture with eggshell alone has the highest slump value

indicating that it is the most workable, followed by the mixture with mussel shell alone. The least

workable concrete is the combination of both shells. Hence, the researchers concluded that the

mixture with the combination of both eggshell and mussel shell does not contribute positively to

the workability of the concrete. With this conclusion, it is highly suggested to use a plasticizer to

increase the workability of the concrete.

For the compressive strength, research shows that the 5% Eggshell mixture provides the

highest increase in compressive strength for 28-day sample which is 29.13% compared to the

control sample, however it only gives 10.80% strength increase on 7-day sample, while the 5%

Mussel shell mixture gives the highest compressive strength increase for the 7 days sample

which is 16.65%, although, it’s 28-day has a lower change in strength which is 5.15%. This

states that the 5% Mussel shell mixture produces the highest early strength and the 5% Eggshell

mixture produces the maximum strength. Also, the researchers concluded that when the additive

increases beyond 5% for each eggshell and mussel shell, the compressive strength results will be

lower than the control sample.

While the most suitable proportion of the concrete mixture that produces lower water

absorption rate is 10% additive. The researchers concluded that the more eggshell or mussel shell
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mixed with the concrete, the lesser the concrete absorbs water. This is because eggshell is

composed almost entirely of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) crystals. It is a semipermeable

membrane, which means that air and water can pass through its pores.

Chapter 6

RECOMMENDATION

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The study is mainly concerned with the utilization of mussel shell and eggshell as partial

additives in concrete mixture. It is only limited in analyzing the mixture with 5% and 10%

additive with Eggshell alone, mussel shell alone and combination of both shells. The study aims

to obtain the most suitable proportion of the shell to be added on the concrete mixture that will

produce higher compressive strength and lower water absorption rate. The research has opened

up numerous research opportunities, including but not limited to:

● Analyze the concrete mixture with the proportion of eggshell and mussel

shell separately between 1% and 10% to check if this will produce higher

compressive strength.

● Check for other properties of Mussel shell and Eggshell if it suits as partial

replacement for cement or aggregates instead of using it as additive.

● Additional mixing proportions that has varying amount and are not equal

in percentage making the proportion of one material higher than the other.

● Explore more raw materials that can be possibly added on the concrete

mixture to improve its strength.

● Expound other testing for concrete samples with additives such as

Ultrasonic Method

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