Module 5
• Sizing the drive system: Matching the electric
machine and the internal combustion engine
(ICE), Sizing the propulsion motor, sizing the
power electronics
Sizing the propulsion motor
[Link] constrain for the sizing of motor
• M/G torque and power is dictated by the electric fraction, EF, defined as the ratio
of M/G peak power to total peak power. For virtually all hybrid propulsion
systems this fraction ranges from 0.1 <EF <0.4.
• At EF >0.4 the vehicle electrical storage capacity must be increased to
accommodate the electric-only range, otherwise,the vehicle will not perform well
on grades or into strong headwinds without electric torque to augment the ICE.
• The performance of EM is measured by following quantities:
2. Constant Power Speed Ratio (CPSR)
3. Torque Rating
[Link] Constrains
Sizing the propulsion motor
[Link] power speed ratio (CPSR)
• At the low-speed region (less than the base speed as marked in the motor has a
constant torque.
• In the high-speed region (higher than the base speed), the motor has a constant
power.
• This characteristic is usually represented by a speed ratio x, defined as the ratio of its
maximum speed to its base speed.
Speed ratio and its significance
• In low-speed operations, voltage supply to the motor increases with the increase of
the speed through the electronic converter while the flux is kept constant.
• At the point of base speed, the voltage of the motor reaches the source voltage. After
the base speed, the motor voltage is kept constant and the flux is weakened,
dropping hyperbolically with increasing speed.
• Hence, its torque also drops hyperbolically with increasing speed.
• It is clear that with a long constant power region, the maximum torque of the motor
can be significantly increased, and hence vehicle acceleration and gradeability
performance can be improved and the transmission can be simplified.
• each type of motor inherently has its limited maximum speed ratio. For example, a
permanent magnet motor has a small x (2) because of the difficulty of field
weakening due to the presence of the permanent magnet.
• The use of a multigear or single-gear transmission depends mostly on the motor
speed–torque characteristics.
• at a given rated motor power, if the motor has a long constant power region, a single-
gear transmission would be sufficient for a high tractive effort at low speeds.
Otherwise, a multigear (more than two gears) transmission has to be used.
• Figure 1shows the tractive effort of an EV, along with the vehicle speed with a traction
motor of x=2and a three-gear transmission. The first gear covers the speed region of
a–b–c, the second gear covers d–e–f, and the third gear covers g–f–h.
• Fig 2 shows the tractive effort with a traction motor of x=4 and a two-gear
transmission. The first gear covers the speed region of a–b–c and the second gear d–e–
f.
• Figure 3 shows the tractive effort with a traction motor of x=6 and a single-gear
transmission.
• These three designs have the same tractive effort vs. vehicle speed profiles.
Sizing of electric motor
Case 1: a transition from motoring at 2.5 krpm and 100 Nm of torque to
generating at 2.5 krpm and -100 Nm
Case 2: to switch to generating at -100 Nm of torque, but at a lower speed, say 1.5
krpm.
Sizing of electric motor
• Motoring operation of the M/G occurs for positive torque and positive (CCW)
speed or for negative torque and negative (CW) speed.
• When the sign of either torque or speed are reversed the M/G is in generating
mode. With modern power electronic controllers the machine is capable of
operating anywhere within the confines of its torque–speed envelope shown.
• For example, a transition from motoring at 2.5 krpm and 100 Nm of torque to
generating at 2.5 krpm and -100 Nm of torque is simply a sign change in the power
electronics controller.
• The speed and hence machine voltages remain constant, but the machine currents
slew at their electrical time constant to resume operation as a generator with phase
currents in phase opposition to phase voltages (generally sinusoidal variables).
• Since the machine transient electrical time constants are easily 10s if not 100s of
times faster than the mechanical system, the torque change is viewed as occurring
nearly instantaneously.
Sizing the propulsion motor
• Now, if the machine were operating in motoring mode at 2.5 krpm and +100 Nm of
torque, which is basically in boosting mode for, say, passing, and the driver aborts
the manoeuvre and slows to re-enter traffic, the M/G may be commanded to switch
to generating at -100 Nm of torque, for example, but at a lower speed, say 1.5 krpm.
• Since the M/G was operating well into field weakening initially and the new
operating point is basically on the constant torque boundary (full field), the
controller must boost the field to maintain the commanded generating level. This
process is slower than simply changing the torque at constant speed.
• The flux in the machine must be readjusted to its new and higher level, and this
occurs at the electrical time constant of field control in the machine (depends on
machine size/rating and ranges from 30 ms to >100 ms for hybrid traction
motors).Whereas torque control was responding in sub-millisecond times, field
control takes much longer. However, this is still about 10 times faster than the
mechanical system.
Sizing the propulsion motor-CPSR
Sizing the propulsion motor
[Link] ratings of motor
• Motor-generator capability curves for torque and power define the peak operating
capability of the hybrid electric system.
• the capability curve defines the operating bounds of the hybrid ac drive system
Sizing the propulsion motor
• Continuous rating: The ac drive can be operated within its continuous rated region
indefinitely provided:
(1) the motor thermal management system is operated at or below its cooling medium
maximum inlet temperature conditions for the coolant used (air or liquid)
(2) the power inverter thermal management system is within its maximum inlet
temperature of coolant (air or liquid)
(3) the power electronics electrical parameters are within nominal stress levels of
50% . For example, the operating voltage of power switching devices should be at
50% of the device rated breakdown voltage.
• Thermal management systems for passenger car hybrids consist of auxiliary coolant
reservoirs, pumps and fans, along with a small radiator.
• The M/G will have a separate coolant supply from either the vehicle’s engine
coolant (<115 C) or transmission oil cooler (<120◦C).
• The power electronics coolant is restricted to glycol–water mixtures having a
maximum inlet temperature of 65C.
• With this thermal boundary condition on the power electronics internal cold plate
the temperature fluctuations at the semiconductor junctions can be held to
<40Ctemperature rise and thereby achieve high durability (>6000 h life).
Sizing the propulsion motor
• Intermittent overload operation is permitted for short durations (<30s) to contain
low energy transients such as responding to fast gear changes or clutch actuation
intervals when the M/G may be called upon to furnish additional torque and power.
• Peak overload operation is within the capability of the electric machine but outside
the capability of the power electronics.
• this peak condition contain fast transients having low energy but very high power
for example, an ISA mild hybrid in which engine cranking is desired under cold
conditions.
• Some specifications may call for peak overdrive torque for <50 ms in order to
overcome engine crankshaft striction.
• The application of a very high torque impulse is necessary to breakaway the engine
and permit sustained cranking at the ac drive system intermittent rating
• At issue here is the need for the power electronics to sustain overcurrents at the peak
overdrive condition.
Sizing the propulsion motor
• In Figure the continuous operating boundary contains efficiency contours.
• Hybrid propulsion simulations are best performed with the M/G torque-speed
capability inserted into the driveline definition.
• For a battery-electric vehicle the M/G is designed to have the peak efficiency
island trend toward zero and be as broad as possible through the constant torque
region and out into constant power.
• An industrial electric machine may have its peak efficiency plateau situated
near the capability curve corner point so that operation at rated conditions is
most efficient.
• A hybrid, on the other hand, has no rated point, rather a drive cycle dependent
scatter of operating points so its peak efficiency should extend from constant
torque into constant power regions.
Sizing of electric motor
• [Link] sizing o the motor
• The size of an electric motor depends on the maximum torque
required from the machine.
• The higher the maximum torque required, the larger will be the size
of the motor.
• In order to minimize the size and weight, electric motors are
designed for high-speed operation for a given power rating.
• Gears are used to match the higher speed of the electric motor with
the lower speed of the wheels
• The gear sizing depends on whether the low speed or the high speed
performance of the EV is more important based on the power rating
determined for the EV.
Sizing the propulsion motor
• Since electric machine torque is determined by the amount of flux the iron can carry
and the amount of current the conductors can carry plus the physical geometry of the
machine, the following can summarise the sizing process.
• Torque is proportional to scaling constants times the product of electric and
magnetic loading times the stator bore volume.
Sizing the propulsion motor
• Electric loading is defined as the total amp-conductors per circumferential
length (A, in units of A/m) – in effect, it is the description of a current sheet.
• The electric loading
is limited by thermal
dissipation of the conductor
bundles.
• Current carrying capacity
of copper wire is limited by
its thermal dissipation,
which in turn sets bounds on
current density, J cu
Sizing the propulsion motor
• The machine design is further constrained by a mechanical limit – the rotor burst
condition.
• For this constraint it is common design practice to limit the machine rotor tangential
velocity to <200 m/s.
• Surface speeds in excess of this lead to retention issues of various sorts, windings,
magnets, etc.
• The following summary of large electric machines in which rotor diameter, power
rating and surface tangential speed is listed supports the engineering practice of
limiting rotor speeds according to a linear velocity constraint
Sizing the power electronics
• Power electronics uses information from control electronics to process power. power
electronics is sized to match the electric machine to the vehicle energy storage system, via
information processed by the control electronics.
• Figure shows a schematic for the hybrid propulsion system ac drive system consisting of on
board energy storage, power processing according to control algorithms, and traction
actuation via the M/G and vehicle driveline.
• The essentials of ac drive system operation are that power from a dc source such as a fuel
cell, battery or ultra-capacitor is converted to variable voltage, variable frequency ac power at
the M/G terminals, Vφ and I φ
Sizing the power electronics
• The M/G then converts this electrical power to mechanical power in the form of
torque and speed at the transmission input shaft, T and ω.
• The power electronics is an electrical matching element in much the same manner
that a gearbox processes mechanical power to match the engine to the road load
requirements.
• The power inverter matches the dc source to the mechanical system regardless of
torque or speed level, provided these quantities are within its capability.
• The power processing capability of power inverters is directly related to the dc input
voltage available.
• Higher voltage means more throughput power for the same gauge wiring and
semiconductor die area
Sizing the power electronics
• The power throughput versus
voltage given the system
constraint on current of 250 A
due in part to cable size,
connector sizes and contactor
requirements
Sizing the power electronics
Switch technology selection
• Power electronic switching
components are classified by
process technology as
originating from two layer, three
layer or four layer designs.
• The semiconductor diode, for
example, is a two layer planar
device consisting of p-type and
n-type doped silicon formed by a
diffusion process.
• Two layer devices have a single
p-n junction. Three layer planar
devices include all
the transistors in use today and have
two junctions.
Switch technology selection
• Current control is realised at the low
voltage junction at which carriers are
injected into the device and output at a
second, higher voltage, junction at
which the injected carriers are
collected.
• Because of the vast difference in
voltage levels between the injecting
and collecting junctions, for a given
amount of current, high power
amplification occurs.
• Four layer, three junction, devices are
categorised as thyristors. “Thyristor‟ is
a name derived from early work on gas
tube
Switch technology selection
• Thyratron switching elements at the
General Electric company in the
1920s that is taken from the Greek –
„thyra‟ for door and „tron‟ for tool.
• Thyristors are then „thyratrons‟ plus
„transistors‟.
• Because there are two junctions from
which carriers are injected in
thyristors, and a single high voltage
collector junction, the devices have a
tendency to latch-up due to current
injection at the 3rd junction unless
some effort is expended in forcing the
current gain of this junction to be low
enough to inhibit latch-up.
Sizing the power electronics
kVA/kW
• Power semiconductor devices range in voltage withstand capability of from 3 kW
and current magnitudes of 3 to 4.5 kA.
• Thyristors have the highest kVA ratings, but are generally slow switching. The gate
turn off thyristor, GTO, is capable of switching 3 kA at 4.5 kV but is limited to less
than 700 Hz. The emitter turn off thyristor, ETO, is capable of simultaneously
switching 4 kA at 4.5 kVA at relatively high frequency.
• IGBTs are making enormous progress in both voltage and current ratings, with some
IGBT introductions
Being capable of
6.5 kV and 3.5 kA
(not simultaneously),
and high frequency
versions are capable
of processing kWs at
switching speeds of up to
100 kHz (e.g. ultra-thin IGBTs).
Ripple capacitor design
• Power electronic inverters may have as much as 60% of their volume taken by the dc
link capacitors needed for bypassing the load ripple currents.
• The dc bus capacitor is sized not so much for energy or hold up time, but thermally by
the rms ripple current it must circulate .The high frequency currents generated by the
inverter switching are sourced by the dc link capacitor, particularly if the battery is
located far from the inverter.
• In hybrid propulsion systems when the inverter is required to be packaged within 1 m
of the M/G to minimise EMI,it is the bus capacitors that source and sink the switching
frequency components.
• The battery in effect keeps the capacitor bank charged by supplying the real power
demand.
• Electric motor current is synthesised from the dc line voltage through a modulation
process.
Ripple capacitor design
• A rule of thumb for sinusoidal ac drives is that the bus capacitors must be rated for
60% of the M/G phase current.
• For example, if the hybrid propulsion system M/G is rated 200 A ,then the ripple
capacitor bank must be capable of sinking 120 A of ripple current at the inverter
switching frequency, fs. Since fs ranges from 5 kHz to over 20 kHz in production
traction inverters, the capacitor bank must be sized to sink this much current
continuously and remain within its thermal constraints.
• Electrolytic bus capacitors with organic electrolytes are restricted to operation at 85◦
C or less.
• It is true that aluminium electrolytics have temperature ratings of 105C to as high as
125 ◦C, but these are not continuous ratings. Multilayer polymer, MLP,type
capacitors are stable over temperature, resilient under thermal shock, stableover
mechanical stress such as mounting stress, and have ultra-low ESR.
Ripple capacitor design
• It is this term, equivalent series resistance, ESR,
that distinguishes a bus capacitor for ripple current
bypassing from a dc link hold-up capacitor for
energy storage, such as in an uninterruptible power
supply.
• The ESR of a capacitor is a strong function of
operating temperature and frequency of the ripple
current.
• The dc link capacitor ESR model consists of a bulk The capacitor loss factor
capacitance component (capacitance of the etched
foil area, A, and electrolyte gap d, where De is a measure of
C =εA/d), the dielectric loss capacitance modelled as a deviation from ideal
capacitor value in parallel with a resistance, and the capacitive reactance
series combination of electrolyte and foil resistances. caused by the presence of
ESR.
Switching frequency and PWM
Switching frequency and PWM
Switching frequency and PWM
• The inverter uses sine-triangle ramp comparison in the current regulator to
synthesise the output phase voltage.
• Equation gives the fundamental ISA motor phase voltage for modulation depth
m,0<m<1:
• is the dc link voltage. For a 42 V battery under load, peak phase voltage is 14.85 V.
For the stated conditions the phase current will be
• This calculates a 254 A phase current into the motor for the case of 8 kW power
level in boosting at 2400 rpm at the engine.
• For a 10-pole motor the fundamental frequency will be f = 200 Hz, as given by
Switching frequency and PWM
• For this example, ramp comparison (also, sine-triangle) modulation will be used in
the inverter controller to generate the inverter bridge switching waveforms.
• Ramp comparison is a technique of encoding an analog signal, in this case the motor
phase voltage at its base frequency of 200 Hz, into digital pulses that are applied to
the power semiconductor gates.
• Inverter current will then flow into or out of the motor according to which switches
in a six switch inverter are activated.
• The process of generating digital switch waveforms representing the magnitude of
an analog controlling signal is pulse width modulation.
• case of modulation depth m = 0.80 showing how the switch conduction periods
(state 1) versus its off periods (state 0) are defined.
• the corresponding phase A current is plotted over one cycle. During the positive
portion of Ia(x) the switch current is shown occurring for the duration of the switch
on time. The negative current in phase A represents diode conduction.
Matching
Transmission selection
the drive and ICE
• Passenger vehicle transmissions can be broadly grouped into manual shift,
automatic, and continuously variable.
• Manual shift transmissions, MT, have predefined step ratios that vary in a geometric
progression.
• Automatic transmissions are designed around planetary gear sets for power on
demand shifting.
• One of the most common matching elements used in hybrid electric passenger
vehicles is the Epicyclic or Planetary - gear set.
• CVT- Continuously variable transmissions (compression belt based) and
Toroidal Variator (variety) are gaining popularity in compact vehicles and
passenger vans because of seamless transitions in ratio.
• For larger CVTs the issues of torque rating and efficiency at high ratio continue to
be developmental areas.
EPICYCLIC GEAR SET: Schematic of Epicyclic
gear set
EPICYCLIC GEAR SET
• This is a three port mechanical component used as a speed summing device.
• Most designs rely on a dual input and single output where one input source is the
ICE and the second input comes from an electric M/G.
• Epicyclic gear ports may be defined as input or output according to the convection .
• The epicyclic basic ratio, k =R ring/Rsun where Rx is the radius of ring and sun
gears(can also be defined in terms of number of gear teeth).
• The governing equation for an epicyclic gear in terms of the basic ratio and gear
tooth number can be written as shown in: Ns + kNr - (k + 1)Nc = 0
• The relationship noted in table is used to explain the behaviour of selected two ports
when the third port is held grounded.
• This is the single input, single output case. When the third port is released the
behaviour is governed by table.
Ns + kNr - (k + 1)Nc = 0
EPICYCLIC GEAR SET
• The basic ratio, 1.5<k<4, is determined by gear diameters.
• There are variations of epicyclic gear sets in which combinations of
epicyclic gears and spur gears are used to realise dual stage epicyclic
sets that are hard connected and do not rely on clutches to ground
any port.
• When clutches are used to ground various ports of an epicyclic set
we have the essential ingredients of an automatic transmission.
• All automatic transmissions are designed around epicyclic stages
with clutches to affect the step ratio changes plus an input torque
converter to smooth out the speed variations.
Gear Step selection
