Biology

S4
Teacher Guide
First Edition

Kigali January 2019

 Copyright

© 2019 Rwanda Education Board

All rights reserved.

This Teacher’s Guide is the property of Rwanda Education Board

Credit should be given to REB when the source of this book is quoted.
FOREWORD
Dear teacher,

Rwanda Education Board is honoured to present Senior 4 Biology teacher`s guide which
serves as a guide to competence-based teaching and learning to ensure consistency and
coherence in the learning of the biology subject. The Rwandan educational philosophy
is to ensure that learners achieve full potential at every level of education which will
prepare them to be well integrated in society and exploit employment opportunities.

In line with efforts to improve the quality of education, the government of Rwanda
emphasizes the importance of aligning teaching and learning materials with the syllabus
to facilitate their learning process. Many factors influence what they learn, how well
they learn and the competences they acquire. Those factors include the relevance of
the specific content, the quality of teachers’ pedagogical approaches, the assessment
strategies and the instructional materials available. Special attention was paid to the
activities that facilitate the learning process in which learners can develop ideas and
make new discoveries during concrete activities carried out individually or with peers.
With the help of the teachers, learners will gain appropriate skills and be able to apply
what they have learnt in real life situations. Hence, they will be able to develop certain
values and attitudes allowing them to make a difference not only to their own lives but
also to the nation.

This is in contrast to traditional learning theories which view learning mainly as a process
of acquiring knowledge from the more knowledgeable who is mostly the teacher. In
competence-based curriculum, learning is considered as a process of active building
and developing of knowledge and understanding, skills, values and attitudes by the
learner, where concepts are mainly introduced by an activity, situation or scenario that
helps the learner to construct knowledge, develop skills and acquire positive attitudes
and values.

In addition, such active learning engages learners in doing things and thinking about
the things they are doing. They are encouraged to bring their own real experiences and
knowledge into the learning processes. In view of this, your role is to:

•• Plan your lessons and prepare appropriate teaching materials.

•• Organize group discussions for learners considering the importance of social
constructivism suggesting that learning occurs more effectively when the learner
works collaboratively with more knowledgeable and experienced people.
•• Engage learners through active learning methods such as inquiry methods, group
discussions, research, investigative activities and group and individual work activities.
•• Provide supervised opportunities for learners to develop different competences by
giving tasks which enhance critical thinking, problem solving, research, creativity
and innovation, communication and cooperation.

Teachers’ Guide i
•• Support and facilitate the learning process by valuing learners’ contributions in the
class activities.
•• Guide learners towards the harmonization of their findings.
•• Encourage individual, peer and group evaluation of the work done in the classroom
and use appropriate competence-based assessment approaches and methods.
To facilitate you in your teaching activities, the content of this teacher`s guide is self-
explanatory so that you can easily use it. It is divided in 3 parts:

The part 1: Explains the structure of this book and gives you methodological guidance;

The part 2: Gives the sample lesson plans as reference for your lesson planning process;

The part 3: Provides details the teaching guidance for each concept given in the student
book.

Even though this teacher`s guide contains the answers for all activities given in the
learner’s book, you are requested to work through each question and activity before
judging learner’s findings.

I wish to sincerely appreciate all people who contributed towards the development of
this teacher`s guide, particularly REB staff who organized the whole process from its
inception. Special gratitude goes to the University of Rwanda which provided experts
in design and layout services, illustrations and image anti-plagiarism, lecturers and
teachers who diligently worked to successful completion of this book. Any comment
or contribution would be welcome for the improvement of this Teacher’s guide for the
next edition.

Dr. NDAYAMBAJE Irénée

Director General of Rwanda Education Board

ii Teachers’ Guide
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my appreciation to all the people who played a major role in
development of this Biology textbook for senior four. It would not have been successful
without active participation of different education stakeholders.

I owe gratitude to different Universities and schools in Rwanda that allowed their staff
to work with REB in the in-house textbooks production project. I wish to extend my
sincere gratitude to lecturers, teachers and all other individuals whose efforts in one
way or the other contributed to the success of writing of this textbook.

Special acknowledgement goes to the University of Rwanda which provided experts in

design and layout services, illustrations and image anti-plagiarism.

Finally, my word of gratitude goes to the Rwanda Education Board staff particularly
those from the Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Resources Department (CTLRD)
who were involved in the whole process of in-house textbook writing.

Joan MURUNGI,

Head of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Resources Department

Teachers’ Guide iii

iv Teachers’ Guide
Contents

FOREWORD i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION xi
1.1 Structure of the guide xi
1.2 Methodological guidance xiv

II. SAMPLE LESSON PLAN xxvii

III. UNIT DEVELOPMENT xxx

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY 1

1.1 Key unit competence 1
1.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values) 1
1.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 1
1.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 2
1.5 List of lessons/sub-heading 3

UNIT 2: INTRODUCTION TO CLASSIFICATION 23

2.1 Key unit competence 23
2.2 Prerequisites 23
2.3Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 23
2.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 24
2.5 List of lessons. 25
2.6 Summary of the unit 38
2.7 Additional Information 39
2.9 Additional activities 43

UNIT 3: MICROSCOPY 49
3.1 Key unit competence 49
3.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values) 49
3.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 49
3.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 50
3.5 List of lessons/sub-heading (including assessment). 51

UNIT 4 : CELL STRUCTURE AND SPECIALIZATION 69

Teachers’ Guide v
4.1 Key unit competence 69
4.2 Prerequisites 69
4.3 Cross-cutting issues 69
4.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 70
4.5 List of lessons/ sub-heading 71
4.6 Summary of the unit 82
4.7 Additional Information 82
4.8 Answers for the End unit assessment 82
4.9 Additional activities 85

UNIT 5: DIVERSITY OF SPECIALIZED TISSUES 89

5.1 Key unit competence 89
5.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values) 89
5.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 89
5.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 90
5.5 Teaching/learning resources; text books, flip charts, scotch. 91
5.6 Summary of the unit 102
5.7 Additional Information 103
5.8 End of unit assessment 103
5.9: Additional activities 104

UNIT 6: TESTING FOR BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES 109

6.1 Key unit competence 109
6.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values) 109
6.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 109
6.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 110
6.5 List of lessons/sub-heading 110
6.6 Summary of the unit 116
6.7 Additional information 116
6. 8 Answers for end of unit assessment 117
6. 9 Additional activity 120

UNIT 7: CARBOHYDRATES AND LIPIDS 125

7.1 Key unit competence 125
7.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values) 125
7.2 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 125
7.3 Guidance on the introductory activity 125

vi Teachers’ Guide
7.4 Teaching/learning resources 126
7.5 List of Lessons/sub-heading 126
7.6 Summary of the unit. 134
7.7 Additional information 134
7.8 Answers for end of unit assessment 7 134
7.9 Additional activities 135

UNIT 8: PROTEINS AND WATER 139

8.1 Key unit competence 139
8.2 Prerequisites (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values) 139
8.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 139
8.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 139
8.5 List of Lessons/sub-heading. 140
8.6 Summary of the unit. 144
8.7 Answers for end unit assessment. 144
8.8 Additional activities 144

UNIT 9 : VITAMINS AND MINERALS 147

9.1 Key Unit Competence 147
9.2 Prerequisites (Knowledge, skills, attitudes and values) 147
9.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 147
9.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 149
9.5 List of lessons/sub-heading 149
9.6 Summary of unit 155
9.8 Answers for End of unit assessment 9 156
9.9 Additional activities 156

UNIT 10: ENZYMES 159

10.1 Key unit competence 159
10.2 Prerequisites (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values) 159
10.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 159
10.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 159
10.5 List of lessons/sub-heading 160
10.6 Summary of the unit 10 167
10.7 Additional information 168
10.8 Answers for End of unit assessment 10 171
10.9 Additional activities 174

Teachers’ Guide vii

UNIT 11: PRINCIPLES OF GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEMS 181
11.1 Key Unit Competence 181
11.2 Prerequisites (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values) 181
11.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 181
11.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 181
11.5 List of lessons/sub-heading 182
11.6 Summary of unit 188
11.7 Additional information 188
11.8 Answers for End of unit assessment 190
11.9 Additional activities 192

UNIT 12: GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS 197

12.1 Key unit competence 197
12.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values) 197
12.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 197
12.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 197
12.5 List of lessons 198
12.6 Summary of the unit 202
12.7 Additional information 203
12.8 Answers of end of unit assessment 205
12.9 Additional activities 206

UNIT 13: GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN

PLANTS AND ANIMALS 209
13.1 Key Unit Competence 209
13.2 Prerequisites (Knowledge, skills, attitudes and values) 209
13.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 209
13.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 209
13.5 List of lessons/sub-headings 210
13.6 Summary of unit 221
13.7 Additional information 221
13.8 Answers for End of unit assessment 13 221
13.9 Additional activities 223

UNIT 14 : SUPPORT AND LOCOMOTION 229

14.1 Key unit competence 229
14.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values) 229

viii Teachers’ Guide

14.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 229
14.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 230
14.5 List of Lessons 231
14.6 Summary of the unit 240
14.7 Additional information 241
14.8 Answers for End of unit assessment 241
14.9 Additional activities 243

UNIT 15: CLASSIFICATION AND PATTERNS OF DISEASE 247

15.1 Key unit competence 247
15.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills and attitudes) 247
15.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 247
1.5.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 248
15.5 List of lessons/sub-heading 249
15.6 Summary of the unit 259
15.7 Additional Information for teacher 259
15.8 Answers for end of unit assessment 260
15.9 Additional activities 261

UNIT 16: ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS 267

16.1 Key unit competence 267
16.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values) 267
16.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 267
16.4 Guidance on the introductory activity. 268
16.5 List of lessons/sub-heading 268
16.6 Summary of the unit 275
16.7 Additional information 276
16.8 Answers for End of unit assessment 16 276

UNIT 17: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS 281

17.1 Key unit competence 281
17.2 Prerequisites 281
17.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 281
17.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 282
17.5 List of lessons 282
17.6 Summary of the unit 289
17.7 Additional information for teachers 290

Teachers’ Guide ix
17.8 Answers for end of unit assessment 17 290
17.9 Additional activities 292

UNIT 18: MICROBIOLOGY 297

18.1 Key Unit Competence 297
18.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills and attitudes) 297
18.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 297
18.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 298
18.5 List of lessons/sub-heading 299
18.6 Summary of the unit 311
18.7 Additional Information for teachers 312
18.8 Answers for end of unit assessment 18 312
18.9 Additional activities 314

UNIT 19: CULTURING MICROORGANISMS 321

19.1 Key unit competence: 321
19.2 Prerequisites 321
19.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed: 321
19.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 322
19.5 List of lessons. 323
19.6 Unit summary 332
19.7 Additional Information 333
19.8 Answers for end of unit assessment 19 333
19.9 Additional activities19. 336

UNIT 20: BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATION 341

20.1 Key Unit Competence 341
20.2 Prerequisite 341
20.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed 341
20.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 342
20.5 List of lessons 342
20. 6 Summary of the unit 352
20.7 Additional information for the teacher 353
20.8 Answers of end of unit assessment 353
20.9 Additional activity 355

x Teachers’ Guide
I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Rwanda is striving to build a knowledge-based economy, with particular emphasis on
science and technology as engine for socio-economic development. One of the national
priorities in the education system is to ensure that the quality of education continues
to improve through closer integration of curriculum development, quality assurance
and assessment, improved supply of learning materials, particularly text books, and
improved teaching and learning strategies.

The Nation has reviewed its curricula and teaching methods in order to equip the
critical mass of young people and population as whole with knowledge, skills and
attitudes to be highly competitive in the region and global market. Therefore, since
2015 a competence-based curriculum has been put in place to drive the nation to the
economic development it desires as it is stipulated in vision 2020.

This Biology Teaching Guide was collaboratively developed and reviewed by educators
from public and private schools, colleges, and universities. Teaching Guide was studied
and reviewed by education curriculum developers and pedagogy experts, and was
improved with appropriate methodologies and strategies. Rwanda Education Board
believes that teachers are the most important partners in improving education quality
and key factor in determining learners’ success. Incorporated in this Teaching Guide is a
framework that will guide them in creating lessons and assessment tools, support them
in facilitating activities and questions, and assist them towards deeper content areas
and competencies to be achieved by the learners.

Through this Teaching Guide, teachers will be able to facilitate an understanding of

the value of the lessons, for each learner to fully engage in the content on both the
cognitive, psychomotor and affective levels of learning.

Teachers should also aim for deep understanding of the subject matter where they
lead learners to analyze and synthesize knowledge. When teachers empower learners
to take ownership of their learning, they develop independence and self- direction,
learning about both the subject matter and themselves.

This Teaching Guide is mapped and aligned to the National Curriculum, designed to
be highly usable for teachers. It contains classroom activities and pedagogical notes,
and is integrated with innovative pedagogies. All of these features are presented in
the different parts of this guide which provides also a hands-on/laboratory activity,
connecting to a real-life problem and show step-by-step solutions to sample problems
in each unit.

1.1 Structure of the guide

This section presents the overall structure, the unit and sub-heading structure to help
teachers to understand the different sections of this guide and what they will find in
each section.

Teachers’ Guide xi
Overall structure

The whole guide has three main sections as follow:

Section 1: Methodology

This section provides general guidance, on methodology how to develop the generic
competences, how to integrate cross cutting issues, how to cater for learners with
special educational needs, active methods and techniques of teaching biology and
guidance on assessment.

Section 2: Sample lesson plan

This part provides a sample lesson plan, developed and designed to help the teacher
develop their own lesson plans.

Section 3: Unit development

This is the core part of the guide. Each unit is developed following the structure below.
The guide ends with references.

1) Structure of a unit

Each unit is made up of the following sections:

•• Unit title: from the syllabus

•• Key unit competence: from the syllabus
•• Prerequisites (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values)
•• This section indicates knowledge, skills and attitudes required for the success
of the unit. The competence-based approach calls for connections between
units/topics within a subject and interconnections between different subjects.
The teacher will find an indication of those prerequisites and guidance on how
to establish connections.
•• Cross-cutting issues to be addressed
•• This section suggests cross cutting issues that can be integrated depending on
the unit content. It provides guidance on how to come up with the integration
of the issue. Note that the issue indicated is a suggestion; teachers are free
to take another cross-cutting issue taking into consideration the learning
environment.
•• Guidance on the introductory activity
•• Each unit starts with an introductory activity in the learner’s book. This section
of the teacher’s guide provides guidance on how to conduct this activity and
related answers. Note that learners may not be able to find the right solution
but they are invited to predict possible solutions or answers. Solutions are

xii Teachers’ Guide

 provided by learners gradually through discovery activities organized at the
beginning of lessons or during the lesson.
•• List of lessons/sub-heading
•• This section presents in a table a list of lessons that are in a unit, lesson
objectives copied or adapted from the syllabus and duration for each lesson.
Each lesson /subheading is then developed.
•• End of each unit
•• At the end of each unit the teacher’s guide provides the following sections:
•• Summary of the unit which provides the key points of content developed in
the student’s book.
•• Additional information which provides additional content compared to
the student’s book for the teacher to have a deeper understanding of the
topic.
•• End of unit assessment which provides the answers to questions of
end unit assessment in the textbook and suggests additional questions and
related answers to assess the key unit competence.
•• Additional activities: remedial, consolidation and extended activities).
The purpose of these activities is to accommodate each learner (slow, average
and gifted) based on end unit assessment results.
•• Structure of each sub heading
•• Each lesson/sub-heading is made of the following sections:
•• Lesson /Sub heading title 1...
•• Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:
•• This section gives a clear instruction to teacher on how to start the lesson
•• Teaching resources
•• This section suggests the teaching aids or other resources needed in line with
the activities to achieve the learning objectives. Teachers are encouraged to
replace the suggested teaching aids by the available ones in their respective
schools and based on learning environment.
•• Learning activities
•• This section provides a short description of the methodology and any
important aspect to consider. It provides also answers to learning activities
with cross reference to text book:
•• Exercises/application activities/self -assessment
•• This provides questions and answers for exercises/ application activities/self-
assessment

Teachers’ Guide xiii

1.2 Methodological guidance

1.2.1 Developing competences

The competence-based curriculum employs an approach of teaching and learning

based on discrete skills rather than dwelling on only knowledge or the cognitive
domain of learning. It focuses on what learner can do rather than what learners know.
Learners develop basic competences through specific subject unit competences with
specific learning objectives broken down into knowledge, skills and attitudes. These
competences are developed through learning activities disseminated in learner-
centered rather than the traditional didactic approach. The student is evaluated against
set standards to achieve a specific unit competence before moving onto the next unit.

In addition to specific subject competences, learners also develop generic competences

which are transferable throughout a range of learning areas and situations in life. Below
is example of how generic competences can be developed in biology:

Generic Examples of activities that develop generic

competence competences

Classifying living organisms

Observe, record, interpret data recorded during experiments

Choose the best reagent to test for a substance or to

Critical thinking
distinguish substances

Collect, observe and identify specimens.

Compare and contrast between biological concepts

Research using internet or books from the library

Research and
Design a project for health and disease
Problem solving
Design a questionnaire for data collection during field visit

xiv Teachers’ Guide

 Develop a graph to illustrate information

Design a data collection survey/questionnaire

Innovation and Conduct experiments with objectives, methodology,
creativity observations, results, conclusions

Identify local problems related with biology such as

malnutrition and ways to resolve them

Cooperation, Work in Pairs

Personal and
Interpersonal Small group work
management
and life skills Large group work
Organize and present in writing and verbally a complete and clear
report of an experiment

Observe, record, interpret the results of a measurement

Communication
accurately.

Select and use appropriate formats and presentations, such as

tables, graphs and diagrams.
Exploit all opportunities available to improve on knowledge and
Lifelong learning
skills. Reading scientific journals to keep updated.

a) Critical Thinking

•• These are activities that require students to think critically about subject
content. Groups can be organized to work in different ways e.g. taking turns,
listening, taking decisions, allocating tasks, disagreeing constructively etc.
•• Collect data locally through designing surveys, questionnaires, interview
formats then analyse data, draw conclusions and present findings
•• Observe, record, interpret – e.g. Mark out areas in the school and get different
groups to record insect, animal, bird life and then to try to explain why different
habitats have different species Experiment
•• Research and discuss
•• Compare and contrast exercises
•• Debate (see communication)
•• Identify a problem and design a methodology to collect the information
needed to solve the problem
•• Make basic science equipment out of locally available materials

Teachers’ Guide xv
 •• Reasoning games and tests for students
b) Research and problem solving

•• Use the internet and a library

•• Create a school library
•• Collect data through observation and recording
•• Collect data through surveys, questionnaires and different kinds of interviews
•• Develop sampling rules for data collection
c) Creativity and Innovation

•• Write a story or poem

•• Design a poster
•• Write and design a booklet
•• Make a model
•• Create an experiment to prove a point
•• Invent new ways of doing traditional things
•• Design your ideal house
•• Develop a graph to illustrate information
•• Create a flow chart to show the main stages in a process
•• Design a data collection survey/questionnaire
•• Identify a problem which requires data collection to solve
•• Conduct experiments with objectives, methodology, observations, results,
conclusions
•• Make hypotheses and identify ways to test them
•• Identify local problems and devise ways to resolve them
d) Communication Skills

•• Tell/write a story, poem or drama

•• Describe an event or situation
•• Present ideas - verbally, in writing, graphically, digitally
•• Set out pros and cons
•• Argue a case – verbally, in writing, graphically (compare and contrast), digitally
•• Observe, record, interpret
•• Write letters for different purposes

xvi Teachers’ Guide

 e)Teamwork, cooperation, personal and interpersonal
management and life skills, work in pairs – particularly useful for shared
reading and comprehension in lower grades but can also be useful in higher grades
for planning research, problem solving, planning experiments etc.

•• Small group work

•• Large group work
•• Data collection from the community
•• Collect community photographs and interview residents to make a class/
school history of the local community
Note: The teacher’s guide should improve support in the organisation and management
of groups

f)Lifelong Learning

•• Take initiative to update knowledge and skills with minimum external support.
•• Cope with the evolution of knowledge and technology advances for personal
fulfilment
•• Seek out acquaintances more knowledgeable in areas that need personal
improvement and development
•• Exploit all opportunities available to improve on knowledge and skills.

1.2.2 Addressing cross cutting issues

Among the changes in the competence based curriculum is the integration of cross
cutting issues as an integral part of the teaching learning process-as they relate to and
must be considered within all subjects to be appropriately addressed. The eight cross
cutting issues identified in the national curriculum framework are:

a) Genocide Studies

Genocide Studies provides young people with an understanding of the circumstances

leading to the genocide and the remarkable story of recovery and re-establishing
national unity. Genocide Studies helps learners to comprehend the role of every
individual in ensuring nothing of the sort ever happens again.

b) Environment and sustainability

The growing awareness of the impact of the human race on the environment has led
to recognition of the need to ensure our young people understand the importance of
sustainability as they grow up and become responsible for the world around them.
Hence Environment and Sustainability is a very important cross-cutting issue. Learners
need basic knowledge from the natural sciences, social sciences and humanities to

Teachers’ Guide xvii

understand and interpret principles of sustainability. They also need skills and attitudes
that will enable them in their everyday life to address the environment and climate
change issues and to have a sustainable livelihood.

c) Gender

There is a strong moral imperative to afford every individual their basic human rights and
gender inequality results in women and girls being treated less favourably than men.
A strongly negative impact of unequal treatment which affects the nation as a whole
is the fact that it results in women being held back and their talents and abilities not
being fully realised. With a good understanding of the principles of Gender Equality, it is
intended that future generations will ensure that the potential of the whole population
is realised.

d)Comprehensive sexuality education (HIV/AIDS, STI, Family planning,

Gender equality and reproductive health)

Comprehensive sexuality education which is age appropriate, gender sensitive and life
skills based can provide young people with the knowledge and skills to make informed
decisions about their sexuality and life style. Preparing children and young people for
the transition to adulthood has been one of humanity’s great challenges with human
sexuality and relationships at its core. Few young people receive adequate preparations
for their sexual lives. This leaves them potentially vulnerable to coercion, abuse and
exploitation. Unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infection (STI) including
HIV/AIDS. Many young people approach adulthood faced with conflicting and confusing
messages about sexuality and gender. This is often exacerbated by embarrassment,
silence, disapproval and open discussion of sexual matters by adults (parents, teachers)
at very time when it is most needed. Comprehensive sexuality education supports a
rights- based approach in which values such as respect, acceptance tolerance, equality,
empathy and reciprocity are inextricably linked to universally agreed human right. A
clear message concerning these dangers and how they can be avoided, from right
across the curriculum, is the best way to ensure that young people understand the risks
and know how to stay healthy.

e) Peace and Values Education

The need for peace and values education in the curriculum is obvious. Peace is clearly
critical for society to flourish and for every individual to focus on personal achievement
and their contribution to the success of the nation. Values education forms a key element
of the strategy for ensuring young people recognize the importance of contributing to
society, working for peace and harmony and being committed to avoiding conflict.

f) Financial Education

Financial education makes a strong contribution to the wider aims of education. It

xviii Teachers’ Guide

makes learning relevant to real life situations. It aims at a comprehensive financial
education program as a precondition for achieving financial inclusion target and
improves the financial capability of Rwandans. Financial education has a key role of
not only improving knowledge of personal but also transforming this knowledge into
action.

It provides the tools for sound money management practices on earnings, spending,
saving, borrowing and investing. Financial education enables people to take appropriate
financial services both formal and informal that are available to them and encourages
financial behaviors that enhance their overall economic wellbeing.

g) Standardization Culture

Standardization Culture develops learners’ understanding of the importance of

standards as a pillar of economic development and in the practices, activities and
lifestyle of the citizens. It is intended that the adoption of standardization culture should
have an impact upon health improvement, economic growth, industrialization, trade
and general welfare of the people. While education is the foundation and strength of
our nation, standards are one of the key pillars of sustainable economic development.

h) Inclusive Education

Inclusive education involves ensuring all learners are engaged in education and that
they are welcomed by other students so that everyone can achieve their potential.
Inclusive practice embraces every individual regardless of gender or ability including
those with learning difficulties and disabilities. The almost focus of inclusive curriculum
is on ensuring participation in education of learners with different learning styles and
other difficulties. To be successful, it entails a range of issues including teacher’s positive
attitudes, adapting the learning resources, differentiation of teaching and learning
methods and working together. Overall the benefits of an inclusive curriculum extend
to all learners.

Some cross cutting issues may seem specific to particular learning areas/subjects but
the teacher need to address all of them whenever an opportunity arises. In addition,
learners should always be given an opportunity during the learning process to address
these cross cutting issues both within and out of the classroom.

Below are examples on how crosscutting issues can be addressed in your subject:

Teachers’ Guide xix

 Cross-cutting Examples on how to integrate the cross-cutting
issue issue
Inclusive Involve all learners in all activities without any bias.
education
E.g. allow a learner with physical disability (using wheelchair)
to take notes or lead the team during an experiment.

Gender Involve both girls and boys in all activities: No activity is

reserved only to girls or boys.

Teachers should ensure equal participation of both girls

and boys during experiments as well as during cleaning and
tidying up related activities after experiments.
Peace and Values During group activities, debates and presentations, the
Education teacher will encourage learners to help each other and to
respect opinions of colleagues.
Standardization Some lessons involve carrying out experiments. Instruction
culture should be clear for learners to always check if they are not
using expired chemicals or defective apparatus.

In addition, when performing experiments learners have to

record data accurately.

For tasks involving calculations, they have to always present

accurate results.
Environment and In order to avoid the environment pollution, before, during
sustainability or after experiments learners avoid throwing away chemicals
anywhere; special places or appropriate containers should be
used.

Learners have to avoid uprooting /cutting down of plants and

killing of animals

1.2.3 Attention to special educational needs specific and inclusive education

In the classroom, learners learn in different way depending to their learning pace,
needs or any other special problem they might have. However, the teacher has the
responsibility to know how to adopt his/her methodologies and approaches in order
to meet the learning needs of each student in the classroom. Also teachers need to
understand that learners with special needs, need to be taught differently or need some
accommodations to enhance the learning environment. This will be done depending to
the subject and the nature of the lesson.

xx Teachers’ Guide
In order to create a well-rounded learning atmosphere, teachers need to:

•• Remember that learners learn in different ways so they have to offer a variety
of activities (e.g. role-play, music and singing, word games and quizzes, and
outdoor activities);
•• Maintain an organized classroom and limits distraction. This will help learners
with special needs to stay on track during lesson and follow instruction easily;
•• Vary the pace of teaching to meet the needs of each learner. Some learners
process information and learn more slowly than others;
•• Break down instructions into smaller, manageable tasks. Learners with special
needs often have difficulty understanding long-winded or several instructions
at once. It is better to use simple, concrete sentences in order to facilitate
them understand what you are asking.
•• Use clear consistent language to explain the meaning (and demonstrate or
show pictures) if you introduce new words or concepts;
•• Make full use of facial expressions, gestures and body language;
•• Pair a learner who has a disability with a friend. Let them do things together
and learn from each other. Make sure the friend is not over protective and
does not do everything. Both learners will benefit from this strategy;
•• Use multi-sensory strategies. As all learners learn in different ways, it is
important to make every lesson as multi-sensory as possible. Learners with
learning disabilities might have difficulty in one area, while they might excel in
another. For example, use both visual and auditory cues.
Below are general strategies related to each main category of disabilities and how
to deal with every situation that may arise in the classroom. However, the list is not
exhaustive because each learner is unique with different needs and that should be
handled differently.

Strategy to help a learner with developmental impairment:

•• Use simple words and sentences when giving instructions;

•• Use real objects that the learner can feel and handle. Rather than just working
abstractly with pen and paper;
•• Break a task down into small steps or learning objectives. The learner should
start with an activity that s/he can do already before moving on to something
that is more difficult;
•• Gradually give the learner less help;
•• Let the learner work in the same group with those without disability.

Teachers’ Guide xxi

Strategy to help a learner with visual impairment:

•• Help learners to use their other senses (hearing, touch, smell and taste) to
play and carry out activities that will promote their learning and development;
•• Use simple, clear and consistent language;
•• Use tactile objects to help explain a concept;
•• If the learner has some sight, ask them what they can see;
•• Make sure the learner has a group of friends who are helpful and who allow
him/her to be as independent as possible;
•• Plan activities so that learners work in pairs or groups whenever possible.
•• Strategy to help a learner with hearing impairment:
•• Strategies to help learners with hearing disabilities or communication
difficulties;
•• Always get the learner ‘s attention before you begin to speak;
•• Encourage the learner to look at your face;
•• Use gestures, body language and facial expressions;
•• Use pictures and objects as much as possible;
•• Ask the parents/caregivers to show you the signs they use at home for
communication use the same signs yourself and encourage other learners to
also use them;
•• Keep background noise to a minimum.
Strategies to help a learner with physical disabilities or mobility
difficulties:

•• Adapt activities so that learners who use wheelchairs or other mobility aids, or
other learners who have difficulty moving, can participate;
•• Ask parents/caregivers to assist with adapting furniture e.g. The height of a
table may need to be changed to make it easier for a learner to reach it or fit
their legs or wheelchair under;
•• Get advice from parents or a health professional about assistive devices.
Adaptation of assessment strategies

Each unit in the teacher’s guide provides additional activities to help learners achieve
the key unit competence. Results from assessment inform the teacher which learner
needs remedial, consolidation or extension activities. These activities are designed
to cater for the needs of all categories of learners; slow, average and gifted learners
respectively.

xxii Teachers’ Guide

1.2.4 Guidance on assessment

Assessment is an integral part of teaching and learning process. The main purpose
of assessment is for improvement. Assessment for learning/ Continuous/ formative
assessment intends to improve learners’ learning and teacher’s teaching whereas
assessment of learning/summative assessment intends to improve the entire school’s
performance and education system in general.

Continuous/ formative assessment

It is an ongoing process that arises out of interaction during teaching and learning
between. It includes lesson evaluation and end of sub unit assessment. This formative
assessment should play a big role in teaching and learning process. The teacher should
encourage individual, peer and group evaluation of the work done in the classroom and
uses appropriate competence-based assessment approaches and methods.

Summative assessment

The assessment can serve as summative and formative depending to its purpose. The
end unit assessment will be considered summative when it done at end of unit and
want to start a new one. It will be formative assessment, when it is done in order to give
information on the progress of students and from there decide what adjustments need
to be done. The assessment done at the end of the term, end of year, is considered as
summative assessment so that the teacher, school and parents are informed of the
achievement of educational objective and think of improvement strategies. There is
also end of level/ cycle assessment in form of national examinations.

1.2.5 Students’ learning styles and strategies to conduct teaching and learning
process

There are different teaching styles and techniques that should be catered for. The
selection of teaching method should be done with the greatest care and some of
the factors to be considered are: the uniqueness of subjects; the type of lessons; the
particular learning objectives to be achieved; the allocated time to achieve the objective;
instructional materials available; the physical/sitting arrangement of the classroom,
individual students’ needs, abilities and learning styles. There are mainly four different
learning styles as explained below:

a) Active and reflective learners

Active learners tend to retain and understand information best by doing something
active with it—discussing or applying it or explaining it to others. Reflective learners
prefer to think about it quietly first.

Teachers’ Guide xxiii

 b) Sensing and intuitive learners

Sensing learners tend to like learning facts; intuitive learners often prefer
discovering possibilities and relationships. Sensors often like solving problems by well-
established methods and dislike complications and surprises; intuitive learners like
innovation and dislike repetition.

c)Visual and verbal learners

Visual learners remember best what they see—pictures, diagrams, flow charts, time
lines, films, demonstrations, etc.; verbal learners get more out of words—written and
spoken explanations.

d) Sequential and global learners

Sequential learners tend to gain understanding in linear steps, with each step
following logically from the previous one. Global learners tend to learn in large
jumps, absorbing material almost randomly without seeing connections, and then
suddenly “getting it.”

1.2.6 Teaching methods and techniques that promote the active learning

The different student learning styles mentioned above can be catered for, if the teacher
uses active learning whereby learners are really engaged in the learning process.

What is Active learning?

Active learning is a pedagogical approach that engages students in doing things and
thinking about the things they are doing. In active learning, learners are encouraged to
bring their own experience and knowledge into the learning process.

The role of the teacher in active learning

•• The teacher engages learners through active learning methods such as inquiry
methods, group discussions, research, investigative activities and group and
individual work activities.
•• He/she encourages individual, peer and group evaluation of the work done
in the classroom and uses appropriate competence-based assessment
approaches and methods.
•• He provides supervised opportunities for learners to develop different
competences by giving tasks which enhance critical thinking, problem solving,
research, creativity and innovation, communication and cooperation.
•• Teacher supports and facilitates the learning process by valuing learners’
contributions in the class activities.

xxiv Teachers’ Guide

 The role of learners in active learning

Learners are key in the active learning process. They are not empty vessels to fill
but people with ideas, capacity and skills to build on for effective learning. A learner
engaged in active learning:

•• Communicates and shares relevant information with other learners through

presentations, discussions, group work and other learner-centred activities
(role play, case studies, project work, research and investigation)
•• Actively participates and takes responsibility for their own learning
•• Develops knowledge and skills in active ways
•• Carries out research/investigation by consulting print/online documents and
resourceful people, and presents their findings
•• Ensures the effective contribution of each group member in assigned tasks
through clear explanation and arguments, critical thinking, responsibility and
confidence in public speaking
•• Draws conclusions based on the findings from the learning activities.
Main steps for a lesson in active learning approach

All the principles and characteristics of the active learning process highlighted above
are reflected in steps of a lesson as displayed below. Generally, the lesson is divided
into three main parts whereby each one is divided into smaller steps to make sure that
learners are involved in the learning process. Below are those main part and their small
steps:

1) Introduction

Introduction is a part where the teacher makes connection between the current and
previous lesson through appropriate technique. The teacher opens short discussions
to encourage learners to think about the previous learning experience and connect it
with the current instructional objective. The teacher reviews the prior knowledge, skills
and attitudes which have a link with the new concepts to create good foundation and
logical sequencings.

2) Development of the new lesson

The development of a lesson that introduces a new concept will go through the following
small steps: discovery activities, presentation of learners’ findings, exploitation,
synthesis/summary and exercises/application activities, explained below:

Teachers’ Guide xxv

a) Discovery activity

Step 1

•• The teacher discusses convincingly with students to take responsibility of

their learning
•• He/she distributes the task/activity and gives instructions related to the tasks
(working in groups, pairs, or individual to instigate collaborative learning, to
discover knowledge to be learned)
Step 2

•• The teacher let the students work collaboratively on the task.

•• During this period the teacher refrains to intervene directly on the knowledge
•• He/she then monitors how the students are progressing towards the
knowledge to be learned and boost those who are still behind (but without
communicating to them the knowledge).
b) Presentation of learners’ productions

•• In this episode, the teacher invites representatives of groups to presents the

students’ productions/findings.
•• After three/four or an acceptable number of presentations, the teacher
decides to engage the class into exploitation of the students’ productions.
c) Exploitation of learner’s productions

•• The teacher asks the students to evaluate the productions: which ones are
correct, incomplete or false
•• Then the teacher judges the logic of the students’ products, corrects those
which are false, completes those which are incomplete, and confirms those
which correct.
d) Institutionalization (summary/conclusion/ and examples)

•• The teacher summarises the learned knowledge and gives examples which
illustrate the learned content.
e) Exercises/Application activities

•• Exercises of applying processes and products/objects related to learned unit/

sub-unit
•• Exercises in real life contexts
•• Teacher guides learners to make the connection of what they learnt to real
life situations. At this level, the role of teacher is to monitor the fixation of
process and product/object being learned.

xxvi Teachers’ Guide

3) Assessment

In this step the teacher asks some questions to assess achievement of instructional
objective. During assessment activity, learners work individually on the task/activity.
The teacher avoids intervening directly. In fact, results from this assessment inform the
teacher on next steps for the whole class and individuals. In some cases, the teacher
can end with a homework assignment.

II. SAMPLE LESSON PLAN

Sample lesson
Teacher’s Name:…………………………………School Name: ………...........………......
Term Date Subject Class Unit No Lesson No Duration Class size
I 23 Feb 2018 Biology
rd
S4PCB 4 1 of 5 80 minutes 25 students
Type of Special Educational Needs
No one
and number of learners
Topic area:
Sub-topic
area: ORGANISATION AND MAINTENANCE OF LIFE
Unit title Cell structure
Key Unit Cell structure and specialization.
Competence:
To able to describe the structure and function of cells in an
Title of the organism.
lesson
Ultrastructure of animal cell and plant cell.
Plan for
this Class In laboratory
(location: in /
outside)
Using microscopes and prepared micrographs or diagrams
Instructional containing the structures of animal cell and plant cell, students will
Objectives be able to differentiate accurately between animal cell and a plant
cell.
Learning
Microscopes, micrographs, pens and papers
Materials

Teachers’ Guide xxvii

 1. Rwanda Education Board (2015). Advanced Level Biology Syllabus
(S4-S6). Kigali
2. Kent M. (2000). Advanced Biology. Oxford University Press,
Oxford, UK.
3. Campbell, N.A, et al. (2008). Biology, Pearson international
References
Edition, San Francisco, USA, 8th edition
4. Pete K. Frank S. (2008). OCR Biology. Pearson Education Limited.
British.
5. Miller, Levine (2008). Prentice Hall Biology. Pearson Education.
USA.

Description of teaching and learning activity: Competences

Timing for and cross cutting
each step The activities of this lesson will be conducted in issues to be
groups in laboratory. addressed
Teacher’s activities Learner’s activities
1. Asking some questions: - Give answers. Competences:
Introduction:
- What are the parts of - Listening how - Critical thinking
In 5 minutes.
a light microscope? teacher relate
the function of - Communication
- Explain the function microscope with the
of each part? study of structure of
- What is the function cells
of a microscope?
- Relate the function of
microscope with the
lesson.
2.Development of the lesson: in 45 minutes
2.1. Discovery - Ask students to form - Form three groups Competences:
activity three groups. and share responsi-
bility. - Problem solving
- Provide materials and
instructions to stu- - Taking materials - communication,
dents. needed for this ac- - manipulation,
tivity.
- Monitor how - cooperation,
the students are - Students work col-
progressing towards laboratively on the - Critical thinking
the knowledge, skills task.
and attitudes to be
- Both boys and girls
learned and boost Cross cutting
participate actively.
those who are still issue:
behind (but without
communicating to - Peace and value.
them the knowledge). - Financial educa-
tion

xxviii Teachers’ Guide

 - Representatives of
Invite representatives
2.2. groups to presents
of groups to presents
presentation their findings. Communication
their findings.
of findings - Others follow to the
presentation
2.3. - Ask students - Give comments on Communication
Exploitation to evaluate the productions.
of students productions: which
- Follow to the
findings ones are correct,
correction of
incomplete or false
teacher.
- Judge the logic of the
students’ products,
corrects those which
are false, completes
those which are
incomplete, and
confirms those which
correct.
2.4. - Summarise the - Participate actively - Listening skills
Conclusion: In learned knowledge, in summarizing the
- Writing skills
20 minutes and give more content.
clarification on the
- Making short notes.
learned content.

3. - Engage students to - Do exercises Competences:

Assessment: work individually as indicated in
in 10 minutes. on questions of the students’ text books. Creativity
self-assessment 4.1 in
students’ text books

Comments
on the lesson
delivery

Teachers’ Guide xxix

III. UNIT DEVELOPMENT
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY
1

1.1 Key unit competence

To be able to explain how diversity is threatened by climate change and human activities

1.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values)

The learners learnt biodiversity in senior two in introduction to environmental Biology.
Remind learner’s biodiversity they have learnt in senior two but were not detailed.
Review biodiversity and provide to the learners more detailed information. During the
lessons, create awareness in learners the fact that the content in this unit will help the
learner to gain knowledge, skills attitudes and values which can lead the learners to be
environmental specialists.

1.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed

a) Inclusive education

This unit involves a collection of specimens and activities require observations on figures
on the proper use of introduction to biodiversity. These activities require assembling
specimens, apparatus and observation of the results. This may be challenging to
students with special educational needs especially children with visual impairment.
However, the teacher can make some arrangements like:

Grouping students. Students with special educational needs are group with others and
assigned roles basing on individual student’s abilities.

Providing procedure earlier before the experiment so that students get familiar
with them. They can be written on the chalkboard or printed depending on available
resources. If you have children with low vision remember to print in appropriate fonts.

Every important point is written and spoken. The written points help students with
visual impairment and speaking aloud helps students with hearing impairment

Remember to repeat the main points of the lessons.

Teachers’ Guide 1
b) Gender education

Emphasize to learners that anybody irrespective of their gender can present and
report during group activities. Give a role model who are successful in real life
without considering their gender, make sure that during experiments both boys
and girls shares and participates equally in all activities
c)Environment and sustainability

Learners get basic knowledge from the natural sciences, so introductory to biodiversity
through collections of specimens, learners understand and interpret principles of
sustainability. They also get skills and attitudes that will enable them in their everyday
life to address the environment and climate change issues and to have a sustainable
livelihood. Help the learners to know maximum skills and attitudes on the environmental
sustainability and to be responsible in caring for students environment.

1.4 Guidance on the introductory activity

This introductory activity helps you to engage learners in the introduction of biodiversity
and invite the learners to follow the next lessons.

Teacher’s activity:

•• Ask students to read the text and discuss the given questions.
•• Engage students in working collectively the activity.
•• Help students with different problems.
•• Ask any four students to present their findings while others are following.
The expected answers

1) The expected answer is:

a) Nymphaea thermarum, Found in Mashyuza a small locality in western

province in Rusizi district

2) The expected answer is:

Nyamyumba hot spring in Rubavu District

3) The expected answers are:

a) Species is a group of closely related organisms which are capable of
interbreeding to produce fertile offspring

b) Population is a group of Individuals of the same species

c) Community is a group of populations of different species which live in the

same place at the same time, and interact with each other

2 Teachers’ Guide
 d) Habitat is a specific area or place in which an individual organism lives

4) Introduction of invasive alien species and genetically modified organisms,

Pollution, Climate change, Overexploitation of natural resources, Habitat loss
and the degradation of the environment…

5) They are various consequences of species loss such as: -change in ecosystem
goods and services that lead to different natural disaters including droughts and
floods associated to the decrease in food production, and high spread of diseases.

1.5 List of lessons/sub-heading

Learning objectives (from the syllabus Number

Lesson title including knowledge, skills and of
attitudes): periods
1 The meaning
of key Define the terms: species, ecosystem,
ecological Biodiversity, and niche. 1
term and
biodiversity
2 Explain that biodiversity is considered at three
different levels:
Variation in ecosystems or habitats.
The number of species and their relative
abundance.
Genetic variation within each species
Evaluate the effects of human population
size, resourcew use, and technology on
environmental quality.
Identification
of biodiversity Evaluate the consequences of loss of
1
biodiversity.
Characterize the biotic and abiotic components
that define Rwanda’s ecosystems (e.g.,
freshwater, marine, and terrestrial).
Acknowledge that Biodiversity is much more
than a list of all the species in a particular area.
Recognize that the biodiversity of the Earth
is threatened by human activities and climate
change.

Teachers’ Guide 3
 3 Calculation of
Apply Simpson’s Index of Diversity. 1
Simpson index
4 Importance Explain the importance of random sampling in
of random determining the biodiversity of an area.
sampling and Use suitable survey methods to assess the
Use of suitable distribution and abundance of organisms in a
methods to local area.
assess the 1
distribution Appreciate that fieldwork is an important part
and of a biological education.
abundance of To appreciate diversity and find out how to
organisms analyses it.
5
Spearman
‘rank Use Spearman’s rank correlation and Pearson’s
correlation linear correlation to analyses the relationships
and Pearson’s between the distribution and abundance of 1
linear species and abiotic or biotic factors.
correlation

Proper explanation of how biodiversity is

Assessment threatened by climate change and human 2
activities

Lesson 1: Meaning of key ecological terms and biodiversity

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

This is the first lesson of the first unit Introduction to Biodiversity. In this lesson you will
be dealing with the meaning of key ecological terms and biodiversity. The first
thing to do before starting teaching is to remind students that they have learnt about
Species, Population, Community, Habitat, Ecosystem, Variation, Niche (unit 2, S2),
and let them discuss the meaning of some ecological terms so that they can prepare
themselves for this lesson

b) Teaching resources

Student’s book, graph charts, simulations and computer animations, projector, Manila
paper papers and diagrams.

4 Teachers’ Guide
 c) Learning activities 1.1

Teacher’ activities

•• Ask learners to do individually activity 1.1 in their student books

•• Provide the necessary materials.
•• Move around in silence to monitor if they are having some problems
•• Remember to assist those who are weak but without giving them the
knowledge.
•• Invites any three students to present their findings to the rest of students.
•• Ask other students to follow carefully the presentations
•• Note on chalk board / Manila paper the student’s ideas.
•• Tick the correct findings and correct those ones which are incorrect and try
again to complete those which are incomplete.
•• Harmonize and conclude on the learned knowledge and still engage students
in making that conclusion
Answers for activity 1.1

1) Definitions of biodiversity, species, niche, population and community.

•• Biodiversity means variety of life on earth it includes all organisms, species

and populations, the genetic variation among them; and their complex
assemblages of communities and ecosystems.
•• Species is a group of closely related organisms which are capable of interbreeding
to produce fertile offspring.
•• Niche is the status or role of an organism in its habitat or the mode of life of an
organism within its habitats
•• Population is a group of Individuals of the same species
•• Community is a group of populations of different species which live in the same
place at the same time, and interact with each other
2) Difference between ecological niche and habitat

Ecological niche Habitat

Is the status or role of an organism in its

is a specific area or place in which an
habitat or the mode of life of an organism
individual organism lives
within its habitats

Teachers’ Guide 5
Answers for self-assessment 1.1

Expected answers are:

The two main component of ecosystem are biotic factors and abiotic factors. Biotic
factors, these include all of the living organisms in an ecosystem and the interactions
among themselves. Their interactions involve; producers, consumers and decomposers.
Abiotic components, also called abiotic factors which are the non-living physical aspects
of the environment such as the sunlight, soil, temperature, wind, water, and air.

Expected answer:

Ecological niche; this describes how an organism or population have access to

distributed resources and interaction with competitors

Lesson 2: Identification of biodiversity

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

This is the second lesson of the first unit Introduction to Biodiversity. In this lesson you
will be dealing with identification of biodiversity. The first thing to do before starting
teaching is to remind students that they have learnt about biotic and abiotic factors,
ecosystem. and ask them to discuss their meaning so that they can prepare themselves
for this lesson.

b) Teaching resources

Students’ books, graph charts, simulations and computer animations, projector, Manila
papers diagrams.

c) Learning activities

Teacher’ activities

•• Ask students to work in pair and do activity 1.2 in student’s book.

•• Provide the necessary materials to the learners.
•• Move around in silence to monitor if they are having some problems, sharing
ideas in pairs.
•• Assist those who are weak but without giving them the knowledge.
•• Invite any of the three pairs to present their findings to the rest of students.
•• Ask other students to follow carefully the presentations
•• Note on chalk board / manila paper the student’s ideas.
•• Tick the correct findings and correct those ones which are incorrect and try
again to complete those which are incomplete.

6 Teachers’ Guide
 •• Harmonize and conclude on the learned knowledge and still engage students
in making their own conclusion
Answers of activity 1.2

1) Hospital and School building

•• Provision of health insurance to people from local communities.

•• Continuous mobilization about the necessity of biodiversity conservation
•• Develop television shows and other public media (Radio, Social media,
Newspapers, etc.) to communicate biodiversity conservation messages
•• Promote Environmental Education activities in schools to reach more people
with biodiversity conservation messages.
2) Different ways of biodiversity identification.

Biodiversity can be categorized into three groups including genetic, species and
ecological diversity. Genetic diversity is the combination of different genes found
within a population of a single species, and the pattern of variation found within
different populations of the same species.

Species diversity is the variety and abundance of different types of organisms which
inhabit an area. The variety of habitats that occur within a region, or within the mosaic
of patches found within a landscape constitute an ecosystem diversity.

3) Contribution of biodiversity to human well-being.

•• Good health and productive livelihoods depend on ecosystem products and

services, such as availability of fresh air, food, fuel sources, esthetic services,
financial/economical gains, etc...
4) Ecosystem services and goods contribute positively in human health promotion,
diseases prevention and public health. But, biodiversity loss and ecosystem
change may limit discovery of new components of biodiversity used in traditional
medicine and put at risk community health development.

Answers for self-assessment 1.2

1) Expected answers are:

Extinction: Extinction is when a species disappears, or is extinguished, from

earth. Loss of habitat is the largest cause of extinction today.

2) Causes of extenction of species are :

•• Introduction of invasive alien species

•• Pollution
•• Overexploitation

Teachers’ Guide 7
 •• Climate change
•• Etc.
Cause of extinction of species: Overharvesting, Pollution, habitat destruction,
Inadvertent introduction of new predator and competitors to natural flora
and fauna.

3) Expected answers are:

a) Benefits biodiversity: Biodiversity is important because it affects the air we

breathe, the food we eat, how clean our drinking water is, and is the source
of products that come from the earth. Biodiversity helps control disease,
provides us with things we need, and can make us happy just by providing us
with natural beauty.

4) Major factors leading to the degradation of ecosystems in Rwanda.

•• Habitat loss and the degradation of the environment

•• Introduction of invasive alien species and genetically modified organisms
•• Pollution
•• Climate change
•• Overexploitation of natural resources
5) All living organisms’ dependent on other species. For example: a rabbit needs
grass to live. Humans need rabbit and grass to live. If humans do not eat rabbits,
the grass dies. Well so do the rabbit, because there is no grass. And last left, are
the humans. They die because rabbits die. Now as you can see, this is an ongoing
cycle. If one thing goes, another does, and so on.

Forests on earth filter the usable water again and again, constantly recycling the
water we use for drinking.

Ecosystems can affect what type of instruments people play, the kinds of
decorations they use, and mythology.

8 Teachers’ Guide
6) Ten medicinal plants and specific the diseases they treat.

Medicinal plants Treated diseases

Amla (Emblica officinalis) Diabetes, hyper acidity

Bilba (Aegle marmelous) Diarrhea, Dysentery, Constipation

Guggul (Commiphora wighitii) Paralysis

Long peeper (Peeper longum) Enlarged spleen, Bronchitis

Sandal wood (Santalum album) Skin disorders, caugh...

Satavari (Asparagus racemosus) General weakness, caugh...

Sarpa gandha Hyper tension, insomnia

Pashan Bheda (Coleus barbatus) Kidney stone...

Gudmar (Gymnema sylvestre) Diabetes, asthma…

Ashok (Saraca asoca) Menstrual pain, uterine disorder…

Apart from the examples given above (Source: www. Odishafdc.com/products-

medicinal-plants) student may give other ones. Ask them to describe only one.

Note: the description depends on the example given by the students.

7) (Answers to this question depend on the student view)

Expected answers are:

a) Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies

b) Sedimentation, pollution, climate change, deforestation, landscape

changes, and urban growth industrialization...

c) It would be a death of aquatic animals. It means that the main problem

caused by water pollution is that it kills organisms that depend on these water
bodies. Dead fish, crabs, birds and sea gulls, dolphins, and many other animals
often wind up on beaches, killed by pollutants in their habitat.

Teachers’ Guide 9
 Lesson 3: Calculation of Simpson’s index
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

The learners already know what biodiversity mean in the previous lessons, you are
recommended to help them to work this activity to calculate the Simpson’s Index of
Diversity as it is in the student book you will use the learner’s ideas through collection
of species outside the class and learner’s presentations.

b) Teaching resources

This lesson requires some materials as cited below: frame quadrats, long 50 m tape
measures and rope or string, graph charts for populations.

c) Learning activities

Activity 1.3

Teacher’s activity:

•• Tell the learners to move outside the class.

•• Ask learners to collect trees species.
•• Ask learners to brainstorm ways of calculating the Simpson’s Index of Diversity.
•• Supervise the work how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity to
work in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to present what they have done
•• Help learners to summarize what they have learnt.
•• Guide the learners to calculate the Simpson’s Index of Diversity by giving the
formula to be used.
Answers of activity 1.3

Collected
Number (n) n/N (n/N) 2
specimens
A 56 0.448 0.200704
B 48 0.384 0.147456
C 12 0.096 0.009216
D 6 0.048 0.002304
E 3 0.024 0.000576

(∑ (n/N) 2)= 0.360256

10 Teachers’ Guide
D = 1-0.360256=0.639744

Diversity is medium because the value 0.639744 is within between 0 and 1

Answers for self-assessment 1.3

1) Difference between species richness and species evenness is: the species
richness is the number of species in an area, but species evenness is a measure of
how many individuals of each species are present.

2) Precautions you may need to take when measuring populations of aquatic

animals or plants.

•• Ensure you sample at different depths in the water.

•• Ensure you sample the mud.
•• Ensure you sample at different distances from the bank.
•• Ensure you have adequate footwear and don’t fall in.
3)In a habitat with a high diversity, there is a complex feeding structure and any
one species relies on many others. If one food species disappears, predators can
feed on others. In a simple, low-diversity habitat, one species may rely entirely
upon another. If the food species disappears, the predators will have no food and
will also disappear.

4) First of all, count the number of all species (n) and the total number of all
trees(N=125) then use the following formula D = 1 - (∑ (n/N) 2) When the index
equals or is nearby 0 represents infinite diversity and while when it equals or
is nearby 1, this means that there is no diversity. The bigger the value of D, the
lower the diversity and small is D, bigger is the diversity. 5) Intense predation,
interspecific competition and sai nature

5) Intense predation, interspecific competition and Soil nature

Lesson 4: Sampling techniques to assess the distribution and abundance

of organisms

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

You make revision on calculations of Simpson’s Index of Diversity, the activity in student
book create clear connection between calculations of Simpson’s Index of Diversity with
sampling techniques to assess the distribution and abundance of organisms, collection
of different specimens of plant species in school garden you will ask the learners the
different questions on the techniques used to collect different specimens of plant
species and why are they chosen that techniques and their advantages.

Teachers’ Guide 11
 b) Teaching resources

This lesson requires some materials as cited below: frame quadrats, long 50 m tape
measures and rope or string, sweep nets, graph charts for populations, simulations and
computer animations.

c) Learning activities

•• Ask learners to collect specimens of plant species

•• Ask learners to brainstorm techniques used to assess the distribution and
abundance of organisms.
•• Supervise the work how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity to
work in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to present what they have done
•• Help learners to summarize what they have learnt.
•• Guide the learner’s techniques used to assess the distribution and abundance
of organisms
Answers for activity 1.4

1) Random sampling

2) This ensures that every unit point within the study area stand a chance of being
sample depends on the answer given by students in (1). For example, students
said that they used

•• Random sampling is easy to use and ensures accuracy of representation.

•• Help in conducting research on a larger population.
3) Expected answers are:

•• If yes, because it is simple and quick. It helps in conducting research on a larger

flower
•• If no, you let them give their own ideas and come up with common conclusions
To calculate the Simpson’ index students would use the formula like D =1-∑ (n/N)
2 where (n) is the number of individuals in each species collected and (N) is the
total number of all species individuals collected. Quadrat normally consists of a
square frame, the most frequently used size being 1m2. The purpose of using a
quadrat is to enable comparable samples to be obtained from areas of consistent
size and shape.

The formula is D =1-∑ (n/N) 2 where (n) is the number of individuals in each species
collected and (N) is the total number of all species individuals collected.

12 Teachers’ Guide
 The formula is D =1-∑ (n/N) 2 where (n) is the number of individuals in each species
collected and (N) is the total number of all species individuals collected.

Answers for self-assessment 1.4

1) Expected answers are:

It eases the use and accuracy of representation.

Simple random sampling is as simple and accurate. This gives it a strong advantage
when conducting research on a larger population.

2) You provide the square quadrats 1m2, long wire to each group of students
and conduct them in school garden. Remember to tell them to avoid dangerous
insects. Allow students to work themselves and present their products. The
formula used is D =1-∑(n/N) 2

3) Expected answers are:

The benefits of using the following sampling techniques:

(a) Quadrats:

•• These techniques are simple.

•• These techniques can be easily ample many different times
•• These are good for the ground that is flat
(b) Transect:

•• This is simple technique.

•• It may be applied to sample different areas of ecosystem
•• This technique indicates change in land as well as organism abundance.
(c) Mark and recapture

•• This technique can be applied for first mobile animals

4) Expected answers.

•• Quadrats are used when the organisms to be sampled are immobile.

•• Transect technique is used when change over time of topography from the
air under the see is measured.
•• Mark and recapture technique is used when to count first moving animas
difficult to see

Teachers’ Guide 13
 Lesson 5: Spearman rank correlation and Pearson’s linear correlation
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

You introduce the Spearman ‘rank correlation and Pearson’s linear correlation by
showing learners graph charts for populations and asking different questions such
as how you can Separate the figures in student’s book based on positive, negative or
absence of correlation, what do you understand by the term correlation? And in which
conditions results can indicate a positive correlation? From the answers provided by the
learners, give you the progress of the lesson.

b) Teaching resources

The following materials can be used in this lesson, graph charts for populations,
simulations and computer animations.

Learning activities 1.5

Teacher’s activity:

•• Give the learners the materials to be used and guide them.

•• Ask learners to separate figures located in student book based on positive,
negative or absence of correlation.
•• Ask learners to brainstorm how separate the figures.
•• Supervise the work how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity to
work in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to present what they have done
•• Help learners to summarize what they have learnt.
Answer for activity 1.5

1) Correlation is a statistical measure that shows the extent to which two or more
variables fluctuate together

2) The first figure represents the strongest correlation that is present for studied
items when all the points lie on a straight line. In this case, there is a linear
correlation, and the correlation coefficient equals 1. If a given variable X increases
so does another variable Y, the relationship is a positive correlation

•• If a variable X increases while the variable Y decreases, then the relationship

is a negative correlation.
•• There is no correlation at all, when the correlation coefficient is 0
Correlation is most generally defined as the degree to which one phenomenon or
random variable is associated with or can be predicted for another.

14 Teachers’ Guide
 3) Conditions results that can indicate a positive correlation are: The points lie
close to a straight line, which has a positive gradient. This indicates that as one
variable increases the other increases.

4) Conclusion about the results when there is no correlation: There is no pattern

to the points. This means correlation coefficient of 0.

Answers for self-assessment 1.5

Pearson’s linear correlation deals with linear relationship between two continuous
variables. The relationship can only be linear when the rate of change of one of the
variables is proportionally related to the rate of change in the other variable.

1.6 Summary of the unit

A species is a group of organisms that have many features in common and are able to
interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

An ecosystem is a relatively self-contained, interacting community of organisms, and

the environment in which they live and with which they interact. A niche is the role of
an organism in an ecosystem; it is how it ‘fits into’ the ecosystem.

Biodiversity is considered at three different levels: variation in ecosystems or habitats,

the number of species and their relative abundance, and genetic variation within each
species.

Random sampling in fieldwork is important to collect data that is representative of

the area being studied and to avoid bias in choice of samples. Random sampling is
appropriate for habitats where species are distributed uniformly across the whole area
and all are exposed to the same environmental conditions.

Frame quadrats are used to assess the abundance of organisms. Abundance can be
recorded as species frequency, species density and percentage cover.

Line and belt transects are used to investigate the distribution of organisms in a habitat
where conditions are not uniform (e.g. from low to high altitude). Line transects show
qualitative changes in species distribution; belt transects show changes in abundance
as well as distribution.

Teachers’ Guide 15
Mark–release–recapture is a method used to estimate the numbers of mobile animals
in a particular place.

Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D) is used to calculate the biodiversity of a habitat. The
range of values is 0 (low biodiversity) to 1 (high biodiversity).

Pearson’s linear correlation are used to see whether there is a relationship between
two features

1.7 Additional information

The activity requires you to take students out of class and help them to do it. As teacher,
you have to divide the students into groups, provide necessary materials to be used
and guide them accordingly. Remember to call student for presentation of their results.

1.8 End unit assessment I

Section A: Answer by true or false

1) True

2) True

3) True

4) True

5) False

Section B: Long and short answer based questions

1) Biodiversity is defined as the full range of variety and variability within and among
living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur

2) Insect pollinated plants would not reproduce due to lack of pollination, and
extinction

3) Cutting of forest should be regulated by adopting methods like Clear cutting,

Selective cutting, and Shelter wood cutting.

•• Avoid forest burning

•• Reforestation and afforestation
•• Forest clearance for agricultural purposes checking over.
•• Proper usage of forest products and forests.

16 Teachers’ Guide
 4) Formula: D =1-∑(n/N) 2

Species Number (n) n/N (n/N)2

A 2 0.117 0.013689
B 6 0.353 0.1246
C 3 0.176 0.03
D 4 0.235 0.055
E 2 0.117 0.013689
TOTAL 17 0.998 ∑(n/N)2= 0.236978

D=1-0.236978= 0.76

So, Diversity is lower because the value is nearby 1

5) Answer:

a) The following is the graph

30

25

s 20
e
shi
f
f
o15
r
e Number of fish
b
m Linear (Number of fish)
u10
N

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
time

b) The best time of capturing fish is from 00:00 up 09:00, because the curve shows the
rapid increase of fish that time.

1.9 Additional activities

1.9.1 Remedial Activities:

1) What do you understand with a Biome?

Answer: Biome is a large ecosystem where plants, animals, insects, and people live
in a certain type of climate

Teachers’ Guide 17
 2) What do you think is importance of biodiversity?

Answer: Biodiversity contributes to ecosystem goods and services. The ecosystem

goods and services include:

•• Provisioning services (provision of food, air, fire wood, medicines, energy,

fresh water…),
•• Regulating services (climate regulation, water purification, waste treatment,
natural hazard…),
•• Supporting services (nutrient cycling, primary production…) and
•• Cultural or aesthetic services (recreation, ecotourism…).
3) The value of Simpson’ index D ranges between ...... and.......

Answer: The value of this index also ranges between 0 and 1

4) During field activity, name the possible sampling methods you can use?

Answer: Random sampling method, Quadrat sampling method, Frame quadrats,

transect sampling, Belt transects method, Netting, The mark-release-recapture
technique.

5) When Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient is used?

Answer: When the graph of results shows that the data are correlated, but not
in a linear fashion.

1.9.2 Consolidation activities

1) Why population is different from community

Answer: Because population is a group of individuals of the same species and

community is a group of different population

2) Observe the following figure and try to give its name, its contribution in diseases,
treatment

Answer: Its name is Aloe vera. It treats different diseases like different infectious
diseases and it boosts immunity.

3) Analyze this formula D = 1 - (∑ (n/N) 2)

18 Teachers’ Guide
 Answer: The formula is used when calculating the Simpson index of biodiversity,
where (n) is a number of individuals in each species and (N) is the total number of
individuals in all species. The value of D ranges between 0 and 1

4) What do you think is an advantage of using line transect sampling technique?

Answer:
•• It can be used to sample different areas of the ecosystem.
•• Shows change in land and organism abundance
5) Observe the figure below and try to write the one which positive, negative and no
correlation

Answer:

1.9.3 Extended activities

1) What will happen to living organisms if they have the same ecological niche?

Answer: There will be competition and it will end by the extinction of some
species.

2) Describe the effect of climate change on biodiversity loss

Answer: Increased heat of the Earth’s surface affects biodiversity. It leads to the
death of various microorganisms, animal and plant species which failed to adapt
to the new conditions. The following are some of the likely impacts of climate
change on biodiversity:

Teachers’ Guide 19
 •• The climate change will have differential effects on species. Some species will
migrate through fragmented landscapes whilst others may not be able to do
so.
•• Many species that are already vulnerable are likely to become extinct.
•• Changes in the frequency, intensity, extent, and locations of climatically and
no climatically induced disturbances will affect how and at what rate the
existing ecosystems will be replaced by new plant and animal assemblages.
•• Loss or fragmentation of forest habitat due to climate change is a major threat
to biodiversity.
•• Climate change negatively affects crop production and cause vulnerable
people to depend mostly on ecosystem services.
•• Climate change negatively impacts water bodies by increasing or dropping
water levels.
3) In a survey of trees in a dry tropical forest, some students identified five tree
species (A to E). They counted the numbers of trees in an area 100 m × 100 m with
these results

Tree species Number

A 56
B 48
C 12
D 6
E 3

a) Calculate the Simpson’s Index diversity for identified species

b) Explain the advantage of using data on species diversity and abundance when
calculating an index of diversity.

c) The Simpson’s Index of diversity for vegetation in an open area inhabited by

grasslands was 0.8. For a similar sized area of vegetation beneath some conifer
trees it was 0.2. What do you conclude from these results?

20 Teachers’ Guide
Answers

a) The answer is given in the following table:

SPECIES n n /N (n/N)2
A 56 0.448 0.201
B 48 0.384 0.148
C 12 0.096 0.01
D 6 0.048 0.002
E 3 0.024 0.001
Total number of individuals, N 125 Σ(n /N)2= 0.362

Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D) = 1 –0.362 = 0.638

b) The ecosystem having one dominant species that is very abundant may have a
big number of species but there would be very few individuals of other species.
If abundance is measured, then there may be many individuals of this dominant
species, but there may not be many other species so it is species poor. An area
with one dominant species which is very abundant has a lower biodiversity than
an area with no dominant species and many species of all roughly the same
abundance.

c) The area of grassland has a high biodiversity, the area beneath the conifer
trees has a much lower biodiversity.

4) A quadrat measuring 25 cm x 25 cm was used to measure population abundance of

barnacles on a rocky shore. Data was collected from 10 randomly – placed quadrats.

Quadrat (1 m2) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Number of 0 4 5 2 9 0 10 8 2 10
barnacles
Calculate the density per m2 of the barnacles in the studied area.

Answer:

Surface area of one quadrat is 25 cm.25cm=625cm2 =6.25 m2

The surface area of all 10 quadrats is6.25 m2. 10=62.5m2

Total number of all barnacles is 50

The density of barnacles in the studied area = 50/62.5=0.8

Teachers’ Guide 21
 5) Describe the Spearman’s rank correlation.

Answer: When collected data are not quantitative, but used an abundance scale
or when the researcher is not sure if quantitative data are normally distributed. It
might also be possible that a graph of results shows that the data are correlated,
but not in a linear fashion. In this case, the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient
is used. It involves ranking the data recorded for each variable and assessing the
difference between the ranks.

22 Teachers’ Guide
UNIT 2: INTRODUCTION TO CLASSIFICATION
2

2.1 Key unit competence

To be able to apply the basic knowledge of classification to group living organisms into
the three domains.

2.2 Prerequisites
Introduce the unit by asking learners identify biodiversity studied previous unit and
use it in classification. It is also necessary for the teacher, to ask learners about what
they recall about classification studied in ordinary level. Ask learners the reasons for
classification, what do we consider while classifying organisms, how do we classify
organisms and other related questions to help learners remember previous concepts
studied in the previous level.

Remember, learners have knowledge and skills of drawing a dichotomous key studied
in senior 1, you can base on this to enable them to identify observable characteristics of
collected specimens for identification.

Learners have knowledge of classification of living organisms, basically the five

kingdoms of living organisms in senior 1, this will enable learners to discover the three
domains of organisms.

2.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed

a) Environment and sustainability

Guide learners while collecting specimens and caution them against uprooting, cutting
down plants and un necessary killing of animals. As a teacher, you are required to be
creative and innovative enough, in integrating this cross cutting issue since it applicable
in all lessons of this unit for example in the lessons of: five kingdoms of living organisms,
dichotomous key to mention but a few. Learners must recognise the significance of
plants and animals in environmental protection. Learners also need to understand
their positive roles in environment and sustainability.

Teachers’ Guide 23
 b) Gender

In all lessons of this unit, this cross cutting issue can be integrated. As a teacher,
your role is to ensure gender equality in activities you conduct inside and outside the
classroom. Gender can be integrated, for example by putting together boys and girls in
group work, while setting tasks and when presenting.

c) Comprehensive sexuality education (HIV/AIDS, STI, Family

planning, Gender equality and reproductive health)

When facilitating a lesson of common bacterial diseases, learners need to be aware

that syphilis and gonorrhea are STIs and at the same time caused by bacteria.

Lesson of the structure and classification of viruses, integrate in this cross cutting
issue. Link the cause of AIDS which is HIV to this issue and emphasize on preventative
measures. Learners are required to put into practice the preventative measures of HIV/
AIDS and STIs.

d) Peace and Values Education

The role of a teacher is to create and promote peace in a learning environment. In lesson
2.2, guide learners to ensure that all living organisms co – exist in harmony. This cross
cutting issue can be integrated at any time in classroom, outside classroom, in school
environment and anywhere in life. Teacher should not be a source of conflicts. Learners
need to appreciate peace and values and advocate for positive behavior among them.

2.4 Guidance on the introductory activity

This activity is very essential since it captures the attention of learners: As a teacher,
you are required to give such activity because it has the following benefits:

•• It creates curiosity among learners and enhances active learning through

doing.
•• It promotes critical thinking and allows learners to predict the next lesson /
unit.
•• The teacher is encouraged to set clear introductory activity which can give a
general picture of the whole unit if possible.

24 Teachers’ Guide
2.5 List of lessons.
Number of
Lesson title Learning objectives periods
Describe the classification of species
into the taxonomic hierarchy of domain,
1 Taxonomic hierarchy 3
- kingdom, phylum, class, order, family,
genus and species

Outline the characteristic

The three domains:
features of the three domains
2 Bacteria, Archaea, 2
Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya.
Eukarya

The five kingdoms of Outline the characteristic features

living organisms of the kingdoms Protoctista,
3 3
Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
Draw and label the structure of bacteria.
Economic
Describe the economic importance of
4 importance of 3
bacteria to humans.
bacteria

Identify common bacterial

Common bacterial
diseases in plants and animals.
5 diseases in animals 3
Demonstrate methods of preventing
and plants
common bacterial diseases.
Explain why viruses are not included in the
The structure and three domain classification.
6 classification of Outline how they are classified: limited to 3
viruses type of nucleic acid and whether these are
single stranded or double stranded.
The dichotomous Design and apply a dichotomous key for a
7 2
key group of organisms

classify the species into the taxonomic

hierarchy of domain, kingdom, phylum,
class, order, family, genus and species,
8 Assessment 2
the characteristic features of the three
domains and of the kingdoms Protoctista,
Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.(2 periods)

Teachers’ Guide 25
 Lesson 1: Taxonomic hierarchy
a) Prerequisite:

Start the lesson by asking learners questions such as: what is meant by biological
classification? How do we classify living organisms? Why are living organisms classified?
Remember students have studied the five kingdoms of living organisms in senior 1 & 2,
so they are expected to answer correctly the asked questions. Proceed with the lesson
by introducing to them activity 2.1 in learners’ book as follows:

b) Teaching Resources: Manilas, markers, cards, text books or computer

aided materials.

c) Learning activities

Guide learners to develop competencies of this lesson by doing the following:

•• Ask learners to make groups of not more than five students (depends on
number of students in class).
•• Provide each group with cards written on the following words: country,
province, continent, sector, family, a cell, village and district.
•• Ask learners to arrange them in their descending order of size (from the
largest to the smallest) in form of a chart as fig. 2.1 in student’s book.
•• Ask learners to answer questions in activity 2.1, in student’s book following
the arrangement made.
•• Display the figure in student book, ask learners to relate it with the one they
made in their findings.
•• Proceed with the lesson by connecting it to 8 major recognized groups of
taxonomic hierarchy and emphasize that a domain is so far recognized as the
largest group and below it there is a kingdom.
Answers for the introductory activity

a) The colour of fruits, size of fruits, shape, presence or absence of seeds inside,
ripeness

b) Oranges are closely related to lemons, and green paper is closely related to
red paper.

Answers for learning activity 2.1

1) Continent, country, province, district, sector, cell, village and family

2) The arrangement of words in a flow chart above is the same as that of

taxonomic hierarchy in student’s book fig.2.1.

26 Teachers’ Guide
 3) Organisms of the same species resemble one another and more to that are
far fewer in number than those in a domain.

As there are many countries in a continent, as it is the case with a domain, which can be
made up of many kingdoms e.g. domain Eukarya.

As one moves from continent to family the number of people reduces. Also from domain
to species, the number of organisms reduces as their features in common increase.

Answers for self-assessment 2.1

Answers for a)

1) The following are the answers:

a) Classification of African bush elephant

Domain Eukarya
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Order Proboscidae
Family Elephantae
Genus Loxodanta
Species Africana

b) Taxon refers to a unit or a group of classification in a taxonomic hierarchy.

In plural form, it is referred to as taxa. From the table above, the taxa include:
domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.

2) Classification of the organisms below

Organism Kingdom Phylum/ Class.

Division
Honeybee Animalia Arthropoda Insecta

Cockroach Animalia Arthropoda Insecta

Maize Plantae Angiosperm Monocotyledon

Spider Animalia Arthropoda Arachnida.

Teachers’ Guide 27
 3) Biologists use a classification system to name organisms with a universally
accepted name. They also group organisms in a logical manner. Here, organisms
placed into particular groups are more similar to one another than they are to
organisms in other groups. For each species is assigned a two-part scientific name
in what is termed as binomial nomenclature.

Lesson 2 : Three domains of Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya

a) Pre-requisite/ revision/ introduction.

Start the lesson by asking learners to mention the domains of organisms they know.
Ask students to brainstorm characteristics of each domain and distinguish the three
domains. Clearly highlight why Archaea and bacteria are classified into two different
domains.

b) Teaching Resources: text books, flip charts, markers, question papers, computers
and projectors.

c) Learning activity 2.2

•• Provide learners with text books and guide them to brainstorm the
characteristics of each of the three domains and distinguish them.
•• Ask each group to display and present their findings.
•• The teacher evaluates learners’ presentations by asking them to explain each.
•• Extend the lesson by clearly highlighting why Archaea and bacteria are
classified into two different domains.
Answers for learning activity 2.2:

Characteristic features of domain;

Bacteria

•• Cells with no true nucleus

•• DNA exists in circular chromosome and does not have histone proteins
associated with it
•• Smaller circular molecules of DNA called plasmids are often present
•• No membrane-bound organelles (such as mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi body, chloroplasts) are present
•• Ribosome are smaller than in eukaryotic cells
Domain Archaea

•• Cells with no membrane-bound organelles

28 Teachers’ Guide
 •• DNA exists in circular chromosome and does not have histone proteins
associated with it
•• Smaller circular molecules of DNA called plasmids are often present
•• Ribosome are smaller than in eukaryotic cells, but they have features that are
similar to those in eukaryotic ribosome, not to bacterial ribosome
•• Cell wall always presents, but does not contain peptidoglycans.
Domain Eukarya

Their characteristic features are:

•• Cells with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles

•• DNA in the nucleus arranged as linear chromosomes with histone proteins
•• Ribosome’s in the cytosol are larger than in prokaryotes, while chloroplasts
and mitochondria have ribosome, like those in prokaryotes.
•• Chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA is circular as in prokaryotes
•• A great diversity of forms: unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms
•• Cell division is by mitosis
d) Answers for Self-assessment 2.2

1) The three domains of organisms are; Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya

2) Domain in the current classification is so far recognized as the largest group

in the taxonomic hierarchy while a kingdom is the second largest group of
classification. i.e. organisms in a domain are further classified into kingdoms.

3) This is true mainly about archaeabacteria that live in hot and acidic springs
where temperatures exceed 100 and the pH may be as low as 2. These are
termed as thermo acidophilic bacteria. e.g Nymphaea thermarum

•• However, some can inhabit in anaerobic habitats and give off methane as a
product of their metabolism. They live in guts of cattle and are responsible
for intestinal gases. These are referred to as methanogenic Archaeabacteria.
•• Some are halophilic archaeabacteria and they live in very salty conditions such
salt flats. They can grow in salt concentrations approaching saturation.
•• Because they tolerate extreme conditions similar to those that are thought to
have existed at the dawn of life, Archaea are believed to have been the first
forms of life on earth.
4) Organisms are placed in various taxonomic groups basing on evolutionary
descent. Scientists compare the DNA of different organisms to establish
similarities between them and reconstruct possible evolutionary relationship.

Teachers’ Guide 29
 Lesson 3 : Five kingdoms of living organisms
a) Prerequisite

This is a practical based lesson and as a teacher, you need to guide learners throughout
in order to develop and acquire knowledge and skills as well as attitudes and values.

Caution learners not to destroy or kill organisms in the environment during collection of
specimens since this can result into loss of biodiversity and destruction of environment.
Guide learners to do activity 2.3 in student’s book.

Ask learners to identify five kingdoms of living organisms.

b) Teaching Resources: collected: housefly, spider, frog, gecko, bean, /maize

plants, moulds/mushrooms, spirogyra (algae) and a hen or their pictures, books,
flip charts and markers

c) Learning activity 2.3

•• Ask learners to collect organisms around or near the school such as: housefly,
spider, frog, gecko, bean, /maize plant, moulds/mushrooms, spirogyra (algae)
and a hen. You can provide a picture of each if it is difficult to collect them.
•• Ask learners to follow the steps in student’s book activity 2.3 and if pictures
are used, guide them as required.
•• Ask learners to observe the above mentioned organisms and classify them
into their respective kingdoms basing on their characteristics.
•• Ask learners to analyse their findings and identify the kingdom which is not
represented in their findings.
•• Proceed with the lesson and among others ask them to identify group of
organisms that is not classified in any of the five kingdoms and why.

30 Teachers’ Guide
Answers for learning activity2.3

Organism Kingdom
Housefly Animalia
Spider Animalia
Frog Animalia
Gecko Animalia
Bean Plantae
Maize Plantae
Mould Fungi
Mushroom Fungi
Spirogyra Protoctista
Hen Animalia

Characteristics of animals

•• Multicellular eukaryotes with many different types of specialized cells

•• Cells that are differentiated to form tissues and organs
•• Cells do not have chloroplasts and cannot photosynthesize (although some,
such as coral polyps have photosynthetic protoctists living within their tissues)
•• Cell vacuoles are small and temporary (for example lysosomes and food
vacuoles)
•• Heterotrophic nutrition
Characteristics of plants

•• Multicellular eukaryotes with cells that are differentiated to form tissues and
organs.
•• Few types of specialized cells
•• Some cells have chloroplasts and photosynthesizes
•• Cells have large, often permanent vacuoles for support Autotrophic nutrition
•• Cell walls are always present and are made of cellulose.
Characteristics of fungi are

•• Eukaryotic organisms.
•• Do not have chlorophyll and do not photosynthesise
•• Heterotrophic nutrition – they use organic compounds made by other
organisms as their source of energy and source of molecules for metabolism
•• Reproduce by means of spores

Teachers’ Guide 31
Characteristics of protists are

•• Eukaryotic organisms
•• Mostly single-celled, or exist as groups of similar cells
•• Some have animal-like cells (no cell wall) and are sometimes known as
protozoa
•• Others have plant-like cells (with cellulose cell walls and chloroplasts) and are
sometimes known as algae.
d) Answers for activity 2.3.2

Phylum Characteristics Examples

Chordata They have a notochord; they have a Human being, cow,
post anal tail at some stage in their mountain gorilla
life cycle.
Arthropoda They have jointed appendages/ Housefly, spider,
legs, they have exoskeleton, millipede
Annelida They do not have a distinctive head, Earthworm, rag
they have segmented body. worms, leeches.
Mollusca Most of them have shells Snails, octopus, squids
containing calcium carbonate, they and slugs.
have soft unsegmented body
Echinodermata They have five rays forming a radial Star fish, bristle star,
symmetry. sea urchin
Coelenterata They have tentacles, are radially Hydra, sea anemones,
symmetrical, have nematoblasts. jelly fish
Platyhelminthes They have a flat body Tape worms, liver
fluke and planarians
They also lack a respiratory system.
Nematoda Have unsegmented body, have Round worms, hook
both mouth and anus. worms
Porifera Have no nervous system, they are Sycon, euplectella
sessile.

Answers for self-assessment 2.3

1) The five kingdom classification aims to be natural because it attempts to group

organisms according to natural relationships ie the grouping is based on many
features, internal as well as external, uses information from many branches of
biology.

32 Teachers’ Guide
 2) Protists have a wide range of feeding methods. They obtain food in the
following ways:

•• Autotrophic nutrition in a process of photosynthesis for example in algae

•• Phagocytosis by engulfing food particles such as amoeba
•• Endocytosis; in ciliates such as paramecium that use oral groove
•• Others are parasitic like plasmodia that cause malaria.
3) Characteristics of protists are;

Eukaryotic organisms.

Mostly single-celled, or exist as groups of similar cells

Some have animal-like cells (no cell wall) and are sometimes known as protozoa

They feed by both autotrophic nutrition like algae and heterotrophic nutrition such as
protozoa.

4) The following are the answers:

a) Classification of organisms into respective Kingdoms

Name of organism Kingdom

Housefly Animalia
Maize Plantae
Frog Animalia
Bat Animalia
Eagle Animalia

b)Maize and frog because maize has chlorophyll and cell wall while in a frog they
are absent.

5)Plants have cells with chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll thus are autotrophs
while members of fungi do not have chloroplasts and they feed heterotrophically
ie are saprophytes.

Lesson 4 : Economic importance of bacteria

a) Prerequisite

Start the lesson by asking learners questions like: Are bacteria important to human
beings? How? Ask students to brainstorm how bacteria are both useful and harmful to
humans. Clearly, introduce activity 2.4 in the students’ books.

Teachers’ Guide 33
 b) Teaching resources: Textbooks, flip charts and markers, simulations and
computers.

c) Learning Activities 2.4

Guide learners to form groups of four each (you can consider the size of the class and
available resources).

Provide learners with text books, guide them to read and justify the usefulness and
harmfulness of bacteria to humans.

Ask learners to present and guide them to summarize their presentations and evaluate
them

After summarizing their presentations proceed with the lesson by explaining deeply
each point in students’ summary

Answers for learning activity 2.4

Bacteria are useful in the following ways: in biotechnology, genetic engineering,

decomposition, fiber retting, nitrogen fixation, digestion, biological control. However,
some bacteria are harmful to humans in the following ways:

•• Saprotrophic bacteria attack and food spoilage.

•• Some bacteria are causal agents of different diseases to animals and to human
beings.
•• Such bacteria include; Vibrion cholerae, Shigella bacterium, Salmonella typhus,
Bacillus etc. They cause diseases such as cholera, dysentery, tuberculosis,
typhoid etc.

Lesson 5: Common bacterial diseases in animals and plants

a) Prerequisite

Ask learners the diseases caused by bacteria in both plants and animals more especially
in humans. Learners have prior knowledge about bacterial diseases since they studied
this at ordinary level. Use prepared resources to do activity 2.5 in student’s book.

b) Teaching resources: Text books, newspapers, journals, magazines, flip charts

and markers, photographs, videos

c)Leaning Activities 2.5

Guide learners in their respective groups to use text books and prepare a presentation
on cause, transmission and control of cholera.

34 Teachers’ Guide
Ask learners to present in their respective groups.

Proceed the lesson by describing other bacterial diseases in humans apart from cholera
and emphasize on prevention and control.

Answers for learning activity 2.5

Cholera is caused by bacteria called Vibrion cholerae (comma shaped bacterium).

Transmission is mainly by eating food and drinking water contaminated by cholera
germs in faeces by houseflies

•• Prevention and control the following measures can be ensured in order to

prevent cholera outbreak;
•• Sensitization of the public and sanitation and personal hygiene.
•• Proper food preparation for example washing hands and fruits before eating
them.
•• Food and drinks should be covered properly to reduce contamination.
•• Unclean water should be treated with chlorine to make it safe for drinking.
•• Proper boiling of water for drinking.
•• Vaccination to give active artificial immunity for at least one year.
•• Killing vectors like house flies with insectides to break their life cycle.
•• Isolate the cholera patients to reduce the transmission of the disease.
•• Avoid urinating and defecating in water bodies.
•• Treatment of sewage anaerobically using anaerobic bacteria and fungi.
Answers for Self-assessment 2.5

1) Cholera: It is caused by a bacterium called Vibrion cholera.

2) Cholera is transmitted through the following way:By drinking water

contaminated by cholera germs

By vectors such as houseflies

Contact with patients, without protective gadgets.

3) Wash hands with clean water and soap after visiting the toilet and before
eating.
4) I can advise people of the affected area and the neighborhood to ensure the
following measures:
•• Educate the public to ensure personal hygiene for example washing hands
after visiting the toilet.
•• Wash hands and fruits before eating.

Teachers’ Guide 35
 •• Food and drinks should be covered properly to reduce contamination.
•• Unclean water should be treated with chlorine to make it safe for drinking.
•• Drink boiled or treated water
•• Killing vectors like house flies with insectides to break their life cycle.
•• Isolate the cholera patients to reduce the transmission of the disease.
•• Avoid urinating and defecating in water bodies.
•• Treatment of sewage anaerobically using anaerobic bacteria.
•• Proper food preparation
5) Houseflies visit contaminated/ dirty places such as toilets or faeces, pick
bacteria (germs) and deposit them into food. When we eat such contaminated
food, we can suffer from diseases.

Lesson 6 : Structure and classification of viruses

a) Prerequisite

Remember in the previous lesson of five kingdoms of living organism’s learners

discovered that viruses are not classified in any of the kingdoms.

Ask to suggestbrainstorm reasons why viruses are not classified in any of the five
kingdoms.

b) Teaching Resources: Text books, flip charts and markers.

c) Leaning Activity 2.6

Help learners to form groups of six considering gender balance.

Provide learners with text books and ask them to brainstorm reasons why viruses are
not classified in any of the five kingdoms.

Guide learners and give attention to learners with special education needs.

Guide learners while summarizing their presentations.

Answers for learning activity 2.6

They are not classified in any of the five kingdoms because:

•• Viruses are acellular – they do not have a cellular structure like bacteria and
protists.
•• They crystallize in isolation

36 Teachers’ Guide
 •• They do not reproduce, respire and feed outside the living cells. (Do not show
the characteristics of a living cell).
•• Viruses have none of the features that we traditionally use for classification.
d)Answers for Self-assessment 2.6

1)The following are the answers:

a) Virus is a particle of nucleic acid, proteins and in some cases lipids.

b) A typical virus is composed of core of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein

coat, which is called a caspid.

2) The virus enters a cell, makes copies of itself, and causes cell to burst. In another
way, the virus embeds its DNA into the DNA of the host cell and replicates.

3) Bacteriophage is a virus that infects bacteria while retrovirus is a virus that

contains RNA.

4) Most biologists and students argue that viruses should not be considered as a
form of life because they don’t show all characteristics of living organisms hence
exist between the border line of living things and non-living things.

Lesson 7 : Dichotomous key

a)Prerequisite

This is a practical based lesson and as a teacher, you need to guide learners throughout
in order to develop and acquire knowledge and skills as well as attitudes and values.

Caution learners not to destroy or kill organisms in the environment during collection of
specimens since this can result into loss of biodiversity and destruction of environment.
Ask learners to recall the meaning of dichotomous key and what do we consider while
constructing a dichotomous key. Facilitate learners to develop their skill of observation,
drawing and as well as recording.

b) Teaching resources: leaves of; cassava, avocado, jacaranda, cassia; hibiscus,

bean, maize/Paspalum

c) Leaning activity 2.7

•• Guide learners to collect the following leaves of cassava, avocado, jacaranda,

cassia; hibiscus, bean, maize or Paspalum
•• Ask learners to label the leaves: A, B, C, D, E, F and G as shown in fig 2.11 in
students’ book.
•• Ask learners to observe the specimens collected and record their characteristics
in a table form

Teachers’ Guide 37
 •• Ask learners to display their findings and facilitate them through evaluation to
make a summary of correct observations.
Answers for learning activity 2.7

Leaf Description of features/characteristics

A Simple digitate, long petiole, network veined.
B Simple, network venation, smooth margin.
C compound bipinnate, network veined
D Compound pinnate, network veined.
E Simple, short petiole, network venation, smooth margin.
F Compound trifoliate, network venation.
G Simple, leaf sheath present, parallel venation.
Answers for self-assessment 2.7

1) Phylum arthropoda: because all organisms shown, have jointed appendages or

legs and all possess exoskeleton.

2) The presence or absence of wings

3) A spider has 4pairs of jointed legs while a mosquito has 3pairs of jointed legs.
A millipede has a cylindrical body while a centipede has a flattened body shape.

4) Is presented in the table

Organism Class
Millipede Diplopoda
Centipede Chilopoda

2.6 Summary of the unit

•• Classification of organisms may be natural or artificial.
•• Natural classifications aim to group organisms according to their evolutionary
relationships whereas, artificial classifications place organisms into groups for
purposes of conveniences. For example, organisms can be classified according
to where they live, how they move or their size.
•• Taxonomy deals with sorting or grouping living organisms into various groups.
•• Phylogeny is the study of how closely different species are related. It reflects
the evolutionary relationships of species.
•• In modern classification, organisms are classified into eight recognised groups

38 Teachers’ Guide
 (taxa) of classification. The eight recognised taxa are: Domain, kingdom,
phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
•• A species is defined as the smallest group of classification where organisms
resemble one another and are capable of interbreeding together to two word
names should be written in italics when typed and when hand written should
be underlined.
•• There are three domains of living organisms: Bacteria (Eubacteria), Archaea
and Eukarya.
•• Prokaryotes includes; bacteria and Archaea while eukaryotes involve: animals,
plants, fungi and protists)
•• There are five recognised kingdoms of living organisms; monera (prokaryote),
protoctista (protista), fungi, Animalia and plantae.
•• Viruses are not classified into any of the above five kingdoms since they are
considered as both living and non-living things. They exist at border line of
living organisms and non-living things.
•• A dichotomous key is a way of identifying and naming a specimen you have
found.
•• A dichotomous key is constructed basing on structural observable features.
•• Bacteria cause diseases humans like cholera, tuberculosis (TB), typhoid fever,
pneumonia, tetanus, diphtheria, bacterial meningitis, tooth decay in humans
and anthrax in cattle.
2.7 Additional Information
The content in this unit is not enough to address all the necessary information especially
the details of every kingdom. You need to continue giving assignments on concepts of
classification which are very essential but the syllabus doesn’t tackle them. An example
is summary of division of kingdom plantae as follows:

KINGDOM PLANTAE

BRYOPHYTA PTERIDOPHYTAE ANGIOSPERMS GYMNOSPERMS

Division bryophyte: examples are Mosses, Liverworts and Hornworts.

•• They are non-vascular land plants, which do not contain any conducting tissues
and are often referred to as bryophytes.

Teachers’ Guide 39
 •• These plants are small, grow close to the ground and include mosses and
liverworts.
•• They are very small in structure and are considered as important members of
our ecosystem.
•• The reproduction process is carried in their spores. They are non-flowering
plant and are found mainly growing on the ground, on other plants and on
rocks.
•• They play a vital role in preventing soil erosion
Division pteridophytae: examples are horsetails, ferns and club mosses.
•• They are seedless vascular plants, which contain vascular tissues but do not
produce seeds.
•• They are involved in transportation of fluids.
•• The reproduction process is carried by spores.
Division angiosperm: examples are trees, shrubs vines and all flowering plants

•• Angiosperms are flowering plants, which develops the seeds within a

protective structure.
•• The reproduction process is carried by Angiosperm.
•• They develop their seeds within an ovary, which itself is embedded in a flower.
After the stage of fertilization, the flower falls and the ovary become a fruit.
•• Angiosperms in the class Dicotyledoneae grows into two seed-leaves
(cotyledons).
•• An angiosperms leaf consists of a single, branched, main vein, which originates
from the base of the leaf blade. In few plants, it may also consist of four or
more main veins diverging from the same base
Division Gymnosperm: examples are palms

•• Gymnosperms are non-flowering plants with undeveloped seeds, which are

present in an enclosed structure.
•• Monocot begins with a single seed-leaf. The main veins of their leaves are
usually parallel and unbranched.
•• Monocot plays an important role in providing us with our primary sources of
nutrition, which includes grains and fruits

2.8 Answers for end unit assessment 2

1) b
2) a
3) c
4) a

40 Teachers’ Guide
 5) a
6) c
7) d
8) c
9) c
10) c
11) The answers are given in the following table:

Structures Organisms
Antennae Fungus
Flagella Snail
Spores Housefly
Coiled shell Euglena
Pseudopodia Amoeba
Cilia Paramecium

12)The following are the answers:

a) X Protoctista and Y Monera

b) The following are the answers:

(i) The answers are:

•• Both protoctista and monera exhibit autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.

•• Both x and y are unicellular organisms except few members of x such as algae.
•• Both have members with flagella.
(ii) Both x and fungi undergo parasitic mode of feeding.

(iii) Some members of protoctista such as algae and plantae both carry out
photosynthesis.

(iv) Most members of x locomote like animals

Teachers’ Guide 41
 13) Answers are summarized in the following table:

Charac- Insecta Arach- Crustacea Chilop- Diplop-

teristic nida oda oda
Number 3 body parts 2body 2body parts 2 body 2body
of body parts parts parts
parts
Very
Number Ranges
1 pair per many (2
of limbs or 3 pairs 4pairs between
segment pairs per
legs 5-20pairs
segment)
Gaseous Lung
Spiracles, tra- Gills or body Tracheal
exchange books or Spiracles
cheal system membrane system
structure trachea
Number
of 1 pair None 2 pairs 1 pair 1 pair
antennae
1or 2 pairs and
Number
sometimes None None None None
of wings
none.
1pair of com- 1 pair
Number 1 pair of Group of
pound eyes and of com-
and nature 8 Simple compound simple
many simple pound
of eyes eyes eyes
eyes eyes

14) Significance of classification;

•• To identify living organisms and place them into their correct groups basing on
their observable characteristics.
•• To understand the evolutionary relationship between different organisms.
•• To arrange information about living organisms in order, for easy study
purposes.
•• To enable biologists to identify characteristics of organisms.
•• To put organisms into small manageable groups basing on their similarities for
easy studypurpose.
15) Classification of a blue monkey.
Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Chordata

42 Teachers’ Guide
 Class Mammalia

Order Primate

Family Cercopithidae

Genus Cercopithecus

Species mitis

Scientific name is Cercopithecus mitis.

2.9 Additional activities

2.9.1 Remedial activities

1) Arrange the following taxonomic groups in their ascending order of size (from
smallest to the largest); domain, class, genus, kingdom, species, family, phylum
and order.

2) A scientist finds a new organism but is unsure to which kingdom it belongs. The
organism is unicellular, has cell wall, contains peptidoglycans, has a circular DNA
molecule and ribosome but lacks a nucleus. Basing on these characteristics, to
which domain and kingdom does it belong?

3) State the five kingdoms and give two examples of organisms in each kingdom.

4) Bacteria that live on teeth produce an acid that cause tooth decay. Why do
people who do not brush their teeth regularly tend to have more cavities than
those who do?

5) In which type of virus does human immunodeficiency virus belong?

6) What precautions would be taken while collecting specimens for classification?

Answers for Remedial Activities

1) Species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain.

2) Domain is bacteria and kingdom is monera (prokaryote)

Teachers’ Guide 43
 3) Answers are summarized in the following table:

Kingdom Examples
Animalia Cow, human , hen
Plantae Maize, mango, comelina (wondering jew)

Fungi Mushrooms, moulds, puffballs, toadstools

Protoctita Paramecium, amoeba, plasmodium,euglena

Monera Vibrio cholera, salmonella, bacillus, diplococci,

4) Because their rapid growth of bacteria that accumulate in food remains

between teeth and its outer surface, leading to production of more acid. The
accumulation of the acid eats up the enamel of the teeth thus tooth decay.

5) Retrovirus.

Before starting to collect specimens for practical purposes, the following precautions
must be put in considerations:

•• Care must be taken while collecting and handling some organisms because
some are poisonous, have thorns and others are able to sting.
•• Be aware that some animals are dangerous (harmful) to humans. Some can
bite such as snakes, sting such as bees, others have poisonous glands such as
toad and other animals like fish have fins for piercing.
•• Avoid and try to minimize where possible, uprooting, cutting down or plucking
and pruning of plants as this may threaten the biodiversity as well as result
into environmental degradation.
Consolidation activities

1) Copy and complete the table for classification of a housefly and its scientific
name.

Group of taxonomy Name

Kingdom
Phylum

Diptera
Family Muscidae
Musca
Species Domestica

44 Teachers’ Guide
 2) Answer the following questions:

a) How do fungi obtain their food nutrients?

b) How do cell walls of fungi and plants differ?

3) Answer the following questions:

a) What is a notochord?

b) How do the fins of cartilaginous fish differ from those of the bony fish?

4) Suppose bacteria lost the ability to nitrogen. How would this affect other living
organisms?

5) Identify two immunisable viral diseases in humans and one non immunisable
viral disease.

6) What characteristic features would you consider while constructing a

dichotomous key of leaves?

Answers for consolidation activities

1) Classification of a housefly:

Group of taxonomy Name

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Arthropoda
Class Insecta
Order Diptera
Family Muscidae
Genus Musca
Species Domestica
The Scientific name is Musca domestica

2) Answers:

a) Saprophytically, by digesting their food extracellularly and absorbing

digested products.

b) Cell walls in fungi contain chitin while in plants contain cellulose.

3) It is defined as a flexible rod running along the back.

Teachers’ Guide 45
 4) Fins of cartilaginous fish are fleshy whereas fins of bony fish are supported by
fin rays

5) Immunisable viral diseases include; measles and poliomyelitis while non

immunisable disease is HIV/ AIDS.

6) If you are classifying leaves, you must consider the following observable
features; In case of simple leaves, you can classify them basing on;
•• Nature of apex: is the apex pointed or curved.
•• Nature of margin: observe whether the margin is serrated, toothed, curved,
smooth or entire.
•• Nature of lamina: is the lamina smooth, rough, hairy or thorny.
•• Nature of venation; either parallel or network venation and for network
venation, consider their types.
•• Nature of petiole; it may either be short or long, hollow or not hollow, hairy.
•• In case of compound leaves, you can consider the type basing on the number
and form of leaflets present for example trifoliate with three leaflets,
compound palmate, pinnate, bipinnate or the arrangement of leaflets on a
leaf.
Extension activities

1) The table provided below represents different phyla and characteristics of

each phylum of kingdom protoctista. Copy and complete by giving one example
of each.

Characteristic features Example

Rhizopoda Organisms have pseudopodia for locomotion
(rhizopods)
Zoomastigina Heterotrophic organisms which have at least
(flagillates) one flagellum for locomotion
Sporozoa Mainly parasitic organisms which reproduce by
multiple fission.
Ciliophora Organisms that possess cilia
(Ciliates)
Euglenophyta Organisms with flagella but with biochemistry
(euglenoid quite distinct from that of flagillates.
flagillates)

2) Assuming you are a taxonomist, would you classify bacteria and archaeans into
separate domains? If yes, give a reason to support your answer.

46 Teachers’ Guide
 3) Distinguish between bryophytes and Angiosperms (use a table).

4) Suggest various methods you can use at home to prevent food spoilage by
bacteria. How can you use each of the methods suggested?

5) How are skills of constructing a dichotomous key important to you as a biology

student?

Answers for extension activities

1) The answers are summarized in the following table:

Phylum Characteristic features Example

Rhizopoda Organisms have pseudopodia for locomotion Amoeba
(rhizopods)

Zoomastigina Heterotrophic organisms which have at least Trypanosome

(flagillates) one flagellum for locomotion

Sporozoa Mainly parasitic organisms which reproduce Plasmodium

by multiple fission.

Ciliophora Organisms that possess cilia Paramecium

(Ciliates)
Euglenophyta( Organisms with flagella but with biochemistry Euglena
euglenoid quite distinct from that of flagillates.
flagillates)

5) Yes, because the biochemistry of bacteria and archaea is different. Their biochemistry
reveals that the metabolism of archaeans is similar to that of bacteria, but the way
in which transcription occurs has much in common with eukaryotes. More to that,
archaeans have cell wall, but does not contain peptidoglycans. In conclusion, many
exist in extreme environments such as volcanic hot springs and too much salty water
bodies.

Teachers’ Guide 47
 6) Differences between bryophytes and Angiosperms are:

Bryophytes Angiosperms
They do not have true stem and They have true stems, leaves, roots and bear
leaves instead have rhizoids true flowers.
They have no vascular system They have the vascular system i.e. have xylem
i.e. lack xylem and phloem and phloem vessels.
vessels.
They are the most primitive They are mainly higher plants with complex
or lowest plants (the smallest structure and few are small e.g. duckweed which
plants) e.g. liverworts, live on surface of ponds
hornworts and mosses.

7) In order to prevent food spoilage by bacteria at home, treat food in the

following ways;
•• Cooking- the heat denatures enzymes and other proteins. This kills bacteria.
•• Pasteurising- this involves heating to 72 degrees celcius for 15seconds and
then cooling.
•• Drying, salting and coating in sugar – these methods dehydrate any bacteria
as water leaves them by osmosis.
•• Smoking- the food develops a hardened, dry outer surface and smoke contains
antibacterial chemicals.
•• Pickling – this uses an acid pH to kill bacteria by denaturing their enzymes
other proteins.
•• Cooling and freezing- these do not kill bacteria but retard enzyme activity so
their metabolism, growth and reproduction is very slow.
8)The skills can help me to observe and record characteristic features of a new
discovered organism and use them to clearly classify it, following the taxonomic
hierarchy.

48 Teachers’ Guide
UNIT 3: MICROSCOPY
3

3.1 Key unit competence

To be able to distinguish between the types of microscopy and their principal uses.

3.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values)

The learners learnt about Microscope in senior one. Remind learner’s microscope they
have learnt in senior one but were studied in detailed. Review microscope and provide
to the learners more detailed information. During the lessons, create awareness of
learners the fact that the content in this unit will help the learner to gain knowledge
which can lead them to medical career mainly in laboratory as laboratory technicians
and more detailed on microscope will be studied at high levels.

3.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed

Standardization culture

Health centers must use standard microscopes and accurate equipment and techniques
to identify the cause of sickness. Always ask yourself if the health center you visit meets
the standards. Therefore, you are all advised to adhere to medical insurance so that you
can have access to health services.

Inclusive education

This unit involves a collection of specimens and the number of experiments on the
proper use of microscope. The experiments require assembling specimens, apparatus
and observation of the results. This may be challenging to students with special
educational needs especially children with visual impairment. However, the teacher can
make some arrangements like:

•• Grouping students. Students with special educational needs are grouped with
others and assigned roles basing on individual student’s abilities.
•• Providing procedure earlier before the experiment so that students get familiar
with them. They can be written on the chalkboard or printed depending on
available resources. If you have children with low vision remember to print in

Teachers’ Guide 49
 appropriate fonts. Also you are supposed to pay attantion to all categories of
learners.
•• Every important point is written and spoken. The written points help students
with hearing impairment and speaking aloud helps students with visual
impairment
•• Remember to repeat the main points of the lessons.

Gender education

Emphasize to learners that anybody irrespective of their gender can have medical
career mainly laboratory technicians. Give role models who are successful laboratory in
the area where the learners come from. Make sure that during experiments both boys
and girls shares and participate equally in practices, arranging and proper hygiene after
experiments.

3.4 Guidance on the introductory activity

During this introductory activity, remember that microscope learnt in senior one in the
unit of magnifying instruments, guides the learners on this activity.

Teacher’s activity

•• In groups or pairs, help learners to choose group representatives.

•• Help learners to use books and search further information on the internet to
distinguish between the types of microscopes and their principal uses.
•• Supervise the work on how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity
to work in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to present what they have done.
•• Help learners to summarize what they have learnt.

50 Teachers’ Guide
3.5 List of lessons/sub-heading (including assessment).

Lesson title Learning objectives (from the syllabus Number

including knowledge, skills and of
attitudes): periods

1 Compound light Describe the main features and functions

microscope. of the components of a compound light
microscope. 3

Show perseverance when using light

microscopes.
Manipulate a compound light microscope to
observe prepared slides.
Pay attention when using a compound light
microscope to avoid damage to the lenses,
mirrors and slides.

2 Magnification and State that magnification is the increase in the 3

apparent size of the object.
resolution of a
State that resolution is the ability of the
Compound light microscope to show two objects as separate.
microscope. Appreciate the importance of magnifying
instruments in Biology.
Use of a microscope to determine the
relationship between actual size of the
specimen and the image.
Calculate the approximate size of different
biological structures using an appropriate
unit of measurement

3 Electron State the advantages and disadvantages of

using an electron microscope.
microscopes 2
Acknowledge the use of electron
microscopes in modern sciencewith
reference to electron micrographs.

Teachers’ Guide 51
 4 Transmitted State the principles and limitations of TEM 2
Electron (Transmitted Electron Microscopy).
Microscopy
State the advantages and disadvantages of
(TEM) and
using SEM (Scattered Electron Microscopy).
Scattered Electron
Microscopy (SEM) Compare light and electron microscopes

5 Microscopic Observe and draw biological specimens 2

observations under a light microscope.
Prepare temporary slides for observation
under light microscopes using different
objective lenses

6 Assessment Properly distinguish between types of 2

microscopes and their principle uses.

Lesson 1: Compound light microscope.

Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

It was shown that in senior one they have learnt magnifying instruments where
microscope is included and the research that were conducted in school library and
through internet, from that information, learners provide the answer on how you
can observe and identify different parts of microorganisms using microscope, you
start asking questions on microscope. What is microscope? What is its parts and their
function? The answers of the learners are the one which help you in the progress of the
lesson.

Teaching resources

The microscope, or you can use the diagram, pictures and photos of well labeled
microscope if your school does not have a microscope, through the school administrator
you can visit your nearest school having microscope.

Learning activities 3.1

Discuss the ways used by biologists to observe and identify different parts of
microorganisms such as paramecia, amoeba and euglena.

Teacher’s activity:

•• Ask learners to brainstorm ways used by biologists to observe and identify

different parts of these living organisms.

52 Teachers’ Guide
 •• Supervise the work how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity to
work in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to present what they have done
•• Help learners to summarize what they have learnt.
Teacher’s activity:

•• Give the learners instructions on how to use light microscope

•• Give the learners microscopes and make sure that both boys and girls
manipulate equally.
•• Supervise the work how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity
to work in their respective groups and make sure that both boys and girls
participate and share equally the tasks before, during and after activity.
Answer for introductory activity

Answers to this activity would fall in a range of responses that include; medical,
academic, industrial, etc

Answer for activity 3.1

Biologists use microscope to observe and identify different parts of microorganisms.

Answer for activity 3.2

Using the light microscope, learners demonstrate how to use correctly the light
microscope.

Answers for Self-assessment 3.1

1) Complete the table below:

Parts of microscope Functions

Base supports and stabilizes the microscope

Revolving nosepiece rotates to allow use of different power objectives

Coarse focus adjustment moves stage up and down a large amount for coarse focus

Objective lenses focuses and magnifies light coming through the slide

Eye piece / ocular lens: magnifies image produced by objective lens

Teachers’ Guide 53
2) The light microscope is important because they allow scientists to study
microorganisms, cells, (and their contents), genes, crystalline structures and molecular
structures. Microscopes are one of the most important diagnostic tools when doctors
examine tissue samples.

3) Help and follow how the learners apply microscope technique rules.

•• Carry the microscope with both hands, one hand under the base, and the
other on the arm. When getting ready to put the microscope away, always
return it to the low power or scanning power setting.
•• When setting the microscope on a table, always keep it away from the edge.
•• It is generally best to clear your lab table of items that are not being used.
•• The lenses of the microscope cost almost as much as all of the other parts
together. Never clean them with anything other than lens paper. Paper towels
and other paper tissues will scratch the lens.
•• Please inform the instructor or the biology lab technician of any microscope
damage or irregularity in its operation as soon as possible. Do not return a
faulty microscope without first informing the instructor or lab technician.
•• You are responsible for the microscope while using it— treat it with care!

Lesson 2 : Magnification and resolution of a compound light microscope

Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

You must remind the learners the unit of measurement and how to convert one to
another and also ask the learner to define microscope, whereby within definition
there is magnifying images of small samples and you start the lesson from the answers
provided by the learners.

Teaching resources

The microscope, or you can use the diagram, pictures and photos of well labeled
microscope if your school does not have a microscope, through the school administrator
you can visit your nearest school having a microscope.

Learning activities 3.2

Teacher’s activity:

•• Give questions to the learners to measure and in doing that, the learners will
develop numeracy, precisions in measuring e.t.c
•• Give the learners the guidance on the activity.
•• Supervise the work on how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity
to work on their own.

54 Teachers’ Guide
Answer for activity 3.2

1) Work out the following measurements:

2) 1 millimetre (mm) = 10-3 metre (m) = 1/1000

3) 1 micrometre (µm) = 10-6 metre (m) = 1/1 000 000

4) 1 nanometre (nm) = 10-9 metre (m) = 1/1 000 000 000

5) 1 metre (m) = 103 mm= 106 µm = 109 nm, 1 kilometre (km) = 103m

Answers for self-assessment. 3.2.

1) Magnification= size of the image / size of object

The size of the image should be converted to µm: Size of image =50mm=50000µm

Therefore, magnification =50000 /5=10000

Conversely, if the magnification is 50000 times, and the size of the image is 5mm (5000
µm), the actual size of the object is: size of image/magnification=5000/50000=0.1 µm

2) 100/10000=0.01 mm (observed size divided by magnification)

This can be converted to µm by multiplying by 1000

0.01mm=10 µm, or it can be calculated as 100mm x1000 µm

Actual size =100 000/10 000 µm=10 µm

b)Microscopic observations

Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Reminding the learners, the way used to observe microorganisms such as a bacterium,
amoeba, and paramecium and motivate them to come up to observe them on their
own. The learners may pay attention because after preparing activity and Observing,
they draw and label the parts visible under a light microscope.

Teaching resources

Petri-dishes, plate covers, pencil, transparent tape, microscope, agar powder,

permanent slide of bacteria, amoeba, and paramecium, Bunsen burner or any other
source of heat.

Teachers’ Guide 55
Learning activities 3.3

Using prepared slides of microorganisms such as a bacterium, amoeba, and paramecium.

Observe, draw and label the parts visible under a light microscope.

Teacher’s activity:

•• Give the learners materials to be used in activity and make sure that both
boys and girls participate and share equally the tasks before, during and after
activity.
•• Supervise the work on how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity
to work in their respective groups and by respecting gender and learners with
special need if they are any.
•• Ask learners to present what they have done
•• Help learners to summarize what they have learnt.
Activity 3.4

Teaching resources: A thin onion membrane, microscopic glass slides, microscopic

cover slips, a needle, blotting paper, dropper, Iodine solution and water again, through
the school administrator you can visit your nearest school having microscope.

Teacher’s activity:

•• Guide learners to form group or pairs by respecting gender and learners with
special need if they are any.
•• Give the learners materials to be used in activity and make sure that both
boys and girls participate and share equally the tasks before, during and after
activity.
•• Supervise the work how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity to
work in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to present what they have done
Help learners to summarize what they have learnt.

Answer for activity 3.3

Interpretation of the results and conclusion

Figure 3.1: Structure of paramecium, euglena and amoeba

Note that:

a) Paramecium is likely to be dominant, the others are rarely observed. High

population of amoeba can be obtained by collecting different samples of pond
water or stagnant water by the road sides which is getting dry. However, culturing
may not give the best results for obtaining amoeba rather than other protists.

56 Teachers’ Guide
 b) You should make sure that the water collected contains the amoeba before the
students start the practical to avoid frustration.

Answer for activity 3.4

Observations:

•• Large, rectangular interlocking cells,

•• Clearly visible distinct cell walls surrounding the cells,
•• Dark stained nucleus,
•• Large vacuoles at the center,
•• Small granules may be observed inside the cells (within the cytoplasm)
•• The layers of an onion contain simple sugars (carbohydrates) some of which
are stored as starch (starch granules). Given that iodine tends to bind to
starch, it stains the starch granules when the two come in to contact making
them visible.
•• Although onions may not have as much starch as potato and other plants,
the stain (iodine) allows for the little starch molecules to be visible under the
microscope. Although onions are plants, students will not see any chloroplasts
in their slides.
•• This is because of the fact that the chloroplast necessary for photosynthesis is
largely present in the leafy part of the onion, which is exposed to the sun and
absent in the bulb which is below ground and away from sunlight.
•• Unlike animal cells, students will also notice that the plant cells have a more
regular shape. This is because they have a cell wall made up of cellulose which
maintains its shape.
Conclusion

This is an easy and fun activity that will allow the student to learn about the cell structure.
Students have the opportunity to experiment and observe the onion membrane with
different stains (methylene blue and iodine) and without the stain and observe the
differences.

Having observed the onion cell under the microscope, students will be able to repeat
the experiments for young stems and roots.

Teachers’ Guide 57
 Lesson 3 : Electron microscopes.
Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

The learners know well microscope from senior one in magnification instruments and
even in the previous lessons, help them to make research and give time to present
what they found during the activity, ask questions which help learners about electron
microscope, what is it and respectively advantages and disadvantages.

Teaching resources

The microscope, or you can use the diagram, pictures and photos of well labeled
microscope if your school does not have a microscope, through the school administrator
you can visit your nearest school having microscope.

Learning activities 3.3

Discuss the difference between light microscope and electron microscope

Teacher’s activity

•• Ask learners to brainstorm the difference between light microscope

and electron microscope, in doing activity helps the learners to develop
Cooperation, interpersonal management, life skills.
•• Supervise the work how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity to
work in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to present what they have done
•• Help learners to summarize what they have learnt.
Answer for activity.3.3

•• Learners may provide different answers like light microscope uses light
to illuminate specimens and glass lenses to magnify images, an electron
microscope uses a beam of electrons to illuminate specimens and magnetic
lenses to magnify images. The resolution (the level of image detailing) is the
main difference between these two microscopes.
Answers for Self-assessment 3.3.

1) An electron microscope uses a beam of electrons to magnify an object. The

lensing system employs electric and magnetic fields and is specialized for applications
requiring much higher magnification while light microscopes employ light and
an array of glass lenses to magnify an object.

2) Advantages of the electron microscope over light microscope:

Electron microscope has a higher resolution and is therefore able of a higher

58 Teachers’ Guide
 magnification estimated at up to 2 million times compared to the light microscope
which can show a useful magnification only up to 1000-2000 times. These differences
are due to a physical limit imposed by the wavelengths of the light. Electron
microscopes therefore allow for the visualization of structures that would normally
be not visible by optical microscope.

Depending on the type of electron microscope different observation can be

processed. For example, for a transmission electron microscopy (TEM) a beam of
electrons is transmitted through a specimen to form an image of the specimen
which is most often an ultrathin section less than 100nm thick or a suspension on
a grid, while the scanning electron microscope (SEM) produces images of a sample
by scanning the surface with a focused bean of electrons. The SEM has a resolution
power of about 5 nm higher than that of a light microscope but lower than that of
a TEM.

Disadvantages of electron microscope

Despite the advantages, electron microscope presents a number of disadvantages and

limitations.

•• These type of microscope are extremely expensive and the maintenance costs
are high.
•• Sample preparation is often much more elaborate.
•• Samples must be completely dry so that it is impossible to observe living
specimens and moving specimens (they are dead).
•• It is not possible to observe colors because electrons do not possess a color.
The image is only black-white, even if sometimes the image is colored artificially
to give a better visual impression.
•• They require more training and experience in identifying artifacts that may
have been introduced during the sample preparation process.
•• The energy of the electron beam is very high, the sample is therefore exposed
to high radiation, and therefore not able to live.
•• The space requirements are high, so that they may need a whole room.
b)Transmitted Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Scattered Electron
Microscopy (SEM)

Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Starting from the previous lesson of electron microscope, make revision on it through
asking questions to the learners, relate them to the types of electron microscope to
make learners understand this lesson, the learners answer the questions, the main
ideas/ answers provided by the learners are discovered by them through activity 4.5. In
teacher’s book, give time to express their views.

Teachers’ Guide 59
Teaching resources

Transmitted Electron Microscopy and Scattered Electron Microscopy or you can use
the diagrams, pictures and photos of well labeled microscopes if your school does not
have a microscope, through the school administrator you can visit your nearest school
having microscope.

Learning activities 3.4

Through the activity done by the learners, on differentiate SEM and TEM, ask them
questions on the work done like what is SEM and TEM? Differentiate the two types of
electron microscopes? What they do? Then they give the answers which help you to
cover the content.

Teacher’s activity 3.4

•• Ask learners to brainstorm the difference between differentiate SEM and TEM.
•• Supervise how the work is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity to
work in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to present what they have done
•• Help learners to summarize what they have learnt.
Answer for activity 3.4.

SEM TEM

SEM is based on scattered electrons TEM is based on transmitted electrons.

SEM focuses on the sample’s surface and TEM provides the details about internal
its composition composition. Therefore, TEM can show many

The sample in TEM has to be cut thinner there is no such need with SEM sample

TEM has much higher resolution than SEM. SEM has lower resolution than TEM

SEM allows for large amount of sample to TEM only small amount of sample can be
be analyzed at a time analyzed at a time.

In TEM, pictures are shown on fluorescent In SEM, picture is shown on monitor.

screens

60 Teachers’ Guide
Answers for Self-assessment 3.4

1) Electron microscopes are very important in medicine and biology research because
they are used to investigate the ultra-structures of a wide range of biological and
inorganic specimens including viruses, microorganisms, cells, large molecules,
biopsy (examination of tissue removed from a living body to discover the presence,
cause, or extent disease) samples, metals, and crystals.

It is not possible to view any living material by using electron microscope due to
vacuum inside electron microscope and living specimens cannot be viewed because
electron microscopes require a vacuum in the tube - otherwise the electrons would
be absorbed by air molecules

2) The energy of the electron beam is very high, the sample is therefore exposed to
high radiation, and therefore not able to live. It is large and heavy, so are not easier
to move and set-up and it is very expensive.

3) Comparative study between light and electron microscope focussing on the

advantages of each type of microscope.

•• Both light and electron microscopes form larger (magnified) and more detailed
(highly resolved) images of small objects or small areas of larger objects
•• Both light and electron microscopes are used in study and research in
biology and medical sciences particularly histology, material sciences such as
metallurgy and other aspects of science.
•• Specimens must be carefully prepared using techniques appropriate for both
the equipment and the sample including slicing, staining, and mounting.
3. Summary of the unit

•• A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the
naked eye.
•• The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called
microscopy.
•• There are two types of microscope: The light microscope and electron
microscope whereby the light microscope is a type of microscope which uses
visible light and a system of lenses to magnify images of small samples.
•• Magnification refers to the enlargement of the object being studied, while
resolution power of a microscope is the ability to distinguish between two
points as separate.
•• Microscope’s resolution measures how much detail user can see. A microscope
may have powerful magnifying lenses, but if the resolution is poor, the
magnified image is just blur.
•• Resolution is the shortest distance between two points that user can still

Teachers’ Guide 61
 see as separate images under the microscope and an electron microscope
is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of
illumination. Its magnification is about x 10,000,000 and resolution power is
up to 1 nm.
•• Electron microscope comprises also two types as follows: Transmission
electron microscope (TEM) and scanning electron microscope (SEM).
•• The TEM has a resolution power of about 1 nm and it is used to study the ultra-
structure of a cell while the SEM is used to produce a three-dimensional (3-D)
view of objects such as cells, tissues and small organisms.
•• Light microscope allows to observe organisms of small size including bacteria,
amoeba and paramecium.
•• Some other parts of macroscopic organisms such as cells and tissues of plants
and animals or some parts of these living organisms such as stems and roots
can also be observed under light microscope.
•• This unit help learners to use well prepared slides as whereas prepare a
temporary slide on their own.
3. Additional Information

You are recommended to do all experiments provided in student’s book before you go
in class for the learners in order to get deeper understanding of the unit.

3. End of unit assessment 3

1) b 2) a 3) d 4) b 5) d

6) A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked
eye.

7) The following are the answers:

•• Stage: is a platform used to hold the specimen in position during observation.

•• Stage clips: are pliers used to fix and hold tightly the slide on stage.
•• Arm: supports the body tube of microscope
•• Body tube: maintains the proper distance between the objective and ocular
lenses
•• Arm: used for holding when carrying the microscope and it holds the body
tube which bears the lenses.
•• Coarse focus adjustment: moves stage up and down a large amount for coarse
focus
8) A light microscope uses light to illuminate specimens and glass lenses to magnify
images. Light microscope allows to observe organisms of small size including
bacteria, amoeba and paramecium and some other parts of macroscopic organisms

62 Teachers’ Guide
 such as cells and tissues of plants and animals or some parts of these living organisms
such as stems and roots can also be observed under light microscope while an
electron microscope uses a beam of electrons to illuminate specimens and magnetic
lenses to magnify images. Electron microscopes are used to investigate the ultra-
structures of a wide range of biological and inorganic specimens including viruses,
microorganisms, cells, large molecules, biopsy (examination of tissue removed from
a living body to discover the presence, cause, or extent disease) samples, metals,
and crystals. The resolution (the level of image detailing) is the main difference
between these two microscopes.

9) The following are the answers:

a) To set up a light microscope to view a slide under high magnification follow the
Procedures below as for lower magnification only different is where you rotate
the nosepiece so that the large objective lens (with higher magnifying power) is
immediately above the specimen

•• Make sure you understand the manipulation and parts of a microscope before
you use it.
•• Objects (specimens) to be observed under the microscope are first placed on
a glass slide and covered with a cover slip.
•• Place the stage on the stage of your microscope, in other words, arrange it so
that the specimen is exactly at the centre of the hole at the stage.
•• Fix the slide in place with two clips.
•• Rotate the nosepiece so that small objective lens is immediately above the
specimen.
•• Clearly set the angle of the reflector mirror so that light is directed up through
the microscope.
•• Look down the microscope through the eye piece. Adjust the iris diaphragm
so that the field of vision is bright and not dazzling.
•• Carefully turn the course adjustment knob until the tip of the objective lens is
close to the slide.
•• Now look down the microscope again. Slowly turn the course adjustment knob
in the other direction, so the tube gradually moves upwards. The specimen on
the slide should eventually come into view.
•• Use the course and fine adjustment knobs to focus the object as sharply as
possible.
•• If necessary readjust, the iris diaphragm so the specimen is correctly
illuminated. You will get a much better image if you don’t have too much light
coming through the microscope.
To observe under high power at a greater magnification, proceed as follows:

Teachers’ Guide 63
 •• Rotate the nosepiece so that the large objective lens (with higher magnifying
power) is immediately above the specimen. The nosepiece should click into
position, as before.
•• If the specimen is not in focus, focus it with fine adjustment knob. Be careful
that the tip of the objective lens does not touch the slide.
•• Readjust the illumination if necessary.
b) Electron microscopes have certain advantages over optical microscopes:

•• The biggest advantage is that they have a higher resolution and are therefore
also have a higher magnification (up to 2 million times). Light microscopes can
show a useful magnification only up to 1000-2000 times. This is a physical limit
imposed by the wavelength of the light. Electron microscopes therefore allow
for the visualization of structures that would normally be not visible by optical
microscopy
•• Depending on the type of electron microscope, it is possible to view the three
dimensional external shape of an object (Scanning Electron Microscope, SEM)
c) Magnification refers to the enlargement of the object being studied, while
resolution power of a microscope is the ability to distinguish between two points
as separate.

The following are the answers:

A) Light microscope works because light goes through your specimen. So if the
specimen is too thick, then light won’t shine through, and you won’t see anything so
cutting specimen must be done to make it thinner.

b) Using biological stains such as methylene blue, it is possible to clearly observe

and differentiate the different parts of a cell. This is because the stain will color some
parts of the cell and not others, allowing them to be clearly observed.

Materials

Onion root tips, Needles, Brush, Razor blades, Microscope slides, Coverslips, Microscope,
Safety glasses, Gloves, Paper towel, Fixative, 0.5% toluidine blue, Glycerin

Procedure

•• Obtain an onion bulb that is just beginning to show the emergence of roots.
Cut off a root and lay it on a microscope slide. Cut off the first approx 0.5cm
of the root tip. Discard the rest of the root. Mitotic cells are in the tip, so extra
root tissue will only interfere with finding mitotic cells.
•• Wear safety glasses and gloves and lab coat.
•• Cover the root tip with fixative solution; Let the slide stand for 30 minutes to
one hour. After some time of placing the tip in fixative solution you will see

64 Teachers’ Guide
 some part of root become transparent or translucent. Remove that cleared
(transparent) part of the root by cutting it off as that part is the region where
cells are elongated (Do not show mitotic cell division). Now you would have a
very small piece of root tip which may look pale white or dirty white in color (a
dot-sized piece of root tip is all you need).
•• Carefully blot around the root to remove excess fixative. Add one drop of
fresh toluidine blue stain to the slide let the root tip be stained for 2-3 minutes;
after that remove or drain the excess stain (you can even use blotting paper
for removing the stain).
•• Put one drop of glycerin on the stained root tip and then place cover slip over
that. Place the slide between two layers of paper towel on your laboratory
bench. Using your finger apply gentle pressure to the cover slip in order to
squash and spread the root tip tissue.
Caution: The applied pressure should be such that it does not break the cover slip.

Observation: Using your microscope (10x), locate the meristematic region of the
root tip. Examine the slide at 40x magnification and identify chromosomes at the
various stages of mitosis.

Additional activities

Remedial Activities

1) What is microscopy?

2) What does microscope do?

3) Distinguish between two different types of electron microscope.

4) In Electron Microscope light source is replaced by a beam of very fast moving:

a) Electron,

b) Neutron,

c) Proton,

d) Photon

5) Electron microscope is much more powerful than:

a) Light microscope,

b) Compound microscope,

c) Simple microscope,

Teachers’ Guide 65
 d) Stereo microscope

Answers

1) Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view objects and areas of
objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye.

2) Microscope makes things bigger.

3) The TEM is a types of electron microscope which has a resolution power of about
1 nm and it is used to study the ultra-structure of a cell while the SEM is used to
produce a three-dimensional (3-D) view of objects such as cells, tissues and small
organisms.

4) a)

5) a)

Consolidation activities

1) How is the magnification varied in?

a) A light microscope?

b) An electron microscope?

2) Why is the resolving power of an electron microscope so much better than that
of a light microscope?

3) Write in your own words on staining.

4) What is the approximate size of the smallest structure that can be observed with
a light microscope?

5) One of disadvantages of electron microscope is not to observe colors. Explain

Answers

1) Expected answers

a) Magnification in a light microscope is varied by changing the power of the glass

lenses.

b) Magnification in electron microscope is varied by changing the strength of the

electromagnets.

2) Electron microscopes use beams of electrons which have a shorter wavelength

than light, giving electron microscopes a higher resolution power than light
microscope.

66 Teachers’ Guide
 3) Staining is a technique used in microscopy to enhance contrast in the microscopic
image. Stains and dyes are frequently used in biology and medicine to highlight
structures in biological tissues for viewing, often with the aid of different microscopes.

4) 0.2 micrometers.

5) Electron microscope is not possible to observe colors because electrons do

not possess a color. The image is only black-white, even if sometimes the image is
colored artificially to give a better visual impression.

Extended activities

1) Why do sections of tissue need to be cut into thin slices for examination under a
microscope?

2) Explain why ribosomes are not visible using a light microscope.

3) Write in your own words on electron microscope.

4) Write in your own words on the two types of electron microscope.

5) What happened on preparation of temporary slides and observation under light

microscope?

Answers

1) Light cannot penetrate thick slices of tissue, so no detail would be seen.

2) It is because they’re way to small. Biologists, faced with the problem that they
would never see anything smaller than 200 nm using a light microscope, realized that
the only solution would be to use radiation of a shorter wavelength than light. You can
see them on SEM or TEM.

3) In this learners can explain by giving different ideas on electron microscope.

4) For this learners can explain by giving different ideas on two types of electron
microscope.

5) The answer of this question based on how procedures of preparation is followed

step by step:

•• Add a drop of water at the center of the microscopic slide to flatten the
membrane
•• Pull of a thin membrane from the onion layer and lay it at the center of the
microscopic slide
•• Add a drop of iodine solution or methylene blue on the onion membrane
•• Gently lay a microscopic cover slip on the membrane and press it down gently

Teachers’ Guide 67
 using a needle to remove air bubbles.
•• Touch a blotting paper on one side of the slide to drain excess iodine/water
solution,
•• Place the slide on the microscope stage under low power to observe.
•• Adjust focus for clarity to observe.

68 Teachers’ Guide
UNIT 4 : CELL STRUCTURE AND SPECIALIZATION
4

4.1 Key unit competence

Describe the structure and function of cells in an organism

4.2 Prerequisites
For the successive teaching learning process of this unity, students should have enough
knowledge of the parts of microscope and their functions. They have also to be well
skilled on manipulating the microscope so that they can observe specimens under the
microscope.

•• a students to recall the parts of the light microscope and their functions.
•• be sure that student can manipulate the computer and observe micrographs
under the microscope.
•• the knowledge and skills about how to use the light microscope will help
you to guide students to observe prepared slides of cell structure under the
microscope.
4.3 Cross-cutting issues
a) Peace and value

It should be integrated in sub-heading called: cell organelles. When teaching that a

cell has many organelles with different functions but that all are important and work
together for the survival of the cell. Tell students that, in the same way: in human
society, we are many but we can work together in peace and harmony despite of the
difference of our abilities, disabilities or physical appearance.

b) Financial education

This cross-cutting issue should be integrated in the sub-heading called: “ultrastructure

of the cell”. When guiding students on how to manipulate the microscope, you should
give a caution of handling them carefully as they are very expensive.

Teachers’ Guide 69
 c) Gender education

This cross-cutting issue should be integrated in all sub-headings which will involve
formation and working in groups like, when forming groups for learning activities,
when carrying out practical activities, and when cleaning materials used during practical
activities. Both boys and girls should participate equally in all activities.

d) Inclusive education.

This cross-cutting issue should be integrated in all sub-headings. When forming

groups for learning activities, when carrying out practical activities, and when cleaning
materials that have been used during practical activities. Students with disability should
be considered and helped regarding their specific cases: hearing impairment, vision
impairment, students without arms and legs; teacher and other students should help
them to achieve the competences as required in all teaching-learning activities.

4.4 Guidance on the introductory activity

•• This activities teacher’s guide should provide guidance on how to conduct it,
answers as well as a cross reference to the student’s book.
•• Provide the chart to students which show the structures of eukaryote and
prokaryote.
•• Engage students to observe the figures on the chart, and investigate them
individually.
•• Ask students to identify different components of eukaryotic and prokaryotic
cells and to suggest the functions of those components.
•• Give students the time to think in order to develop their critical thinking
competences.
•• Receive answers and ideas from students and summarize them by valuing
students’ contributions.
•• Inform students about the general knowledge, skills and values that they will
get from this unit.

70 Teachers’ Guide
4.5 List of lessons/ sub-heading

Lesson title Learning objectives: Number of

periods

1 Ultrastructure Identify plant and animal cell structures 2

of a cell visible under a light microscope
Prepare temporary slides for: Wandering
Jew, in plants and cheek cells in animals.
Appreciate the importance of a cell in an
organism
Show resilience and be aware of artefacts
when preparing temporary slides

2 Organelles State functions of cell structures as seen 3

under an electron microscope
Observe and draw plant and animal cells
under a light
Distinguish between ultra-structures of plant
cells and animal cells.

3 Ultrastructure Acknowledge the use of an electron 4

of the cell microscope in modern science with reference
membrane to electron micrographs.
Explain how cell organelles can be isolated by
cell fractionation
Explain the role of the different components
of a cell membrane.

4 Prokaryotic Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. 2

and
eukaryotic
cells

Teachers’ Guide 71
 5 Specialised Explain cell specialisation as the 2
cells differentiation of a cell or process to do a
particular function
Appreciate the importance of cell
specialisation in multicellular organisms.
Interpret charts and micrographs to relate
the structure of specialised cells to their
functions.

Assessment Relate the cell structures to their functions 2

and identify the general functions.

Lesson 1: Ultrastructure of a cell

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

For successful teaching-learning process of this unit, students should have enough
knowledge of the parts of microscope and their functions. They should be well skilled
on manipulating the microscope so that they can observe specimens under the
microscope.

b) Teaching resources

The teaching aids or other resources needed include: microscope, prepared slides
and cell micrographs. You may use also charts, computer, projector and other specific
materials for students with disabilities. You can also use the student text books.

Suggested answers on the introductory activity:

1) By observing the diagrams on the chart, we see that the two cell are different
basing on their structures:

Eukaryotic cell Prokaryotic cell

have a true nucleus Do not have a true nucleus
No cell wall Have the cell wall
Have many organelles Have few organelles
Have no capsule Have the capsule

72 Teachers’ Guide
 2) Identify different parts of a prokaryotic cell that may perform functions simi-
lar to organelles of a eukaryotic cell.
Prokaryotic cell parts function
Nucleoid Control cell metabolism
Mesosome Attachment of respiratory enzymes
Ribosome Protein synthesis
Cell membrane Control of entry and exit of chemicals

c) Learning activities 4.1

Teacher’s activities: before starting this practical activity, inform your students
to take care of the materials that are going to be used, like microscopes, as their
functionality depend a lot on proper handling.

Ask students in their groups provided with microscopes and slides to work on the
Activity 4.1 from the students’ text books,
•• Monitor how the students are progressing towards the knowledge to be
learned. Facilitate those who are still behind (but without communicating to
them the knowledge).
•• Move around the class, listening to students as they discuss and looking at
their answers.
•• Correct those which are false, completes those which are incomplete, and
confirms those which are correct. Help learners to summarize the lesson
(short notes) and assess the lesson.
Answers for the activity 4.1:

1. Visible organelles and parts of a cell from a light microscope

(photomicrograph)

•• Nucleus, this is a jelly-like nucleoplasm, nucleolus and chromatin

•• Mitochondria, rod-shaped structures tasked to carry out aerobic respiration
•• Starch grains, globular shaped bodies made of carbohydrates
•• Tonoplast, a thin bi-layered enveloping the vacuole
•• Cytoplasm, a jelly-like layer beneath the cell surface membrane
•• Surface membrane, a thin protein and phospholipid bilayer controlling the
exit and entry of material to and from the cell
•• Cell wall, a tough and elastic wall of cellulose surrounding the cell
2. Role of mitochondria and ribosomes
•• Mitochondria; these are responsible for aerobic respiration
•• Ribosomes; these serve as site for protein synthesis

Teachers’ Guide 73
Difference between animal cell and plant cell

Criterion Animal Cell Plant Cell

Shape Ovoid or spherical Polygon
Plastids Absent Present
Centrioles Present Absent
Vacuole Small or absent Big with a tonoplast
Cell wall Absent Present
Microvilli Present Absent
Plasmodesmata Absent Present

Answers to Self-assessment: 4.1

1) The Structures that animal cells and plant cells have in common are:
•• Nucleus with nucleolus and chromatin.
•• Cytoplasm containing mitochondria, Golgibody and other small structures
•• Cell surface membrane.
2) The three principles of the cell theory are:
•• All known living organisms are made up of one or more cells
•• All cells come from pre-existing cells by division
•• Cells contain the hereditary information that is passed from cell to cell during
cell division.
3) The following are the answers:
Form of nutrition;
Presence of chloroplast in the plant cell bringing about autotrophic
nutrition and its absence in animal cell that brings about heterotrophic
nutrition

4) The answer should show well labeled diagrams of both animal and plant cells with
all organelles and interpretation of the diagrams (structure and function of each
part).

74 Teachers’ Guide
 Lesson 2 : Organelles of the cell.
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

For successful teaching-learning process of this lesson, students should have enough
knowledge of the parts of animal cell and plant cell they already studied in the previous
lessons of ultrastructure of cells. They should be well skilled in drawing the structure of
the cell showing and all of its parts.

b) Teaching resources

In this lesson, the teaching aids or other resources needed include: charts that show
the structure of both animal and plant cells. You may use also charts, students’ text
books, computer, projector and other specific materials for students with disabilities.

c) Learning activities

The teacher:
•• Present the charts that show the structure of animal cell and plant cell in front
of students.
•• Ask students to suggest the characteristics and to discuss the function of each
part (organelle) seen on the chart individually.
•• Let students work individually to find answers of the activity 4.2 found in the
students’ text books. Be sure that each student is working effectively on the
activity.
•• Judge the logic of the students’ products, correct those which are false,
complete those which are incomplete, and confirm those which correct.
Answers of the self-assessment 4.2:

1) As mitochondria are the site for energy production, muscle cells which are more
active should contain a lot of mitochondria and fat storage cells which are relatively
less active contain few mitochondria.

2) Chromosomes contain genetic information that is passed from one generation

to the next.
3) Rough ER makes membranes and secretory proteins. Smooth ER makes lipids
and detoxification. The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts and packages proteins and
other materials from ER for storage or secretion. Chloroplasts capture the energy
from sunlight and convert into chemical energy. Lysosomes break down lipids,
carbohydrates, and proteins. They also break down organelles that have outlived
their usefulness in the cell. Mitochondria convert stored chemical energy into
compounds that the cell can use. The nucleus is the control center of the cell.

Teachers’ Guide 75
 4) The following are the answers:

a) A: mitochondrion, B: Golgi apparatus, C: nuclear envelope, D: nucleus,

E: nucleolus, F: ribosome, G: rough ER, H: plasma membrane, J: cell wall, K:
chloroplast, L: cytoplasm, M: vacuole, N: Golgi vesicles.

b) B: Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts and packages proteins and other materials
from ER for storage or secretion.

C: Nuclear envelope: it contains nuclear pores which allow materials to move

into and out of the nucleus.

G: Rough ER makes membranes and secretory proteins.

K: Chloroplasts capture the energy from sunlight and convert into chemical
energy.

N: Golgi vesicles: they deliver proteins and lipids (that have been modified, sorted
and packaged in them by the Golgi apparatus) to their target destination such as
lysosomes or the cell membrane.

c) Most of cell walls are made from fibers of carbohydrate and protein. Plant cell
walls are composed mostly of cellulose.

d) The cytoskeleton helps the cell to maintain its shape, and also is involved in
cell movement.

5) The rough endoplasmic reticulum transport proteins made on attached ribosomes,

while the smooth ER does not have ribosomes, and it involves in making lipids that
the cell needs.

6) The role of cytoskeleton is to help the cell to maintain its shape, and it is also
involved in cell movement.

7) The expected answers are:

a) This organelle is mitochondrion

b) The function of this organelle is that a mitochondrion is the site where

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP: a universal energy carrier) is produced during cell
respiration.

76 Teachers’ Guide
 Lesson 3 : Ultrastructure of the cell membrane
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

For successful teaching-learning process of this lesson, students should have enough
knowledge on the food molecules such as: proteins, carbohydrates and lipids that they
studied in ordinary level. They should know the cell membrane as a part of the cell and
its functions as learned in the previous lesson of this unit.

b) Teaching resources

In this lesson, the teaching aids or other resources needed include: charts and
micrographs that show the structure of the cell membrane. Microscope, computer,
projector, students’ text books and other specific materials for students with disabilities.

c) Learning activities

Teacher’s activities:

•• present the projection of animations showing the ultrastructure of the cell

membrane in front of students.
•• ask students to relate each part of cell membrane with its functions as required
in the activity 4.3 found in the students’ text books.
•• be sure that every student is working effectively on the activity by moving
around them.
•• judge the logic of the students’ products, correct those which are false,
complete those which are incomplete, and confirm those which correct.
Answers to the activity 4.3:

The main features of the fluid mosaic model are:

•• A bilayer of phospholipid molecules forming the basic structure.

•• Many protein molecules floating in the phospholipid bilayer. Some are free,
others are bound to other components or to structures within the cell.
•• Some extrinsic proteins are partially embedded in the bilayer on the inside or
the outside face while other intrinsic proteins are completely spanning the
bilayer.

Teachers’ Guide 77
Roles of different components of cell membrane

a) Cholesterol

•• Gives the membranes of some eukaryotic cells the mechanical stability.

•• It fits between fatty acid tails and helps make the barrier more complete,
so substances like water molecules and ions cannot pass easily and directly
through the membrane.
b) Channel proteins

•• Allow the movement of some substances across the membrane.

•• Large molecules like glucose enter and leave the cell using these protein
channels.
c) Carrier proteins

•• Actively move some substances across the cell membrane. For example,
magnesium and other mineral ions are actively pumped into the roots hair
cells from the surrounding soil.
•• Nitrate ions are actively transported into xylem vessels of plants
d) Receptor sites

•• Allow hormones to bind with the cell so that a cell response can be carried
out.
•• Glycoproteins and glycolipids may be involved in cells signaling that they are
self to allow recognition by the immune system.
•• Some hormone receptors are glycoprotein and some are glycolipid.
Answers of the Self-assessment 4.3

1) The expected answers are:

The fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane is the model of the cell membrane
structure, where lipid molecules give fluidity and proteins in the membrane give
it mosaic (patchwork) appearance.

2) Properties of the cell membrane are:

•• It is mainly made of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates

•• It is semi-permeable or partially permeable i.e. it allows some substances to
pass through but prevents other to cross depending on their size, the charges
and their polarity
•• It is positively charged outside and negatively charged inside,
•• It has a hydrophilic pole and a hydrophobic pole

78 Teachers’ Guide
 •• It is a bilayer
•• It is sensitive
•• It is flexible
•• Its proteins and lipids may be mobile
•• It contains enzymes
•• It is perforated of pores
•• It recognizes chemicals messengers (hormone, neurotransmitters)
3 The types of proteins in cell membrane are:

•• Carrier proteins which fix or attach molecules and facilitate them to cross
through the cell membrane by active transport
•• Channel proteins which pump substances and allow facilitated diffusion. They
act as pores.
•• Receptors of enzymes and neurotransmitters
•• Glycoproteins act as receptor proteins which recognise the substance to pass
through the membrane
•• Integrated proteins define the shape of the cell
•• Immune proteins (antigens) found in the membrane on the red blood cell,
recognise the antibodies.
4) Partially permeable membrane mean that cell membranes are permeable to
water and some solutes.

5) The word hydrophilic means “water loving” and hydrophobic means “water
hating”.

6) The expected answers are:

a) Cell signaling and recognition is done by some hormone receptors which are
glycoproteins glycolipids.

b) Carrier proteins

c) Enzymes and coenzymes.

a. A: glycolipid, B: Channel protein, C: glycoprotein, D: phospholipid bilayer.

The function of the part B (channel protein) is to help to move materials across the
cell membrane.

Teachers’ Guide 79
 7) The expected answers are

•• The rough ER is surrounded with ribosomes and transports proteins made on

the attached ribosomes while smooth ER is made of tubular cavities and have
no ribosomes
•• The rough ER is involved in protein synthesis while smooth ER is involved in
lipid synthesis
8) a. The expected answers are

•• support
•• protection
•• movement
•• sharp e.t.c
b The expected answers are

•• Mitochondria
•• Earobic respiration
•• They both have a double membrane, circular DNA, 70S ribosomes, etc

Lesson 5: Cell specialisation

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

For successful teaching-learning process of this lesson, students should have enough
knowledge skills and attitudes on the structure of animal cell, plant cell, and the
functions of their parts as learned in the previous lessons of this unity.

b) Teaching resources

In this lesson, the teaching aids or other resources needed include: microscope,
computer, and projector, students’ text books, charts, micrographs, animations
showing the structures of different types of animal and plant cells, and other specific
materials for students with disabilities.

c) Learning activities:

Teacher’s activity:

•• Present the chart showing the different specialised cells.

•• Ask students to relate the structure of each cell with its function as required in
the activity 4.5 from the students’ text books.
•• Be sure that every student is working effectively on the activity by moving
around in their groups.

80 Teachers’ Guide
 •• Invite some of the groups to present their productions/findings.
•• Judge the logic of the students’ products, correct those which are false,
complete those which are incomplete, and confirm those which are correct.
•• Summarise the learned knowledge and give examples which illustrate the
learned content and give short notes. Students participate actively in making
the summary.
Students’ activities:

•• Students relate specialised cells with their functions as required in the activity
4.5 from the students’ text books.
•• Students evaluate the productions from others: which ones are correct,
incomplete or false.
•• Summarise the learned knowledge.
Answers for the activity 4.5:

Specialised cell Function

Red blood cell To carry oxygen within blood from lungs to different parts.
Neurone cell Transport nervous information

Sperm cell Fertilise the egg

Muscular cell Involve in movement

Answers of the Self-assessment 4.4:

1) Because their nucleus is lost, Erythrocytes are specialized by having a biconcave

shape which enable them to carry out their function (to transport Oxygen)
sufficiently.

2) Cell division, protein synthesis, aerobic respiration.

3) Expected answers:

a) Neutrophils contain many lysosomes that have digestive enzymes to digest

pathogens.

b) Sperm cells have the tail which helps them to move, they have many
mitochondria which produce APT that provides energy for movement, and they
have also enzymes in their acrosome which digest the walls of the egg during
fertilization.

c) Root hair cells have thin wall, are numerous to provide large surface area for
absorption of water and minerals.

Teachers’ Guide 81
 4) Photosynthesis is carried out in palisade mesophyll more than in spongy
mesophyll because palisade mesophyll contains many chloroplasts compared to
spongy mesophyll.

5) It is multicellular organisms where cell specialization is a characteristic

They help organisms to adapt better to their environment by different responses

4.6 Summary of the unit

This unit “cell structure and specialisation” is divided into five sub-units such
as: ultrastructure of animal and plant cells, cell organelles, ultrastructure of the cell
membrane, prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and cell specialisation.

•• The unit deals with investigating the ultrastructure of animal and plant
cells which allows to know similarities and differences between animal cell
and plant cell. This ultrastructure of the cells, reveals different parts that are
found in it.
•• The cell has many organelles with different structures and different
functions, but all work together for the good health of the cell.
•• This unit shows the structure of cell membranes, the cell membranes
and how they are adapted to perform their functions.
•• The unit shows that there are two types of organisms: prokaryotes with cell
lacking some organelles including the nucleus, and eukaryotes which are
more complex with cells having nuclear envelops which surround the genetic
material.
•• This unit talks about the specialisation of cells, where cells are
differentiated by acquiring special structures which allow them to perform
different functions in the body.
4.7 Additional Information
Our body is made up by many cells. A group of many cells having similar function is
called a tissue. A group of many tissues having similar function make an organ. A group
of many organs makes a system/organ system. Many systems working together make
an organism. Below is a list of lifespan of some cells:

Life spans of various human cells

4.8 Answers for the End unit assessment

I. Multiple choice questions

1) d
2) c
3) a

82 Teachers’ Guide
 4) b
5) b
II. Match questions

Match each part of the cell to its correct statement:

Nucleus protein synthesis

Mitochondrion where photosynthesis takes place

Chloroplast where aerobic respiration takes place

Smooth ER controls the activity of the cell

Ribosome where lipids including steroids are made

III. Brief questions

1) A cell membrane is directly in contact with the plasma (cytoplasm) and is found in
all cell, with a cell wall surrounds the cell membrane and is not found in animal cells.

2) The structures that animal and plant cells have in common are: nucleus, cytoplasm,
cell membrane, mitochondria and ribosomes. Those found only in plant cells are: cell
wall, permanent vacuole and chloroplasts, and those found only in animal cells are:
lysosomes and centromere.

3) List:

a) Centrosomes, centrioles, nucleolus, ribosomes, cytoskeleton, and flagella.

b) Lysosomes, ER, Golgi bodies.

c) Chloroplast, mitochondrion and nucleus.

4) Identify an organelle from its description below.

a) Golgi apparatus manufactures lysosomes.

b) Nucleolus within nucleus manufactures ribosomes.

c) Ribosome

d) Endoplasmic reticulum.

e) Rough ER can transport newly synthesized protein round the cell.

f) Mitochondria

g) Nucleus

Teachers’ Guide 83
 h) Chloroplast

i) Centriole

J) Nucleus.

k) Plasma membrane.

l) Ribosome.

5) Chloroplast and mitochondrion.

IV. Essay questions

6) The structure and function of the cell membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer
containing proteins. Its functions include: controlling what enters and leaves the
cell, protection of internal structures. The cell wall is made of cellulose and proteins.
It is porous (has pores) enough to allow water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other
substances to pass through easily. Its functions are: protection and support of the
cell.

7) The basic structure of the cell membrane is made by a phospholipid bilayer,

containing intrinsic and extrinsic proteins. The basic structure of phospholipids has
two parts: hydrophilic part (water loving), which consists of the phosphate head,
and hydrophobic part (water hating), which consist of fatty acids. If phospholipid
molecules are completely surrounded by water, a bilayer can form. Phosphate heads
on each side of the bilayer stick into water, while the hydrophobic fatty acids tails
point towards each other.

8) Chloroplasts use energy from sunlight to make energy-rich food molecule. The
mitochondria transfer the energy in food molecules to high-energy compounds
that the cell can use. Both chloroplast and mitochondria are bounded by double
membranes separated by a fluid-filled space. The inner membrane of chloroplast is
continuous with thylakoids having the chlorophyll pigment. The inner membrane of
mitochondrion is highly folded to form cristae. The central part of the mitochondrion
is called the matrix.

9) The following are the answers:

a) A: cell membrane, B: centriole, C: cytoplasm, and D: Rough ER.

b) To calculate the actual length of the mitochondrion, use the formula:

A , where: M is magnification, I is image size of mitochondrion (mea-

sured on the diagram by using a ruler) and A is actual size.
10) The advantage to have a division of labour between different cells in the body will
allow the organism to perform all biological processes to keep it healthy.

84 Teachers’ Guide
 11) In Biology, cell fractionation is the process used to separate cellular compo-
nents while preserving individual functions of each component. In This process:
you take some cells, throw them in a blender, and then centrifuge them to sepa-
rate the organelles.
12) The freeze-fracture technique consists of physically breaking apart (fractur-
ing) a frozen biological sample; structural detail exposed by the fracture plane
is then visualized by vacuum-deposition of platinum-carbon to make a replica
for examination in the transmission electron microscope. This technique used to
look at membranes that reveal the pattern of integral membrane proteins.

4.9 Additional activities

4.9.1 Remedial Activities:

1) On your choice, list and give the functions of two organelles from animal cell
and plant cell.

2) What is the adaptations of chloroplast for its function?

3) State the general function of the glycoproteins and glycolipids.

4) Which among prokaryote and eukaryote is more complex?

5) Explain how a sperm cell is adapted to fertilise the egg.

Answers to Remedial activities:

1) From animal cell: mitochondria: site for energy production; nucleus: it controls
all cell activities. From plant cell: chloroplasts: site for photosynthesis, Ribosomes:
site for proteins synthesis.

2) Chloroplasts are adapted by: having thylakoids with chlorophyll where light-
dependent reactions occur, stroma where light-independent reactions occur.

3) Both glycoproteins and glycolipids are involved in the cell protection, the
process by which cell adhesions are brought about and also in the uptake and
entry of selected substances.

4) Eukaryote is more complex than prokaryote. Eukaryote may be a multicellular

organism with many structures that are not found in prokaryote. Also, eukaryotic
cells have most of all organelles, but prokaryotic cells lack some organelles like a
real nucleus.

Teachers’ Guide 85
 5) A sperm cell is adapted by having: tail for movement, many mitochondria to
produce energy for movement, acrosome with enzymes for digesting the wall
of the egg during fertilisation, half number of chromosomes which, when fused
with chromosomes from the egg form a diploid zygote.

4.9.2 Consolidation activities

1) Discuss two largest organelles of an animal cell and their functions.

2) A student was telling his colleagues that the lysosome is not important to the
cell. Discuss to his idea.

3) Why must cell membrane be partially permeable?

4) Compare a prokaryotic cell to a eukaryotic plant cells considering the presence

of the cell wall.

5) What are the adaptations of red blood cell for its function?

Answers to consolidation activities:

1) The nucleus: controls all activities of the cell, and ER: rough ER transports
proteins made on attached ribosomes, while smooth ER does not have ribosomes,
and it involves in making lipids that the cell needs.

2) His idea is wrong. Lysosomes are very important as they contain powerful
digestive enzymes which can break down materials, and destroy invalid
microorganisms. In acrosome, lysosomes help the sperm to penetrate the egg by
breaking down the material surrounding the egg.

3) A cell membrane should be permeable in order to allow some materials to

move through it.

4) Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic plant cell have the cell wall surrounding their
plasma membranes.

5) Adaptations of red blood cell for its function are: having Haemoglobin to fixe
oxygen, lacking some organelles including the nucleus for providing big space
for haemoglobin, having biconcave shape to facilitate diffusion of gases, they are
numerous.

86 Teachers’ Guide
4.9.3 Extended activities

1) Talk about Robert Hooke contribution on cell discovery.

2) How is a cell like a factory?

3) How the structure of the nuclear membrane enables it to carry out its function
controlling what enters and leaves the nucleus?

4) Observe the figure below and answer to questions:

a) Does this figure represent eukaryotic or prokaryotic cell?

b) State two reasons to support your answer.

c) Compare the specialization and functions of cells in your body with the
specialization and functions of people in your school.

Answers to extended activities

1) From his experiment on observing slides of cork taken from the bark of an
Oak tree under the compound microscope, Robert Hooke decided that the slides
were made up of a lot of many small chambers that he called cells. He used the
word “cell” in his book Micrographia, published in 1665.

2) Students may give various answers. One response may involve the comparison
of ribosomes to machines in the factory. They may also compare other organelles
to different parts of the factory.

3) The nuclear membrane contains many pores which enable it to carry out its
function controlling what enters and leaves the nucleus?

4) The answers are:

a) The figure represents a prokaryotic cell.

b) The figure has a genetic material (circular DNA) that is not bounded in a
nuclear membrane, it has an external cell wall, and it lacks some organelles.

c) In our school are many people with different specialization and functions,
but all work together for the prosperity of the school. In such way, our body
also has many cells with different structures and functions. Despite their
differences, all cells in their types work together for the survival of the body.

Teachers’ Guide 87
88 Teachers’ Guide
UNIT 5: DIVERSITY OF SPECIALIZED TISSUES
5

5.1 Key unit competence

Describe different specialized plant and animal cells and adaptation of tissues

5.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values)

In senior one students have learnt about animal and plant cells (unit 5), and Levels of
organization in multicellular organisms (Unit 6). Remind students some of none detailed
concepts like specialized plant and animal cells and tissues that were seen in senior
one. This unit deals with the specialized tissues. During the lessons in this unit, try to
bring the awareness of students the fact that what you teach them will support to have
knowledge on different types of animal and plant tissues as well as their adaptations
and importance

5.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed

a) Gender education

Engage girls and boys in all activities taking place in classroom and laboratory. Emphasize
to students that everybody regardless to gender can do great things. You can also give
some examples of exemplary girls and women who are successful teachers, Doctors,
Local leaders in the society where students come from.

b) Inclusive education

Encourage students to participate during lessons, and group activities. Arrange your
classroom in special way to take care for those students with special needs.

•• For blind students, help them to learn by providing braille.

•• For those ones who have sight problems you can print papers with large
letters.
•• Recognize and allocate the students with disabilities to others so that they
can assist them during practical activities.

Teachers’ Guide 89
5.4 Guidance on the introductory activity
•• This activity should provide guidance on how to conduct it, answers as well as
a cross reference to the student’s book.
•• Learners may not be able to find the right solution but they are invited to
predict possible solutions or answers. Solutions provided by learners gradually
through discovery activities organized at the beginning of lessons or during
the lesson.
Introductory activity [brainstorming activity]

Prerequisite: Learners have knowledge of specialized cell and skills of manipulating a

microscope studied in previous unit. This gives learners a good base to study this unit.

Teacher’s activities

•• Provide learners with student books and guide them to brainstorm the text in
introductory activity on of unit 5.
•• Ask learners in their respective groups to do the task below the text.
•• Guide learners, to harmonize their presentation and evaluate their
understanding.
Expected answers to the introductory activity:

•• Termites are specialized for particular task.

•• Soldiers that protect the colony have mouth parts shaped like a pair of scissors
building and a slightly larger abdomen for storing water. The queen is the
largest of all and has a task of laying eggs
•• Workers have mouth parts for cutting and chewing food or soil particles.
•• In an anthill, different termites are specialized to perform a particular task as
tissues in the body are specialized to perform a particular function.
•• Plants and animals have specialized tissues to increase the efficiency which
the advantage of division of labor labour in multicellular organisms.

90 Teachers’ Guide
5.5 Teaching/learning resources; text books, f lip charts, scotch.

Lesson Learning objectives Number

title of
periods
1 Plant tissues Observe and draw plant tissues under a 4
light microscope.
Analyze and categorize plant tissues
Develop research spirit using internet to
find out categories of tissues

2 Animal tissues Name the main types of animal and plant 4

tissues.
Explain how epithelial tissues have
adapted to perform a diversity of functions
in the body.
Observe and draw animal tissues under a
light microscope
Analyze and categorize plant tissues

3 Levels of Define an organ as a structure made up of 2

organization a group of tissues with related functions
working together to perform bodily
functions.
Acknowledge the relationship between
levels of organization

4 Advantages State the advantages and disadvantages of 2

and being unicellular or multicellular
disadvantages
of being
unicellular and
multicellular

Assessment Can describe different specialized plant 2

and animal cells and adaptation of tissues

Teachers’ Guide 91
 Lesson 1: Specialized plant tissues
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

This is the first lesson of the fifth unit Diversity of specialized tissues. In this lesson
you will be dealing with specialized plant tissues. The first thing to do before starting
teaching is to remind students that they have learnt about plant cells and tissues in
senior one (unit 5).

During this lesson, make sure that you bring the awareness of the students the fact that
what you teach them will support to have knowledge on different types of specialized
plant tissues as well as their adaptations and importance. For good exploitation of
students’ knowledge about specialized tissues, try to remind the students about plant
cells so that they can prepare themselves for this lesson.

b) Teaching resources

Lesson 5.1 has different activities and laboratory experiments related to specialized
plant tissues that require different materials as below,

•• Staining reagents such as iodine solution

•• Plant tissues
•• Microscopes
•• Slides
•• Plastic ruler graduated in millimeters
•• Prepared slides of cells and tissues
•• Other resources like charts, printed papers, computer and projector
•• Remember! If you find the materials are absent, do not think that it is the end.
Do your best by improvisation or consult other schools that may have those
materials.
c) Learning activities

Before starting the new lesson 5.1, ask your students to recall the unit 5 in senior one
in which they have learnt plant and animal cells and tissues by asking them some
questions on cells and tissues like what is a cell? What are two types of cells? What do you
understand with term tissue? Opens short discussions to encourage learners to think
about the previous learning experience and connect it with the current instructional
objectives. Discuss first with your students how they will be working through the new
lesson in the unit 5 and that they have a full responsibility in their learning.

92 Teachers’ Guide
The teacher:

•• Guide the students to form the groups of six members each. Remember to
balance the groups basing on the capacity of students, gender and those with
special needs to enhance the effective collaborative learning.
•• Ask learners to do activity 5.1 in their student book
•• Provide the necessary materials.
•• Provide the experiment activity protocol to guide the students
•• Engage students in their respective groups to work collectively on activity.
•• Relax a moment and move around in silence to monitor if they are having
some problems, they are having enough materials, they are properly sharing
ideas in English.
•• Remember to assist those who are still behind but without giving them the
knowledge.
•• Invites representatives of groups to presents the group findings.
•• ask other students to follow carefully the representations
•• Note on chalk board / manila paper the students’ ideas.
•• Tick the correct findings and correct those ones which are incorrect and try
again to complete those which are incomplete.
•• Harmonize and conclude on the learned knowledge and still engage students
in, then give the summary with tangible examples related to a lesson.
Answers for activity 5.1.1

a) A tissue is defined as a group of cells with similar structure working together

for a function

b) Protection against water loss and diseases from viruses and fungi

c) Storage role

Teachers’ Guide 93
 d) Regulates gaseous exchange

•• The structure observed is looking as a house wall made by small similar units
having nucleus and cytoplasm.
•• Those units together form the structure above known as a tissue.
•• Provide learners with this flow chart drawn on manila papers in their respective
groups.

•• Ask learners to interpret the chart and answer the questions asked in students’
book in activity 5.1.2.
•• Guide learners with special education needs depending on the type.
Answers for activity 5.1.2

a) Meristems are continuously diving by mitosis and located at growing regions

of stem and root while permanent tissues are not.

b) The vascular tissue is a bundle of two kinds of conducting tissues of phloem

vessel and xylem tissue

c) How xylem tissue is related to its function.

•• The cells are long and arranged end to end to form a continuous column.
•• The cell contents die when mature, which means that there is no cytoplasm or
nucleus to prevent water flow
•• The end walls can break down, so that there is no barrier to water flow
between adjacent cells
•• How the phloem vessel is related to its function?
•• Sieve tube elements are elongated and arranged end to end to form a
continuous column
•• The nucleus and many of the organelles are located in the companion cells,
leaving the lumen of the sieve tube elements more open so reducing resistance
to the flow of flow of liquid

94 Teachers’ Guide
 •• Sieve plates are perforated with sieve pores, reducing resistance to liquid flow
•• The sieve plates hold the walls of sieve tube elements together and prevent
them from bursting.
d) Ground tissues are of three forms i.e.: parenchyma, sclerenchyma and
collenchyma.

Teaching resources: Text books, markers, manila, flip charts.

Answers for self-assessment 5.1

1) Expected answers are:

•• The cambium gives rise to secondary vascular tissues in dicotyledonous plants.

•• Found in permanent tissues at nodes of a plants
•• They are located in the root and shoot apex, they are responsible for primary
growth, leading to the increase of primary plant body.
2)

•• Characteristics of meristematic cell no specialized features.

•• Thin cell walls, small or no vacuole
•• Large prominent nucleus
•• Undifferentiated cells
•• Undergo rapid cell division
•• Cells are mostly isodiametric in shape and sometimes circular
•• Absent intercellular space
•• Do not undergo secondary thickening
•• Cells contain a large number of ribosomes. e.t.c
•• The cells are small,
Differentiation is the process by which unspecialized structures (cell, tissue, organ, and
system) become modified and specialized for performance of specific functions.

•• Cambium is a plant tissue consisting of actively dividing cells that is responsible

for increasing the girth of the plant.
•• Wood is the hard structural and water-conducting tissue that is found in
perennial plants and forms the bulk of the trees and shrubs

Teachers’ Guide 95
3) Difference between Collenchyma and sclerenchyma

Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

Made of living cells Made of dead cells

Tapering ends do not overlap Tapering ends overlap and

interlock

Ensure mechanical support and Ensure mechanical support only

flexibility

Cell wall is not lignified. Cell wall is lignified.

4) The main structures (components) that make up:

•• A xylem consists of two types of conducting cells: tracheid and vessel elements
and the wall has pits
•• A phloem consists of Sieve-tube and companion cells
5) How the structure of Parenchyma Xylem tissues is suitable to their functions?

•• Their cells lack cytoplasm

•• Absence of nucleus
6) The expected answers are:

a) Meristem tissue is a group of cells which retain the ability to divide by mitosis,
and specialized to carry out specific functions

b) Answers are:

(i)Lateral meristem: Is found in lateral parts of the plant.

(ii)Intercalary meristem: Is found in the region of permanent tissues like at

nodes of monocotyledonous plants

(iii)Apical meristem: Is found in the root and shoot apex (at the growing points
of roots and stems).

7) Expected answers are:

•• A is sieve tube and B is companion cells

•• Phloem tube carries food substances like sugar and amino acids produced in
leaves during photosynthesis to every part of the plant.

96 Teachers’ Guide
 Lesson 2: Specialized animal tissues
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

This is the second lesson of the fifth unit Diversity of specialized tissues. Lesson 5.2
deals with specialized animal tissues. Before you start teaching, remind students that
they have learnt about animal cells and tissues in senior one (unit 5). During this lesson,
make sure that you bring the awareness of the students the fact that what you teach
them will support to have knowledge on different types of specialized animal and plant
tissues as well as their adaptations and importance. For good exploitation of students’
knowledge about cells and tissues, try to help them to remember the definition of
animal tissue and to prepare themselves for this.

b) Teaching resources

•• Microscopes
•• Slides
•• Plastic ruler graduated in millimeters
•• Prepared slides of cells and tissues
•• Acidified phloroglucinol, methylene blue
•• Cheek cells
•• Other resources like charts, printed papers, computer and projector
Remember! This lesson needs more experimental activities in laboratory and other
activities in classroom. That is why you have to make sure that the teaching aids listed
above are available and utilized to achieve the learning objectives

c) Learning activities

The teacher:

•• Ask students to go in groups formed in previous lesson

•• Ask learners to do activity 5.2 in their student book
•• Provide the necessary materials.
•• Provide the experiment activity protocol to guide the students
•• Engage students in their respective groups to work collectively on activity.
•• Move around in silence to see if students are having some problems, they are
having enough materials, they are properly sharing ideas in English.
•• Assist those students who are still behind but without giving them the
knowledge.
•• Invites representatives of groups to presents the group findings.

Teachers’ Guide 97
 •• Tell other students to follow carefully the representations
•• Write on chalk board / Manila paper the student’s ideas.
•• Confirm the correct findings and correct those ones which are incorrect and
try again to complete those which are incomplete.
•• Harmonize and conclude on the learned knowledge and still engage students
in making conclusion, then give the summary with tangible examples related
to a lesson.
Answers for the activity 5.2

•• You are required to orient students in library with clear references. The
opportunity they get must be exploited in your silence and monitoring to
ensure the students competences.
•• Invite randomly four representative students to presents their results, and try
to promise them to get clear result as the lesson will carry on.
Answers for Self-assessment 5.2

Lesson 3: Levels of organization

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

This is the third lesson of the fifth unit Diversity of specialized tissues. Lesson 5.3 deals
with the Levels of organization. Before you start teaching, remind students that they
have learnt about cells, tissue, organ, system and organization in senior one (unit 5).

During this lesson, make sure that your guidance and assistance will support students to
have knowledge on different levels of organization. For good exploitation of students’
knowledge about levels of organization, try to help them to remember the definition of
cell, tissue, organ and system.

b) Teaching resources

•• Teaching aids like charts, printed papers, computer and projector.

•• Manila paper with diagrams for improvisation
c) Learning activities

The teacher:

•• Ask learners to do individually activity 5.3 in their student books

•• Provide the necessary materials.
•• Move around in silence to monitor if they are having some problems
•• Remember to assist those who are weak but without giving them the
knowledge.

98 Teachers’ Guide
 •• Invites any three students to present their findings to the rest of students.
•• Ask other students to follow carefully the representations
•• Note on chalk board / Manila paper the students’ ideas.
•• Tick the correct findings and correct those ones which are incorrect and try
again to complete those which are incomplete.
•• Harmonize and conclude on the learned knowledge and still engage students
in making that conclusion
Answers of activity 5.3

Visit a classroom block, administration block or any building in school which is

constructed with bricks and use it to answer the following questions. Precaution:
Consider a building of which bricks are exposed (not plastered).

1) A brick.

2) One brick is joined with another one, and another to another to form a line of
bricks, many lines of bricks form a wall.

3) Yes, it is made up of smallest particles of soil (sand or clay) or stones.

4) Very many, not easy to count.

5) They are formed by joining smallest components of a building block called

bricks.

6) Brick, course, wall, room, block (use arrows to represent a sequence)

•• Relate the above arrangement of a building to levels of organization in

multicellular organisms, beginning with a cell and ending with an organism.
•• Just as we seen that a building is made up smallest units called bricks, also our
bodies also made up smallest units called cells. Cells in multicellular organisms
are arranged in a sequence in levels of organization as follows: Cell, tissue,
organ, system, and organism. This sequential arrangement is similar as the
one of a building above. A cell matches with a brick, course of bricks matches
with a tissue; a wall matches with an organ and so on.
Answers for self-assessment 5.3

1) Answer by true or false

a) False
b) True
c) True
d) True

Teachers’ Guide 99
 2) The following are the answers:

a) Basic unit of human body because the whole human body originates from
cell

b) Structural unit of human body because the cell makes up the structure of
human body

c) Functional unit of human body because all human body’s physiological

activities take place within the cells

Lesson 4: Advantages and disadvantages of unicellular and multicellular

organisms

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

This is the last lesson of the fifth unit Diversity of specialized tissues. Lesson 5.4
deals with Advantages and disadvantages of unicellular and multicellular organisms.
Before you start teaching, remind students that they have learnt about unicellular and
multicellular organisms in senior one (unit 1)

During this lesson, make sure that your guidance and assistance will support students
to have knowledge on Advantages and disadvantages of unicellular and multicellular
organisms. For good exploitation of students’ knowledge about unicellular and
multicellular organisms, try to help them to remember the definition of unicellular and
multicellular.

b) Teaching resources

•• Some resources like charts, printed papers, computer and projector

•• Do your best by improvisation or consult other schools that may have other
materials you may not have.
c) Learning activities

The Teacher:

•• Ask learners to do in pair activity 5.4 in their student books

•• Provide the necessary materials.
•• Move around in silence to monitor if they are having some problems
•• Remember to assist those who are weak but without giving them the
knowledge.
•• Invites any three students to present their findings to the rest of students.
•• Ask other students to follow carefully the presentations
•• Note on chalk board / Manila paper the students’ ideas.

100 Teachers’ Guide

 •• Tick the correct findings and correct those ones which are incorrect and try
again to complete those which are incomplete.
•• Harmonize and conclude on the learned knowledge and still engage students
in making that conclusion
Answers for activity 5.4

1) Advantages and disadvantages of unicellular organism:

(i) Advantages:

•• Unicellular organisms need fewer nutrients and can survive in bad conditions.
•• Some of the organisms can generate energy through photosynthesis.
•• Sometimes different bacteria work together to work to their advantages.
•• Unicellular organisms can multiply quicker and have less energy/resource
demands.
(ii) Disadvantages:

•• Unicellular organisms only have one cell that is used to function their entire
being. This is a disadvantage compared to multicellular organisms, which have
many cells and function more easily and properly.
2) Organism being Multicellular

i) Advantages:

•• Multicellular organism usually has a wider range of functions because of the

aggregation of different types of cells.
•• Multicellular organisms have many more necessities and can only survive in
certain conditions.
•• Multicellular organisms such as animals are unable to make their own food so
they survive by eating living things such as vegetables, fruits, and meat. They
can also eat things that are produced by other living things such as eggs, milk,
and honey.
•• Nutrients must be broken down for most multicellular organisms to be able to
extract energy from them.
(ii) Disadvantage:

Multicellular organisms such as animals are unable to make their own food and to get
food is a tire some work. Their survival in critical condition is rare.

Teachers’ Guide 101

Answers of self-assessment 5.4

1) (Consider answer of question (1) activity 5.4.)

2) How unicellular organisms perform their functions.

•• Unicellular organisms get food substances by diffusion through their cell

membrane
•• Unicellular organisms live in colonies.
•• Some of unicellular organisms have cilia, flagella that help them to move
•• Some of unicellular organisms have green color(chlorophyll) and are able to
perform photosynthesis
5.6 Summary of the unit
•• This unit is based on the study of Diversity of specialized tissues
•• The study of animal and plant tissues is known as Histology.
•• A tissue is a group of associated, similarly structured cells that perform
specialized functions for the survival of the organism.
•• In histology, differentiation is the process by which structures (cell, tissue,
organ, and system) become modified and specialized to perform specific
functions.
•• Plant tissues is divided into two main groups: Meristematic tissues (apical,
lateral, and intercalary meristems) and Permanent tissues (ground tissues and
vascular tissues).
•• Meristem tissue is a group of cells which retain the ability to divide by mitosis.
It is specialized to carry out specific functions such as reproduction, growth,
photosynthesis and replacement of old or damage tissues.
•• Permanent tissues consist of two groups of tissues such as: ground and
vascular tissues.
•• The vascular tissue system consists of two kinds of conducting tissues: the
xylem responsible for conduction of water and dissolved mineral nutrients,
and the phloem responsible for conduction of elaborated food.
•• There are four basic types of tissue in the body of all animals, including the
human body such as epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, nervous tissue, and
connective tissue.
•• The human body is organized into structural and functional levels. The simplest
is the cells, organized into tissues, organs, and organ systems.

102 Teachers’ Guide

5.7 Additional Information
For better guiding students to perform the experimental activity 5.1 need a detailed
procedure as follow:

You divide students into groups of 4 or 6 members and provide the necessary materials
such as light microscope, lazar blade, droppers, forceps, glass slides, needles, cover
slips

Remember to tell students to clean their materials before starting activity and make
sure that all students are recognizing lab rules and regulations.

Do not forget to write the protocol on a chalkboard or to provide the protocol papers
if possible. The activity protocol should have the procedures to follow during activity as
indicated here under:

•• Hold the glass slide on the edges.

•• Place a drop of iodine solution on the centre of the glass slide.
•• Peel off the thin inner layer of fleshy white storage leaves of the onion made
up of a single layer of cells by using forceps.
•• Gently, use a razor blade to cut off a small piece of the epidermis, about 1Cm2
•• Place a small piece of the epidermis of onion in the drop of iodine, flatten it
against the slide, by using the needle.
•• Hold one side of the cover slip and slowly lower it on top of the iodine. Do this
slowly and carefully to avoid air bubbles in specimen to be viewed.
•• Using a tissue, clean away the iodine around the cover slip.
•• Place the slide on the stage of the microscope.
•• Adjust the microscope to view the specimen
•• Make good drawing of what you see.
•• Remember to move around to make sure weather all students are participating
in activities
•• Ask students to present their results them you help them to come up with
good conclusion.
•• Tell the students to leave the working place well-lit and clean.
5.8 End of unit assessment
Answer for end unit assessment (Question 1 and 2 are multiple choice
based questions, question 3, 4, 5, 6 are long answer based questions)

1) Epithelial

2) Connective, Muscular, Epithelial, Nervous

Teachers’ Guide 103

 3) The answer includes:

•• Epithelium lining the respiratory air passages secretes mucus. This helps them
to traps inhaled dust particles and microbes.
•• Some epithelial tissues are made up of epithelium cells that have cilia. This
helps them to propel the mucus and trapped particles to the throat.
•• Some epithelial tissues are folded and form glandular tissues. This helps them
to secrete the digestive enzymes, hormones, mucus, sweat and sebum.
•• Some epithelial cells divide mitotically producing new cells. This helps them to
replace damaged or dead cells.
•• Some epithelial cells such as taste buds and retina cells are specialized to form
sensory receptors.
4) The blood is made up of different kinds of cells that are not similar, even perform
different functions. This disqualifies blood to be a true tissue but connective one

5) Complete the following table:

Categories of plant tissues according to Examples of tissues

their functions

Growth tissues Meristem, Cambium

Protective tissues Cuticle, cork

Storage tissues Parenchyma,

Support tissues Sclerenchyma,

collenchyma

Conducting tissues Xylem, Phloem

Secretory tissues Nectary gland, Fragrance

glands

5.9: Additional activities

5.9.1 Remedial Activities:

1) Write any three functions of parenchyma tissues

104 Teachers’ Guide

 Answer:

•• In the leaves, they form the mesophyll and are sites for photosynthesis,
gaseous exchange and transpiration.
•• They store food substances such as starch, proteins and lipids
•• They can be modified to form specialized cells to carry out other function in
epidermis, endodermis, pericycle, aerenchyma, and secretory cells.
2) What do you think are types of neurons?

Answer :

Sensory neurons (afferent neurons), Interneurons, Motor neurons (efferent

neurons)

3) What do you understand by the term organ?

Answer:

An organ is a group of tissues precisely arranged so as to accomplish specific

functions.

4) Multicellular organisms are bigger than unicellular organisms. What does

multicellular mean?

Answer:

Multicellular means many cells

5.9.2 Consolidation activities:

1) What are differences between apical meristematic tissue and intercalary

meristematic tissue?

Answer

a) Apical meristematic tissue

•• It is located in the root and shoot apex.

•• It is responsible for primary growth.
•• While,
b) Lateral meristematic tissue
•• It is located in lateral parts of the plant,
•• It is responsible for secondary growth.

Teachers’ Guide 105

 2) Use the diagrams to differentiate Simple cuboidal epithelium and
Simple squamous epithelium

Answer:

Simple cuboidal epithelium

•• This is a tissue with cells that are cubical in shape

•• Cuboidal cells are specialized for secretion and they make up the epithelia of
kidney tubules and many glands including salivary glands, and thyroid gland.
While,

Simple squamous epithelium

•• It is thin and leaky

•• It functions in the exchange of material by diffusion.
•• It lines blood vessels and the air sacs of lungs.
3) What do you think is relationship between organ systems in human body?

Answer:

The food is digested in alimentary canal and nutrients enter the blood then assimilated
by the body and the waste products like carbon dioxide, urea...after metabolic activities,
are released during urination, sweating and breathing, all under the control of nervous
system.

4) Multicellular organisms such as animals are unable to make their own food but
plants are able to make their own food. This helps us to thinks about two modes
of nutrition in multicellular organisms. Write down the names and define those
modes of nutrition.

Answer:

•Autotrophic
• nutrition: mode of nutrition where green organisms like plants
make their own food using carbon dioxide, water in the presence of sun light.
•Heterotrophic
• nutrition: Mode of nutrition where living organisms like animals,

106 Teachers’ Guide

 fungi, get energy from the food made by plants or other organisms. The organisms
using this mode of nutrition are not able to make their own food due to lack of
chlorophyll

5.9.3 Extended activities

1) Imagine what will happen to the flowering plants if the meristem tissue is
removed.

Answer:

•• Inhibition of primary growth

•• increased lateral growth
•• No growth in length
2) Heat production is one of the functions of human muscle tissue. How
these tissues perform it?

Answer:

Most of the sugar molecules are stored in muscle tissue, these molecules are
used during cell respiration where oxygen combine with them to produce energy
which can be in heat form (thermal energy and in force form (mechanical energy)

Sugar+ oxygen to give Carbon dioxide+ water+ Energy

3) What do think is the origin of your entire body?

Answer:

The body originates from the cell, many similar cells form tissue, tissues make
organ, organs make system and finally systems make entire body organism

4) Bacteria are unicellular organisms which do not have sexual organs for
reproduction, but their rate of reproduction is extremely high. In you on word,
explain if this statement is true.

Answer:

Answer of this question should base first on their advantages of being unicellular.
These organisms do not need much nutrients for further body activities. They
simply divide excessively and regenerate into new uncountable offspring. The
mode of reproduction in known as Binary fission or Bipartition.

Teachers’ Guide 107

108 Teachers’ Guide
UNIT 6: TESTING FOR BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES 6

6.1 Key unit competence

Test for biological molecules in a variety of contexts, in identifying the contents of
mixtures of molecules and to follow the activity of digestive enzymes.

6.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values)

The learners learnt about food nutrient and diet in senior one in which food test was
introduced. Create awareness of learners the fact that the content in this unit will help
them to gain knowledge, skills and attitudes that can lead them to career development
in food sciences and food industry.

6.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed

This unit will address different cross-cutting issues particularly standardization
culture, inclusive education, and gender education. The standardization culture will
be addressed when students will appreciate the utilization of non-expired chemical
reagents in relation to positive or good results of the experiments. Emphasis should be
made so that students should always check the date of manufacture and expiration of
chemicals/substances even the food material.

For addressing inclusive education, while students will be conducting experiments,

instructional information should be given clearly and students with visual or physical
impairment will be involved in learning activities by asking their colleagues who do not
have impairment to perform tasks and asking them to report the results of experiments.
They can sometimes use their sense organs for identifying the results of experiment.

For addressing issue of gender, both boys and girls should share equally responsibilities
in performing experiment, arranging and cleaning the areas where experiment was
conducted.

Teachers’ Guide 109

6.4 Guidance on the introductory activity
Introduce this unit by challenging students by using the following problem situation.
You are given different substances which are in solution state. You are again asked to
confirm whether those substances contain or are sugars, lipids, proteins or vitamins.

Ask them to brainstorm how they will proceed so that they can come up with good
results. Use students’ ideas and then introduce a whole unit.

Answers for introductory activity

There is need to perform experiment otherwise it is not easy to confirm the type of
substance given without doing experiment or a test.

6.5 List of lessons/sub-heading

Lesson title Learning objectives(from the syllabus Number of

including knowledge, skills and periods
attitudes:

1 Test for starch, Write out procedures in the 2

reducing sugars, and identification of biological molecules
non-reducing sugars
Carry out tests for the identification of
biological molecules
Compare reducing to non –reducing
sugars

2 Tests for proteins Explain the importance of the 2

reagents used in their identification of
biological molecules.

3 Test for lipids. Appreciate the importance of

identification of food values in the
food industry and in processing and
packaging

4 Test for vitamin C Show resilience making observations 1

(Ascorbic acid). on colour changes during food tests

5 Assessment: can fully test for biological molecules 2

in a variety of contexts, such as
identifying the contents of mixtures
of molecules

Lesson 1: Test for starch, reducing sugars, and non-reducing sugars.

110 Teachers’ Guide

This is the first lesson of unit 3 and is a single period lesson. Before you start this
lesson, you are requested to introduce the whole unit as given in the guidance on the
introductory activity of this unit.

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

•• Start this lesson by asking questions such as how can you test for the presence
of starch in bread? What about the presence ofsugar in a solution?
•• Let students give their views. Build on students’ ideas and then connect to
learning activity of this lesson.

b) Teaching resources

Starch powder, iodine solution, diluted hydrochloric acid, Benedict solution and
sodium hydroxide, glucose powder, beakers, test tubes, Bunsen burner, water, drop-
pers, pestle and mortar, measuring cylinders. If your schools do not have laborato-
ry equipment you can take students to the nearby school where they can perform
the experiment.

c) Learning activity 6.1

For students effective learning through performing experimental activity 6.1 de-
scribed in student textbook requires you to do the following:
•• Plan and prepare all materials needed for this lesson.
•• Provide clear instructions particularly when, what, how and why to record.
For example, not respecting time could lead to poor results.
•• You may help students in performing experiment by supplying other needed
material.
•• Ask them to do observations and record the observations
•• Invite students to present their observation and make conclusions through
interaction
•• Use their ideas and conclude the lesson through challenging questions such
as why do you say that this is a starch not white powder like chalk powder?
•• Build on conclusion and extend the lesson by connecting it to how expired
Benedict or Iodine reagents and food substance could not give good results
for promoting issue of standardized culture.
Answers to the activity 6.1

Experiment 1: The tested substance is starch and the presence of starch is indicated by
the change of iodine color into dark blue/blue black.

Experiment 2: The tested substance must be a reducing sugar (glucose solution), the

Teachers’ Guide 111

presence of reducing sugar is indicated by the change of blue color of benedict reagent
to green/yellow, orange and finally red

Answer for self-assessment 6.1

Expected observations and conclusions on the experiment are in the table below.

Experiment Observation Conclusion

(i) In a test tube of 4 drops of Blue black/dark Presence of

solution C1 add 2-3 drops of Iodine blue color Starch

In another test tube of 4 drops No change Absence of

of C1 add an equal volume of the blue color reducing sugar
Benedict ‘solution and boil for 1 of Benedict
min solution persist

Take another test tube, put 3 Green/yellow, Presence of

drops of solution C1, add 4-5 drops orange finally reducing sugar
of dilute hydrochloric acid and boil red color.
for 1min.

cool in water

Add some drops of sodium

hydroxide until the solution can
turn red litmus paper to blue color.
Add 4 drops of Benedict ‘solution
and boil

a) Yes, it contains starch

b) Hydrochloric acid to hydrolyze starch to reducing sugar
c) Sodium hydroxide is necessary to neutralize the hydrochloric acid
Lesson 2: Test for proteins
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Do introduction by asking students to guess the type of food containing a) a)proteins

and how those proteins can be tested. Based on their answers, move to the learning
activity of the lesson.

b) Teaching resources

Test tubes, droppers, measuring cylinder pestle and mortar, beans or soybeans, Millon’
reagent, Biuret reagent, if your schools do not have laboratory equipment you can visit
the nearest school.
112 Teachers’ Guide
 c) Learning activity 6.2

Effective performance of the learning activity 6.2 described in student textbook requires
you to do the following:

•• Plan and prepare all materials needed for this lesson.

•• Provide clear instructions particularly when, what, how and why to record.
For example, not respecting time could lead to poor results.
•• You may help students in performing experiment by supplying the needed
material
•• Ask them to do observations and record the observations
•• Invite students to present their observation and make conclusions through
interaction
•• Use their ideas and conclude the lesson through challenging questions such as
why do you say that this is a protein not another substance?
•• Build on conclusion and extend the lesson by connecting it to how expired
Millon as well Biuret reagents or food material could not give good results for
addressing issue of standardized culture.
Answers to the activity 6.2

The observation of the learners, the color of Biuret reagent changes to pink. This
confirms the presence of proteins in the sample tested.

Self-assessment 6.2

The answer is given in the following table:

Food Reagent procedure Observation and

substance Conclusion

milk *Millon’s Take 2cm3 of test The colour of Millon’s

solution Add 2 cm3 of reagent change from
Millon’s reagent colourless to pink,
Boil for 1-2 minutes Presence of proteins

Take 2 cm3 of test The blue color of Biuret

*Biuret’s solution Add 2 cm3of solution changes to purple
Biuret’s
Presen ce of proteins
Shake

Teachers’ Guide 113

What is the substance A mentioned in students book?

The same results are observed (Questions in student book)

Lesson 3: Test for lipids

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Through questions, revise what they have learnt in senior one about food nutrients
and diet. You need to focus on food/diet that contains lipids. You may also ask them to
predict how the food/substance that contains lipid is identified. Build on learners’ ideas
and then go to the activity 6.3 given in student textbook.

b) Teaching resources

Test tubes, droppers, measuring cylinders, oil, Sudan III solution, if your schools do not
have laboratory equipment you can visit the nearest school to perform the experiment

c) Learning activity 6.3

•• To help students to develop competencies that are related to this lesson you
need to:
•• Plan and prepare all materials needed for this lesson
•• Provide clear instructions on how activity 6.3 should be done
•• Help students in performing experiment by supplying the needed material
•• Ask them to do observations and record the observations
•• Invite students to present their observation and make conclusions through
interaction
•• Use their ideas and conclude the lesson through challenging questions such as
why do you say that this is a lipid not non-reducing sugar or protein?
•• Build on conclusion and extend the lesson by connecting it to how expired
Sudan III and oil could not give good results for promoting issue of standardized
culture.
Answers for activity 6.3

•• The presence of lipids in cooking oils is indicated by milky colour.

•• The test using Sudan III solution, lipid layer sitting on top of the water layer
will have a red-orange.
d) Answers for self-assessment 6.3

•• You can use Ethanol: Emulsion test

•• The observation: Ethanol changes from colourless to milky

114 Teachers’ Guide

 •• You can use the Sudan III
•• Formation of layer having a red-orange colour sitting on top of water will be
observed.
•• In the absence of those observation there is no presence of lipids in solid X.

Lesson 4 : Test for vitamin C

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Learners have knowledge about food or other materials in which vitamin is obtained as
they have learnt it from senior one in food nutrient and diet.

b) Teaching resources

Test tubes, droppers, measuring cylinders, lemon or orange juice, DCPIP. If your schools
do not have laboratory equipments you can visit the nearest school which has one.

c) Learning activity 6.4

For smooth learning of activity, you need to do the following:

•• Plan and prepare all materials needed for this lesson in advance
•• Help students to do activity 6.4 through clear instructions particularly which
is to be recorded and the time (end of the test or suggested time to be
respected)
•• You may help students in performing experiment by supplying the needed
material and intervening when need be
•• Ask them to do observations and record the observations
•• Invite students to present their observation and make conclusions through
interaction
•• Use their ideas and conclude the lesson through challenging questions such
as why do you say that the substance contains vitamin C not a carbohydrate?
•• Build on conclusion and extend the lesson by connecting it to how expired
reagent particularly DCPIP and food substance could not give good results for
promoting issue of standardized culture.

Teachers’ Guide 115

Answers for activity6.4

The expected observations and conclusions are given in the table below.

Experiment Observation Conclusion

To 3cm3 of DCPIP add drops The solution Presence of Vitamin C

of juice extracted from decolorize of
orange fruit DCPIP blue colour

To 2cm3 of water add 2cm3 of No change Absence of vitamin C

DCPIP

Vitamin C is tested by using DCPIP (Dichlophenol indophenol), vitamin C decolorize

DCPIP if there is not the presence of Vitamin C the blue color of DCPIP persist.

Answers for Self-assessment 6.4

Procedures Observation Conclusion

Take a sample of juice(1cm3) The juice decolorize In the tomato juice

the blue color of there is presence of
Add the juice in a test tube DCPIP Vitamin C
containing DCPIP.

6.6 Summary of the unit

In this unit test for biological molecules, the experiment carried out using different
reagents and food staff, indicate that:

•• When testing starch using Iodine solution, the yellow color of Iodine solution
turns to blue-black/dark blue if the starch is present. While during testing
reducing sugar the blue colour of Benedict solution becomes green, yellow,
orange and finally red.
•• To test protein, the colorless Millon reagent turns to pink. Lipids can be tested
by using Ethanol and water (Emulsion test) and the solution turn milky.
•• In addition, the solution containing Vitamin C decolorize the solution of DCPIP.
6.7 Additional information
NOTICE: As a rule, a small amounts of sample should be used:

•• Solid about one spatula needful(0.50-1.00g) of the substance is enough

•• For liquid about 1-3cm3 (4 or 5drops) of the liquid should be used.

116 Teachers’ Guide

How to handle glassware?

While heating, it is useful to observe the following safety measures:

•• Use the test tube holder or any improvised material like a folded piece of
paper for holding the test tube-not your bare hands.
•• Hold the test –tube at an inclined position not upright.
•• Ensure uniform heating of the test tube contents by allowing heating around
the surface in contact with the contents.
•• Do not direct the open end of the test tube at any body
•• Following instructions is very important
Points to note when carrying out the test:

•• Indicate the colour seen in the test tube at the end of the test.
•• Be brief in the recording of observation
Sources of errors:

•• The blue –black or dark blue colour disappearing on heating and the
experimenter missing it. No heating required
•• Adding to little iodine, an excess does not cause any problem
•• Forgetting to shake the solution after addition of iodine solution.
•• Using unclean test tubes. With traces of starch this will give positive result
even when the sample does not contain starch
6. 8 Answers for end of unit assessment
1) Biological molecules are divided in organic molecules and inorganic
molecules.

2) Reagents used are:

a) Ethanol with water, Sudan III indicator

b) Iodine solution
c) Benedict’s solution

3) The teacher has to guide the learners before these practical activities.

Teacher tells to the learners the specimen given (local crops)

a) Sorghum, maize or any other seed containing starch
b) Potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava…
c) Orange fruit, lemon
d) Sunflower, groundnut

Teachers’ Guide 117

The expected result:

•• Specimen A there is presence of starch

•• Specimen B presence of starch
•• Specimen C presence of vitamin C
•• Specimen D presence of lipids (fats)
•• if the students are allowed to use HCl and NaOH together with Benedict
solution; in specimen A and B there is a reducing sugar

Sample tested Procedure Observation conclusion

Specimen A Sample(2cm3) from The colour turn Presence of

specimen A in a test dark blue/blue starch
tube add 2 to 4 drops of black
iodine solution

Specimen B Sample(2cm3) from The colour turn Presence of

specimen A in a test dark blue/blue starch
tube labeled 2 add 2 to 4 black
drops of iodine solution

Specimen C To 3cm3 of DCPIP The blue colour Presence of

add 3 drops of the of DCPIP vitamin C
solution extracted from disappear
specimen C
Specimen D Sample (2cm3) from The colour Presence of
specimen D,add few drops changes from fats(Lipids)
of ethanol followed by colourless to
equal amount of water milky
and shake.

4) The expected answers to the question

•• The blue color of DCPIP disappeared with the addition of pineapple juice
because there is Vitamin C in pineapple juice.
•• Vitamin C is involved in oxidation in the body, reduction reaction, wound
healing and production of collagen fibres.
•• Or simply it protects the body against diseases (scurvy)
5) Expected answers to the question
Food test result Conclusion

118 Teachers’ Guide

 Sample mixed with Blue-black colour Starch present
iodine in potassium
iodide

Sample boiled with Blue colour Reducing sugar

Benedict’s solution absent

Sample treated with Reducing sugar

dilute acid, neutralized present
and then tested with Yellow precipitate
Benedict’s

solution

Sample tested using Blue ring on the Proteins present

Biuret solution surface and on shaking
purple solution

6) The Unknowns for the question 6 in the student book

•• Solution A -0.5% sucrose

•• Solution B -1%starch solution
•• Solution C -Dilute hydrochloric acid
•• Solution D -Sodium hydroxide
Answers

EXPERMENTS OBSERVATION CONCLUSION

(i) Colour remains brown Starch absent

(ii) Colour remains blue Reducing sugar absent

Teachers’ Guide 119

 (iii) Colour changes from blue green Non-reducing sugar
to yellow finally red absent

(iv) Colour turns dark blue Starch present

(v) Colour remains blue Reducing sugars absent

(vi) Colour remains blue Non-Reducing sugars

absent

•• Solution C is dilute hydrochloric acid and Solution D is sodium hydroxide

•• To hydrolyze them to reducing sugars
•• To neutralize the hydrochloric acid added.
•• A is a non-reducing sugar which is present in sugar cane and milk. B is starch
solution; starch is present in cassava, maize.
6. 9 Additional activity

6.9.1 Remedial Activities

1) What is the reagent which is used for?

A) Testing proteins?
b) Testing lipids

2) On your choice give the food in which we can find the following
substances
a) Starch
b) Vitamin C
c) Lipids
3) Which among reducing sugar and starch is tested using Benedict re-
agents?

Answers for Remedial activities

1) Answers:
a) We use Biuret test or Million’s reagent
b) We use Emulsion test (Ethanol) and Sudan III

2) Answers:
a) Tubers such as potatoes, cassava
b) Seeds such as maize, rice and sorghum
c) Orange and lemon fruits

120 Teachers’ Guide

 d) Oil, ground nuts, sunflower

3) Benedict reagent is used to test Reducing sugar

6.9.2 Consolidation activities

1) Explain the chemical test that you can carry to identify the presence of
proteins in a food sample
2) There is no special reagent to test for the presence of non-Reducing
sugar. Explain the methods and procedure that you can use to identify
non-reducing sugar in a food sample.
3) What can be the source of errors in testing starch?

Answers for consolidation activities

1) Answer:
•• Proteins are tested using Biuret reagent. The reagent turns purple when it is
mixed with a protein.
•• A violet/purple colour is formed. The reaction takes place in alkaline solution.
•• The copper (II) sulphate has Copper (II) ions that interact with the nitrogen
atoms in the peptide chain that makes protein resulting to a purple colour.
2) Answer:
•• Reducing sugar and non-Reducing sugar together with starch are
carbohydrates.
•• The test for non-reducing sugar is the test for carbohydrates.
•• First of all, we test for the presence of Starch using Iodine solution
•• Second we hydrolyse the sample using dilute Hydrochloric acid, and Sodium
hydroxide to neutralize the acidity
•• Third we test the presence of reducing sugar.
•• If the sample is positive for reducing sugar test, this indicates that before
hydrolysis with HCl it was a non-reducing sugar.
3) Source of errors:
•• The blue –black /dark blue color disappearing on heating. No heating required
•• Adding to little iodine, an excess does not cause any problem
•• Forgetting to shake the solution after addition of iodine solution.
•• Using unclean test tubes. With traces of starch this will give positive result
even when the sample does not contain starch

Teachers’ Guide 121

6.9.3. Extended activities

1) You are provided with the following:

•• 2 test tubes containing 2cm3 each of suspensions of specimens’ E and F and
the solution Y.
•• 4clean test tubes, solution G -0.1% ascorbic acid solution.
•• A dropper.
•• 5cm3 measuring cylinder.
2) Without shaking the test tubes carry out the following tests. Re-
cordyour results in the table below and answer the questions that follow.
Test Number of
drops

To 1cm3 of solution Y in a test tube add drops of suspension of E

until the colour disappears

To 1cm3 of solution Y in a second test tube add drops of F until

the colour disappears

To 1cm3 of solution Y in a third test tube add drops of solution G

until the colour disappears.

Boil 1cm3 of solution G for three minutes and cool. Add drops of
this cooled solution to 1cm3of solution Y in a test tube until the
colour disappears

a) Use results in(i) and(ii) in the table aboveand calculate the percentage
of ascorbic acid in the suspensions of E. Show your working.
b) Comment on difference in percentage of ascorbic acid in the two sus-
pensions as calculated in the question 1.
C) Calculate the percentage of ascorbic acid in solution G before and
after boiling
d) How can you explain the difference in percentage of ascorbic acid in
the unboiled solution and boiled solution?
6.9.3. Answers for extended activities

1) The specimen is:

•• Specimen E: Tomato fruit
•• Specimen F: Orange fruit
•• Suspension of E and F: Fresh Juice from tomato and orange fruits respectively.
•• Solution Y: Dichlorophenol indophenol(DCPIP)

122 Teachers’ Guide

 •• Solution G: 0.1% ascorbic acid solution
2) Answers:
Test Number of
drops

To 1cm3 of solution Y in a test tube add drops of suspension of E 20

until the colour disappears

To 1cm3 of solution Y in a second test tube add drops of F until the 10

colour disappears

To 1cm3 of solution Y in a third test tube add drops of solution G 5

until the colour disappears.

Boil 1cm3 of solution G for three minutes and cool, add drops of this 7
cooled solution to 1cm3 of solution Y in a test tube until the colour
disappears

•• Percentage of ascorbic acid in suspension equals the number of the used

quantity (5cm3) over the number of drops of the solution (20cm3) times the
concentration of ascorbic acid solution. From here, E=5/20×0.1=0.025%
•• Percentage of Ascorbic acid in suspension is calculated in the same way as the
data summarized in the above table, so that: F=5/10×0.1=0.05%
•• Note:5 drops of 0.1% ascorbic acid (solution G) produces the same effect
(Decolorized solution Y) as drops of solution E (E%), so that 5×0.1=20×E. From
this equation: E=5×0.1=0.025%
7) Specimen F has a higher content of ascorbic acid than specimen E.
8) Before boiling the percentage is 0.1% while after boiling: 5/7×0.1=0.07%

Teachers’ Guide 123

124 Teachers’ Guide
UNIT 7: CARBOHYDRATES AND LIPIDS
7
7.1 Key unit competence
Explain the important roles of carbohydrates and lipids in the provision and storage of
energy and for a variety of other functions.

7.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values)

By questions, remind students what they have learnt in the unit 7 of senior 1 which is
about food nutrients.

7.2 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed

In this unit, you will be addressing the two main issues among others. Those are gender
education and inclusive education.

Gender education will be addressed when girls and boys will be engaged in all activities
taking place in classroom and laboratory. Also, by emphasizing students that everybody
regardless their gender can do great things. You can also give some examples of
exemplary girls and women who are successful teachers, Doctors, Local leaders in the
society where students come from.

By encouraging Students to participate during lessons, and group activities the inclusive
education will be addressed. Arrange your classroom in special way to take care for
those students with special needs. For blind students, help them to learn through
braille method. and for those ones who have sight problems you can use large prints
encourage students who are not physically impaired to support those with impairments.

7.3 Guidance on the introductory activity

Introduce this unit through questions about biological molecules that students have
learnt in unit 6 of senior 4. Refer to the answers given by students, them introduce
whole unit.

Teachers’ Guide 125

7.4 Teaching/learning resources
Text books, flip charts, food staff containing starch and lipids
Expected answers to the introductory activity

1) Lipids, Carbohydrates and Proteins.

Monosaccharide, Disaccharide and polysaccharides are classified into

carbohydrates

2) Because these people have a lot of fat deposition in adipose tissue, fat (lipids)
protect the body against the loss of heat.

7.5 List of Lessons/sub-heading

Learning objectives(from the syllabus Number

Lesson title including knowledge, skills and of
attitudes: periods
Lesson1: Recall the elements that make up
carbohydrates and lipids.
Classes of
1 monomers of the Define the terms monomer, polymer, 2
main biological macromolecule, monosaccharide,
molecules. disaccharide and polysaccharide.
Lesson2:
Describe the ring forms of α-glucose
2 Ring forms of and β-glucose structure. 2
α-glucose and
β-glucose.
Lesson3: Explain the formation of glycosidic
bonds.
3 Formation and 1
breakdown of Appreciate the importance of
glycosidic bonds. carbohydrates and lipids in organisms.
State the roles of carbohydrates and
lipids.

Lesson4: Interpret the charts and illustrations

polysaccharides of molecular structure and
4 2
(starch, glycogen the formation of maltose and
and cellulose). triglycerides.

Differentiate between starch and

cellulose.

126 Teachers’ Guide

 Describe the structure of
phospholipids and relate to their
functions in living organisms.

Demonstrate that phospholipids have

a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic
Lesson5: tails using a heterogeneous mixture
made up of water and cooking oil.
5 Molecular 2
structure and Explain the proportion of hydrogen
functions of lipids in carbohydrates and lipids and relate
this to the amount of energy released
when oxidized.

Be aware of the other roles of lipids

in the formation of soap and with
carbohydrates and syrups in medicine

Explain clearly the important roles

of carbohydrates and lipids in the
6 unit assessment 2
provision and storage of energy and
for a variety of other functions.

Lesson 1: Classes of monomers

This is the first lesson of unit 1 and is a single lesson. This means that it has only one
period (40 Minutes). The first lesson also covers the introduction of the whole unit.

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction.

Introduce the lesson by asking what they know or think about the monomers as they
may have learnt the concept in chemistry or biology in food digestion. Similarly, connect
it to what they think to be monomers in biology. Ask them to give some examples. Use
their ideas and ask them to do activity 7.1 given in student textbook.

b) Teaching resources

Books, charts and plastic atomic model

c) Learning activity 7.1

You need to do the following:

•• Facilitate the formation of groups by emphasizing on individual differences

•• Do facilitation role for helping students to come up with good results

Teachers’ Guide 127

 •• Invite students to make presentations
Help students to summarize the lesson and draw the conclusion

Answer for activity 7.1

1)Monomers are small unit, and when joined together make up long chain of
structures called polymers.

Monosaccharide form carbohydrates

Answer for self-assessment 7.1

2) Polymers: Proteins, carbohydrates, Nucleic acid

3) Monomers: Amino acids, Monosaccharide and Nucleotide

Monomers are small unit, and when joined together make up long chain of structures
called polymers.

Monosaccharide form carbohydrates

Nucleotides form nucleic acid

The macromolecules of life are lipids, Nucleic acids, Carbohydrates and proteins
all of those are polymers.

Lesson 2: Ring form α and β Glucose

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Ask students to write down the chemical formula of glucose as they have learnt it in the
study of photosynthesis. Ask them to imagine how molecules in glucose are linked as
they have some knowledge and skills from senior two in chemical bonding unit. Connect
to the lesson of the day from student’s ideas.

b)Teaching resources

Different student ‘s books, graph charts, simulations and computer animations,

projector, Manila paper with diagrams for improvisation.

c) Learning activities

You need to do the following for helping students develop competences related to this
lesson:

•• Help the students to form groups while catering for needs of alllearners
•• Provide necessary material for the activity 7.2

128 Teachers’ Guide

 •• Guide the students while doing activity 7.2 given in student textbook
•• Give space to students to present their works
Help them to summarize the lesson and come up with conclusion

Answers to the activity 7.2

1) Answers:

a) Monosaccharide with 3 carbon atoms is a triose.

b) With 5 carbon atoms is a pentose

c) With 6 carbon atoms is a hexose

2) Ring monosaccharide are said to be alpha (α) if the OH group on carbon 1 is

below the ring, and beta (β) when the OH group is above the ring.

3) Glucose is a monosaccharide the properties of glucose are the same as those

of monosaccharide including:

•• They are highly soluble in water

•• They have sweet taste
•• They have lower molecule mass

Lesson 3: Formation and breakdown of glycoside bond.

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Introduce this lesson by asking students to brainstorm on how a glycosidic bond is

form. Use their ideas and then take students to the learning activity.

b) Teaching resources

Plastic atomic model, Books, videos, charts.

c) Learning activities

To help students to enhance knowledge, skills and values related to this lesson, you are
requested to do the following:

•• Invite students to do activity 7.3 in student textbook

•• Facilitate them in doing activity by asking them questions and orienting them
in doing a research in teaching resources
•• Involving different students in the presentation

Teachers’ Guide 129

Answers to the activity 7.3

1) Use point and line to create a polymer of repeating units.

2) Chemical bond.

3) Answers are:

Answers for self-assessment 7.3

1) C12H22O11

2) The glycosidic link is formed by condensation reaction/dehydration where a

molecule of water is lost.

130 Teachers’ Guide

3) Answers are:

a) Glucose and fructose

b) By condensation reaction the glycosidic bond is formed between glucose and

fructose

Lesson 4: Polysaccharides starch, glycogen and cellulose

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

Introduce this lesson by asking questions related to previous lesson.

The questions are about the meaning and types of monomers and bond type formed
into different monomers. Refer to their ideas and move to the activity of the lesson as
given in student textbook.

Teachers’ Guide 131

 b) Teaching resources

The following resources will help you to progress well in this lesson. Those include
books, charts and plastics atomic model.

c) Learning activity 7.4

During this learning activity, you as a facilitator you are requested to do the following
for helping your students.

•• Provide the necessary materials to students

•• Facilitate the smooth running of activity
•• Give time to students to report
•• Use what students reported, ask questions for challenging the students and
summarizing the lesson.
End the lesson by consolidating students’ ideas in relation to the learning outcomes.

Answers for the activity 7.4

1) Monosaccharide means single sugar; because monos: single sacchar: sugar

Polysaccharide it is a polymer of monosaccharide

2) Answers are:

a) Monosaccharide

b) Disaccharide

c) Polysaccharides

3) Figure of Starch, cellulose, or glycogen

Answers for self-assessment 7.4

1) Hydrolysis reaction

2) Addition of water molecules to sucrose to obtain two unit of glucose

132 Teachers’ Guide

The major types of starch are: Amylose and amylopectin

Differences: Amylose is the simple structure of starch; it is unbranched chain of glucose

while amylopectin is a branched structure of starch

Lesson 5: Lipids
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

To achieve learning objectives of this lesson, students should be having background

that are pertained to fatty acids and glycerol as components of lipids as they have
background knowledge, skills and attitudes from the unit of lipids and description of
cell membrane.

b) Teaching resources: Books, charts, etc

c) Learning activities

Help students to do learning activities provided in their textbook.

•Provide
• the necessary materials to students.
•• Facilitate the smooth running of activity.
•• Give time to students to report.
•• Use what students reported, ask questions for challenging the students and
summarizing the lesson.
End the lesson by consolidating students’ ideas in relation to the learning outcomes.

Answers to the activity 7.5

1) Lipids are polymer of glycerol and fatty acids

2) Oils from plants and animals are rich source of lipids: Butter, dairy
products, cooking oils.

3) The scientific research show that the reason why pig do not like hot environment;
the pig do not sweat. But the common myth in Rwanda it is because there is high
concentration of lipids, means that lipids produce heat or act as insulators of organisms

Answer for self-assessment 7.5

1) Glycerol and fatty acids

2) Fats are lipids which are solid at room temperature, have saturated fatty acids

3) Answers are:

Teachers’ Guide 133

 a) Glycerol + CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH

b) Glycerol + CH3 (CH2)14COOH

c) Glycerol + HOC2CH2-CH=CH-CH2

Notice: you have to show reaction and do not forget to add the water molecule.

7.6 Summary of the unit.

Carbohydrates and lipids are compound of carbon, they are organic molecules, Lipids
and carbohydrates differ in their amount of oxygen. The carbohydrates are divided
into monosaccharide, disaccharides and polysaccharide. The monosaccharide is
named according to the number of carbon the commonly known are: Triose(3carbon),
Pentose(5Carbon) and hexose(6carbon). Those monosaccharides can be ring form, the
α-glucose and β glucose are ring form of glucose and differ by the position of OH group.

7.7 Additional information

Lipids are polymer of Glycerol and fatty acids they are formed by condensation process
the same to carbohydrates, lipids can be oils or fats if the fatty acids are unsaturated
or saturated respectively. The main types of lipids are: Tryglycerides, Cholesterol,
phospholipids and wax, carbohydrates and Lipids are energy storage of the body even
though carbohydrates are the ones which are commonly used, but the lipids produce
more energy compared to carbohydrates.

7.8 Answers for end of unit assessment 7

1) C3H6O3

2)The answer is summarized in the following table:

Fat Phospholipids
Glycerol plus fatty acids
Glycerol plus fatty acids
The main function is to form a
Its main function is to forms a molecule
compact energy store, insoluble
that is part hydrophobic, part hydrophilic
in water so doesn’t affect water
ideal for basis of cell surface membranes
potential.

3) They are used by the body to produce energy.

They are used in hormone production

a) Triose=C3H6O3

b) Pentose=C5H10O5

134 Teachers’ Guide

Hydrolysis reaction

6) Answers:

a) Alpha glucose is the β glucose. Ring monosaccharide are said to be alpha (α)
if the -OH group located on carbon 1 is below the ring and beta (β) when the -OH
group is above the ring.

b) Glycogen and cellulose: glycogen is made up of α-glucose and exists as granules

and is more highly branched while the glucose in cellulose is β-glucose and it is
the chief constituents of cell walls in living organisms

c) Amylopectin and amylose: Amylopectin and amylose all are form of starch,
means that they are polymer of α glucose the only difference it is that Amyvlose
is unbranched while Amylopectin is highly branched.

7.9 Additional activities

7.9.1 Remedial Activities:

1) A condensation reaction produces a new compound and releases a molecule

of….

2) ………………is the reverse of a condensation reaction

3) How do we call a single sugar molecule?

a) Monomers

b) Monosaccharide

c) Carbohydrates

d) Proteins

4) How many numbers of hydroxyl groups in a glycerol molecule?

Answers for remedial activities

1) Release a molecules of water

2) Hydrolysis

3) (b) Monosaccharide.

4) There 3 OH group in Glycerol molecule

7.9.2 Consolidation activity

Teachers’ Guide 135

Suggested questions and answers for deep development of competences.

1) A phospholipid consists of:

a) Phosphates, fat and oil

b) Phosphoric acid, glycerol and fatty acids

c) Phosphoric acid, fats and oil

d) Phosphate, glycerol and fatty acids

2) The empirical formula of a compound is C51H98O6. Such compound is a:

a) Protein

b) Lipid

c) Vitamin

d) Carbohydrate

3) The number of carbon atoms which form the ring in a glucose molecule are:

a) 2

b) 3

c) 4

d) 5

4) Each of the questions 1, 2, 3 consists of an assertion (statement) on the left

hand side and a reason on the right hand side. Select:

a) If both assertion and reason are true statements and the reason is a correct
explanation of the assertion

b) If both assertion and reason are true statements but the reason is not a
correct explanation of the assertion

c) If the assertion is true but the reason is an incorrect statement

d) If the assertion is incorrect but the reason is a true statement

136 Teachers’ Guide

 Enzymes are
1 denatured by high because They are made of protein
temperatures
Maltose and sucrose
are both disaccharides
It contains glucose and
2 but unlike maltose, because
fructose
sucrose is not a
reducing sugar
They contain the elements C,
Lipids are important
H and O with a high propor-
3 constituents of the plas- because
tion of O2 than hydrogen
ma membrane
and carbon
Answers for consolidation activities:

1) b

2) b)

3) a

4) The following are the answers

1. A 2. B 3.C

7.9.3 Extended activities

1) Starch and glycogen are important storage carbohydrates.

a) State one structural similarity and one structural difference between them.

b) State any two organs in which starch is stored in plants.

c) Where is glycogen stored in animals?

4) Explain why it is an advantage of storing energy in large molecules?

Answers for extended activities:

1) The following are the answers:

a) Similarities

•• Long chain of alpha glucose

•• Branching chain
•• Long chain linked by glycosidic links / bonds.

Teachers’ Guide 137

Differences

•• Starch is less branching while glycogen is profusely branching

•• Starch is less soluble while glycogen is more soluble
•• Starch exists as grains while glycogen exists as tiny granules
a) In plants, starch is stored in tubers (potatoes, cassava…) and in stem

b) In animals’ glycogen is stored in liver and muscles

2) Large molecules of denser monomers take up a less space than an equivalent

amount of the monomer. Also, large molecules are usually insoluble in water
and not easily broken down. Starch and glycogen are therefore more efficient
storage units than glucose.

138 Teachers’ Guide

UNIT 8: PROTEINS AND WATER
8

8.1 Key unit competence

Describe how protein structure is related to function and analyse the role of water as a
special molecule with extraordinary properties that make life possible.

8.2 Prerequisites (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values)

Remember that students have learnt about proteins in the unit of food nutrients of
senior four whereby they have developed knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that
are related. This is similar to water as a biological molecule.

8.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed

This unit will address various cross-cutting issues including standardization culture,
environmental sustainability as well as inclusive education.

Inclusive education will be addressed through activities planned in various lessons in

which all students will be involved. Additionally, printing large letters and figures for
catering students with visual disabilities.

8.4 Guidance on the introductory activity

During this activity, remember that student learnt food test in senior one and senior
four in the unit pertained to food nutrient and diet. You can introduce the lesson by
asking them different questions that are related to proteins that have been covered in
previous unit.

Expected answers for introductory activity:

a)Proteins are polymer of amino acids

b)Water (H2O)

Teachers’ Guide 139

8.5 List of Lessons/sub-heading.

Number
Lesson title Learning objectives of
periods
Structure of
amino acid. - Describe the structure of an amino acid and
1 Formation and the formation and breakage of a peptide 2
breakage of a bond.
peptide bond
- Describe the primary, secondary, tertiary
and quaternary structure of proteins.
- Describe the molecular structure of hemo-
globin as an example of a globular protein.
- Distinguish between collagen molecules and
collagen fibres
- Appreciate the importance of globular and
fibrous proteins in biological processes such
as the transport of gases and providing sup-
Structures, port for tissues.
functions, - Express that protein structure is central to
2 2
denaturation many aspects of biology, such as enzymes,
of proteins. antibodies and muscle contraction.
- Explain the effect of heat, pH and chemicals
on protein structure.
- Describe the functions with an emphasis on
iron in the hemoglobin molecule.
- Devise an experiment to investigate the
effect of temperature, pH and chemicals on
the structure of protein.
- Relate the structure of globular and fibrous
proteins to their functions.

140 Teachers’ Guide

 - Investigate the effect of lowering tempera-
ture on water.
- Acknowledge that water is a special mol-
ecule with extraordinary properties that
Water and its
4 make life possible on this planet. 2
properties
- Explain how hydrogen bonding occurs
between water molecules and relate the
properties of water to its roles in living or-
ganisms.
5 End unit As- Learners have the ability describing how 1
sessment: protein structure is related to function and
describing the role of water as a special mole-
cule with extraordinary properties that make
life possible.

Lesson 1: Structure of amino acid

As this is the first lesson of the unit. It covers also the general introduction.

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Students are equipped with knowledge and skills resulted from test for biological
molecules. They know also the sources and functions of proteins.

b) Teaching resources: Books, charts and internet.

c) Learning activities

For helping students to develop knowledge, skills and attitudes that are related to the
lesson do the following:

Ask students to work in pairs and answer to the questions found in activity 8.1.

Answers for self-assessment 8.1

1) Essential amino acids (Student book).

2) The peptide bond formation: A condensation reaction occurs between the

amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another, to form a dipeptide

3) Zwitterion, this is a molecule with two different charges (positive and

negative) at the same time

4) Student book

Teachers’ Guide 141

 5) In preparing food, we have to consider many plant food staff.

Lesson 2: Structure and denaturation of protein

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

From the previous lesson students learnt about formation of polymer and condensation
reaction with a loss of water molecules. Ask them to remember how condensation
occurs. You may even give them the monomers of a protein and ask them to combine.
Interestingly, you may ask them to predict or guess how molecules within an egg look
like? Ask also them how they will look like as an egg is boiled. You may also ask them to
illustrate the structure of hemoglobin or hair.

c) Teaching resources: Student textbook, school library textbooks,

figures on manila paper, and internet.

d) Learning activities.

Discuss activity 8.2: facilitate students in doing activity 8.2 found in student textbook
by:

•• Ask them to present their work

•• Harmonize their ideas
•• Help them to make a summary of the lesson through questions and come up
with conclusion
Expected answer to the activity 8.2

1. a)Proteins structure are: Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure

b)Protein polymer are formed by condensation process where a molecule of water

lost and the resulting bond is called ester link2. The idea behind this scenario it is about
the denaturation of protein.

2. The plastic burn and the cords are no longer holding together, this is the same to the
protein chain, when exposed to heat the peptide bonds holding the amino acids break
and the protein is denatured.

Answers for self-assessment 8.3

1) Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure.

2) A peptide bond

3) Check student’s book.

142 Teachers’ Guide

 4) In the living cell denaturation of protein disturb the physiology and proper
function of a cell, such as inhibition of enzyme activities which can lead to the
death of the cell.

Lesson 3: Water
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction.

Water is almost known by every student in senior four classes, what is necessary here
is to emphasize about the properties of water which turn water to be an important
liquid molecule in biology. You may ask question such as the importance of water and
the properties of water especially those which are related with the hydrogen bond in
water.

b) Teaching resources: books, chart, internet.

c) Learning activity 8.4

You have to give the guidelines for the exchanges of idea on water properties which
help the water to be suitable to the organism more than other liquid.

Answers for activity 8.4

1) The medium of chemical reactions in organism is water.

2) The boiling point of water is greater than the boiling point of oils because of
the existence of hydrogen bonds in water molecules
Answers for self-assessment 8.4
1) Check in students book
2) Check in students book
3) The high heat capacity provides a suitable medium of biochemical reactions
that take place in organism by maintaining the temperature whoever the
fluctuations of temperature in the environment. Take an example of an
organism living in desert where the temperature can rise up to 45ºC, this
temperature is not ideal to the organism; the life into this region is possible
thanks to the high heat capacity of water.

4) The ice floats over water because it is less dense than water, during the freezing
of water the hydrogen bond expands and open.

Teachers’ Guide 143

8.6 Summary of the unit.
Proteins are polymer of amino acids; the amino acids in polypeptide are joined one to
another by a peptide bond. Depending on how proteins are coiled we have; primary
structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure and quaternary structure of proteins.
In addition to those structures Globular proteins (soluble in water) and fibrous proteins
(insoluble in water) are other types of protein. In this unit proteins and water, we talked
about water and its properties; solvent, high heat capacity, freezing point and surface
tension and how they are related to the biological importance of water.

8.7 Answers for end unit assessment.

1. Tertiary structure.

2. Answers:

a) condensation reaction

b) Starch

3. Answers:

a) latent heat of vaporization

b) Solvent property of water

c) High heat capacity

4. Notice: Explanation student book

Monomers Bond polymer

Nucleotides Phosphodiester linkages Triacylglycerol
Monosaccharide Glycosidic linkages Polysaccharide
fatty acids Ester linkages Triacylglycerol
Amino acids Peptide bonds polypeptides

5. During denaturation there the braking down peptide bond

8.8 Additional activities

8.8.1 Remedial Activities:

1) State the function of water.

2) Name the bond in secondary structure of proteins.

144 Teachers’ Guide

 3) What happen to the protein if is denatured?

Answers for Remedial activities:

1) Student book.

2) Secondary structure bond: peptide bond, hydrogen bond.

3) When a protein is denatured the proteins change the shape.

8.8.2 Consolidation activities: Suggested questions and answers for deep

development of competences.

1) Answer the following questions:

a) What does the peptide bond have to do with the

secondary structure of a protein?

b)Types of bonding maintain the tertiary structure of protein?

2) Label the following diagram using the terms H2O, monomer,

Hydrolysis reaction, dehydration reaction and polymer. Terms can be used more
than once and a term need not to be used

3) Explain why water has a high heat of Vaporization?

Answers for consolidation activities:

1) Answers:
a) The peptide bond holds the amino acids together in the secondary structure
b) Hydrogen bond, Ionic bond, hydrophobic interaction and Vander Waals
interactions, Disulfide bridges

Teachers’ Guide 145

 2) The following are the answers:
a) Monomer
b) Monomer
c) Dehydration reaction
d) H2O
e) Monomer
f) Monomer
g) Polymer.
3) High heat of vaporization this it is the energy (Heat) needed to transform water
into vapor this energy is greater because of the high heat capacity of water.

8.8.3 Extended activities

1) Explain why children in summer can cool off by playing in a sprinkler.
2) Suppose you eat a serving of green beans. What reactions must occur for
amino acid monomers in the protein of the beans to be converted?
3) How many molecules of water are needed to completely hydrolyze a polymer
that is ten monomers long?
Answers for extended activities
1) In summer as there is high temperature in the environment, this do not mean
that the water also is hot as we know to rise water to 1ºC it requires more
energy. That why when children play in sprinkler during summer can cool off
even though the environment is hot.
2) The reaction that must take place is hydrolysis reaction, after absorption in the
intestine those monomers are condensed by hydration to be used by the body
as proteins.
3) A polymer of ten monomers can be hydrolyzed by ten molecules of water.

146 Teachers’ Guide

UNIT 9 : VITAMINS AND MINERALS
9
9.1 Key Unit Competence
Discuss the roles of minerals and vitamins in diet.

9.2 Prerequisites (Knowledge, skills, attitudes and values)

The prior knowledge, skills and attitudes that students should have developed are
related to food nutrients.

9.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed

Standardization culture as one most issue which will be addressed by this unit. Students
will be challenged about on the relevance of eating balanced or non-balanced diet
through questions like: Ask yourself if your family provide balanced diet to its members.
Why is it necessary to take them? What are the consequences of not taking such diet? By
using the table below, the issue can also be addred by questions like do you know how
much carbohydrates could be taken every day. What about vitamins? And other which
can be formulated from the table below. From being challenged and being advised,
students will change their mind and then appreciate the relevance of balanced diet.

Teachers’ Guide 147

Table 9.1 Calcium requirements in different life stage groups

Required amount
Mineral Life stage group Age in years
per day in mg.

Adult 19-50 1,000

women 51 and above 1,200

Men 51-70 1,000
Men 71 and above 1,200

Pregnant women Over 18 1,200-1400

Breastfeeding women Over 18 1,200-1400

1-3 700

4-8 1,000

Infants 9-13 1,300

Calcium (Ca)
14-18 1,300

It is not good to intake supplement salts instead of obtaining them from the diet. Too
much calcium may interfere with your body’s ability to absorb other minerals, cause
constipation or increase your risk of kidney stones.

Table 9.2 Foods that are good sources of Ca and their nutritive
values in Ca, Iron, and Magnesium.

Food Calcium Iron Magnesium

Milk 12% 0% 2%
Baked bean 6% 11% 10%
Soya milk 20%
orange juice 1% 1% 2%
Green leafy
9% 15% 19%
vegetables

Therefore, sensitize your family and neighbors to have green vegetables garden
(akarima k’igikoni) and plant fruit trees as they are the natural sources of most
vitamins and minerals.

148 Teachers’ Guide

9.4 Guidance on the introductory activity
Introduce the unit by asking questions so that students will provide different food stuff
that they contain vitamins and mineral salts. Ask also them to guess diseases caused by
lack of those food stuff. Use their ideas and then start the lesson one of the unit.

Expected answers for introductory activity

1) Foods that are good sources of vitamin: green vegetables, beans, wheat, pumpkin,
meat, fish, orange, banana, sunflower seed and avocado.

2) Some vitamins and minerals deficiency diseases are for example night blindness,
rickets, beriberi, cretinism, scurvy, anemia, and goiter.

9.5 List of lessons/sub-heading

Number
Lesson name Learning objectives of
periods
1 Mineral nutrients in State the mineral requirements for bodily 1
humans. functions.

Identify the symptoms of mineral and

vitamin deficiency.
2 Classification of mineral Outline the need for consumption of 1
nutrients minerals and vitamins in small amounts.

3 Sources, functions and Organize a list of foods that are good 2

deficiency symptoms sources of vitamins and mineral salts.
of mineral nutrients in
humans. Recognise the signs and symptoms
of scurvy, night blindness, goitre, and
anaemia.
4 Vitamins and the Differentiate between water soluble and 1
classification of lipid soluble vitamins.
vitamins.
5 Sources, functions and Analyse one’s eating habits and suggest 1
symptoms of vitamin improvements
deficiency
Appreciate the importance of a balanced
diet in relation to health and economic
prosperity.

Advocate for healthy feeding methods.

Assessment: Students can discuss the roles of minerals and vitamins in 1
diet

Teachers’ Guide 149

 Lesson 1: Mineral nutrients in humans
As this is the first lesson of the unit which is to be done in a period of 40 minutes, you are
reminded to introduce the unit before this lesson. During the lesson, create awareness
of learners the fact that the content in this unit will help the learners to gain knowledge
which help them to avoid malnutrition in their families, which can lead them in health
services mainly as nutritionists in health centers, in hospitals and in hotels. Tell learners
that more details on nutrients will be studied at high levels. This will enable learners to
be familiar with the importance of minerals, and vitamins.
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction
Remind students that they have learnt about food nutrients in previous levels. Through
questions, students share the knowledge, skills and attitudes acquired in previous
years.
b) Teaching resources
Student’s books and food stuffs.
c) Learning activities
To facilitate smooth running of the lesson, the following are required:
•• Ask learners to do individually the activity 9.1 in the student textbooks
•• Working individually helps the learners to develop critical thinking, research
and problem solving skills.
•• Make sure that all students are working. If some of them may have got some
difficulties to do the activity, help them. Remember to assist those who are
weak but without giving them the knowledge.
•• Invite some students to present their findings to the rest of students
developing thus communication skills.
•• Through challenging questions, harmonize and conclude the lesson.
Answer for activity 9.1
Calcium (K), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), Nitrogen (N), Sulfur (S), Sodium (Na), Iron
(Fe), Magnesium (Mg), Fluoride (F), zinc (Zn), Cobalt (Co), chromium, selenium and
molybdenum (Mo), Manganese (Mn), Iodine (I), Chloride (Cl) .
Answers for self-assessment 9.1
•• Ten mineral nutrients required in humans: calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P),
Nitrogen (N), Sulfur (S), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), Iron (Fe), Magnesium
(Mg), Iodine (I), Chloride (Cl),
•• False. They are called essential not because they are more important but
because they are necessary and the human body cannot make them itself.

150 Teachers’ Guide

 Lesson 2 :Classification of mineral nutrients
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Remind students that they have learnt about mineral nutrients, and ask them to discuss
their abundance in human body so that they can prepare themselves for this lesson.

b) Teaching resources

Students’ books, internet connectivity if available, mineral elements, etc.

c) Learning activity 9.2

To be clear with this lesson you are asked to do the following:

•• Ask students to work in pair the activity 9.2 in student’s textbook.

•• Assist those who have some difficulties about the activity.
•• Invites any three pairs to present their findings to the rest of students.
•• You welcome student’s ideas, clarify them and harmonize to build up a
conclusion.
Answers for activity 9.2

Sodium and chloride are needed in relative large amounts while iodine is needed in a
very small amount.

Answers for self-assessment 9.2

1) Macronutrients and Micronutrients

2) Macronutrients are minerals needed by humans in relatively large amounts
whereas Micronutrients are minerals needed by humans in relatively small
amounts.
3) Calcium (Ca), Potassium (K), Phosphorus (P), Sodium (Na) and Magnesium
(Mg).

Lesson 3: Sources, functions and deficiency symptoms of mineral

nutrients in humans.

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Remind students that they have learnt about mineral nutrients in S1. Then ask them to
discuss the various food stuffs rich in mineral salts and the roles that they play in human
body so that they can prepare themselves for this lesson.

Teachers’ Guide 151

b) Teaching resources

Students’ books, graph charts, different food stuff simulations and computer
animations, projector, Manila paper with diagrams for improvisation

Learning activity 9.3

For the success of this lesson, guide students to perform the activity;

•• Ask them to work in pairs the activity 9.2 in student’s textbook. This help to
develop critical thinking, research and problem solving skills.
•• Assist those who are weak but without giving them the knowledge.
•• Invite any three pairs to present their findings to the rest of students; they
develop communication skills.
•• Ask them to note on chalk board / Manila paper
•• Through some questions, complete the incomplete students ‘findings
Answer for the activity 9.3

Banana, cassava, wholegrain, oranges, pumpkin, potato, beans, water melon, green
leafy vegetables, poultry, eggs, liver, and milk

1) Wholegrain, green leafy vegetables, milk, eggs, liver.

Answer for self-assessment 9.3

1a=5

b=4

c=1

d=3

e=2

152 Teachers’ Guide

2) Minerals required in humans and their sources

Mineral deficiency
Major dietary
Mineral Some major functions diseases and their
sources
symptoms.
Retarded growth,
Needed for nerve and
Milk, soy milk, green possibly loss of
Ca muscle action; builds
leafy vegetables, bone mass and bone
bone and teeth; helps
sardines deformation called
blood clot
rickets.

Meat, poultry,
Component of Phosphorus deficiency
pumpkin seeds,
P bones, teeth, lipids, results in a form of
sunflower seeds,
cell membrane, and Bone malformation
water melon, whole
nucleotides. known as rickets
grains

Enzyme cofactor in iron

metabolism, melanin Growth failure, scaly
Seafood, nuts,
Cu synthesis, electron skin inflammation,
legumes, organ
transport, maintains reproductive failure,
meats,
the immune system impaired immunity.
stronger.

Seafood, dairy
Component of thyroid Cretinism, Goiter
I products, iodized hormones (enlarged thyroid)
salt

It acts like a powerful

antioxidant, is needed
oysters, beef, lamb, for proper cell division,
spinach, pumpkin to convert vitamin A Skin rashes and acne,
seeds, squash into its active form thinning hair, nerve
Zn seeds, nuts, dark, in order to maintain dysfunction, weak
pork chocolate, proper vision, it is also immunity, and nutrient
beans, chicken and needed for proper malabsorption.
mushrooms. immune system
functioning and wound
healing.

Teachers’ Guide 153

3) The best answers

(i) a (ii) a (iii) a and c (iv) a and d (v) b (vi) b and d

(vii) d (viii) c (ix) c (x) d
4) Goiter, rickets, scaly skin, anemia, impaired immunity.

Lesson 4 : Vitamins and their classification.

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Remind students that they have learnt about food nutrients in S1. Then ask them to
list the various food stuffs rich in vitamins so that they can prepare themselves for this
lesson.

b) Teaching resources

Students’ books, graph, charts and different food stuffs.

c) Learning activity 9.4

To facilitate the smooth running of the lesson you are asked to do the
following:

•• Ask students to bring some food stuffs available at home or the school garden,
kitchen etc.
•• Ask students to work in groups on the activity 9.4 in student’s textbook. This
help to develop critical thinking, research and problem solving skills.
•• Move around to monitor if they are some problems,
•• Invites at least three groups to present their findings to the rest of students;
they develop communication skills.
•• Ask other students to follow carefully the presentations
•• Note on chalk board / Manila paper the student’s ideas.
•• Confirm the correct students’ ideas and correct incomplete ones.
•• Through challenging questions, harmonize and conclude the lesson
•• Together with students make a conclusion.
Answer for the activity 9.4

1) Student A lacks vitamin C while student B lacks vitamin A

2) Vitamin C is water soluble therefore it cannot be stored. Vitamin A is fat-
soluble; it is stored in body tissues that are why it is not necessary to take it
every day.

154 Teachers’ Guide

Answers for self-assessment 9.4

1) 13 vitamins
2) They are classified based on their solubility as water-soluble and fat-soluble
vitamins.

Lesson 5 : Sources, functions and symptoms of vitamins deficiency

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

This is the fifth lesson of unit 9 vitamins and minerals. In this lesson you will be dealing
with sources, functions of vitamins and symptoms of vitamins deficiency. The first thing
to do before starting teaching is to remind students that they have learnt about food
nutrients in S1. Then ask them to discuss the various food stuffs rich in vitamins so that
they can prepare themselves for this lesson.

b) Teaching resources

Students’ books, graph charts, different food stuffs, simulations and computer
animations, projector, Manila paper with diagrams for improvisation.

c) Learning activities 9.5

For the success of this lesson, the following are needed:

•• Ask students to work in groups of five on the activity 9.5 in student’s textbook.
This help to develop critical thinking, research and problem solving skill
•• Assist those who are weak but without giving them the knowledge.
•• Invite any three groups to present their findings to the rest of students; they
develop communication skills.
•• Harmonize and conclude on the learnt knowledge and still engage students
in making their own conclusion
Answer for the activity 9.5

Banana, wholegrain, oranges, pumpkin, water melon, green leafy vegetables, milk.

Answers for self-assessment 9.5

9.6 Summary of unit

Minerals and vitamins do not supply energy like other food nutrients but help to
regulate body functions, they also help body growth, and protection. Vitamins assist the
functioning of enzymes as coenzymes, minerals assist them as cofactors or prosthetic
group. Calcium and phosphorus provide teeth hardening. Magnesium, calcium and zinc
are involved nerve and muscle function. Fat-soluble vitamins- E, K, A, D are stored in

Teachers’ Guide 155

the body’s fatty tissues; their excess lead to some disorders. Water –soluble vitamins- B
vitamins and C cannot be stored. Both minerals and vitamins cannot be synthesized
in the human body, they must be obtained from the daily diet. Inadequate intake of
minerals and vitamins cause deficiency diseases like goiter, beriberi and night blindness.
The excess of minerals may result in body dysfunction.

9.7 Additional information

To enrich the content in student’s textbook, you should consult other books and search
on internet to complete some student’s findings. You should also be creative when you
are introducing the unit and lesson to help students to engage themselves in different
lessons.

9.8 Answers for End of unit assessment 9

1) b 2) d 3) b 4) a 5) a 6) d 7) d 8) d 9) a 10) c
11) b 12) c 13) d 14) a 15) b 16) d
17) vitamin D and vitamin biotin (vitamin B7)
18) Advice to every one: Taking food-rich in the vitamin or mineral that he/she
lacks. See tables 9.1 and 9.4, student’s textbook
9.9 Additional activities

9.9.1 Remedial activities

1) What are fat-soluble vitamins?

Answer:
Vitamin K, A, D and E.
2) Predict what could happen if someone lacks Ca in the diet.
Answer:
In childhood it results into rickets, in adult in osteomalacia.
3) In a tabular form, identify the major dietary sources, the functions in human
bodies and the deficiency diseases of the following minerals: Ca, I, P, zn, and Cu.
Answer:
See the table 9.1 in student’s textbook.
4) Two mothers have to care for their children’s nutrition. One mother frequently
gives her child vitamin A-rich food while the other gives to her child the food poor
in vitamin A. Predict what will happen to the child provided with vitamin A-poor
food.

156 Teachers’ Guide

 Answer:

Will suffer from night blindness.

9.9. 2 Consolidation activities

1) In human diet are required carbohydrates, proteins, fats, mineral salts and
vitamins. Suggest the reasons why humans need the mineral nutrients and
vitamins in their daily diet.

Answer

The body cannot make them itself while they are very necessary in its functions
and processes.

2) Record what you ate yesterday. Decide whether this menu represents a
balanced diet. If not plan how it should be changed to make it more nutritious.

Answer

Variable depending on one’s habit diet.

3) What are differences between macronutrients and trace elements?

Answer

•• Macronutrient is a type of food such as fat, protein and carbohydrates

required in large amounts in the diet. It can also be a chemical element such
as potassium, magnesium and calcium required in large amounts of plant
growth.
•• Traces refer to a chemical element required only in minute amounts by living
oranisms for normal growth.

9.9.3 Extended activities

1) There are two kinds of vitamins, fat-soluble and water-soluble. Explain the
advantage of fat-soluble vitamins over water-soluble vitamins.

Answer

When they are not used, the excess is stored in body fatty tissues to be used later
when they are inadequate in the diet but water-soluble vitamins the non-used by
the body, dissolves in water and are excreted with urine.

2) People are advised do not take supplement vitamins and minerals but obtain
them directly from the diet. Explain the disadvantage of taking supplement fat-
soluble vitamins.

Teachers’ Guide 157

 Answer

Taking vitamin supplements in capsule, chewable or liquid form is a convenient

way to supplement your diet; but you should exceed what you took from the diet
and get some distresses. The excess of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) for example,
causes gastrointestinal disorders such as nausea, indigestion, stomach cramps,
headaches, fatigue, diarrhea and vomiting. No one is allowed to take vitamins or
mineral supplement if are not prescribed by a health specialist (doctor, nurse).

3) Calcium is one of the five major minerals required by human body. Explain why
pregnant and lactating women require more (1200-1400 mg/day) Calcium than
other life stage groups.

Answer

Pregnant woman requires more Ca for the development of the embryo skeleton.
For a lactating woman to help better growth of bones and teeth formation of the
baby.

Suppose you have got the job position and you are in charge of nutritional adviser
in your sector. Give a brief account of what you will do to be effective in your job.

Answer

Variable depending on the nutritional habit in the sector of each student.

158 Teachers’ Guide

UNIT 10: ENZYMES
10

10.1 Key unit competence

Describe the mode of action and factors affecting enzymes and their importance for
the existence of life.

10.2 Prerequisites (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values)

Learners should have the prior knowledge on the definition of a catalyst and its role
from the lessons of Chemistry. They should be able to test for starch and reducing
sugars such as glucose and maltose. They are also skillful in working in groups and free
to make presentations of their findings.

10.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed

Emphasize on the standardization culture as they learn about the optimum temperature
because as beverage and foods are boiled, enzyme are denatured and many pathogens
die. However, some bacteria (Archea) can survive on high range of temperature.

Learner should also develop the Peace and Value education, Gender and Inclusive
education when work in harmony in groups made of both boys and girls, students with
and without disabilities.

10.4 Guidance on the introductory activity

Remember that it is not the first time students hear about enzyme. Ask students to
briefly brainstorm in pairs why the food is not remaining in its eaten state. Ask them
also what causes such change. Why some people become hungry very quickly than
other.Based on their ideas, introduce the unit.

Teachers’ Guide 159

10.5 List of lessons/sub-heading

Lesson title Learning objectives Number of

periods
1 Lesson1: Define the term enzyme. 2

Criteria for naming Explain the criteria of naming enzymes.

enzymes.
Acknowledge that enzymes are
essential in speeding up reactions that
would be too slow to sustain life.
2 Lesson2: State that enzymes function inside cells 2
and outside cells.
Characteristics of
enzymes Explain that enzymes are globular
proteins that catalyse metabolic
reactions.
3 Lesson3: Describe the mode of action of 2
enzymes in terms of the lock and key
Mode of action of and the induced fit hypotheses.
enzymes.
4 Lesson4: Explain factors affecting enzyme 2
activity.
Factors affecting
enzyme action. Investigate the effects of temperature,
pH, enzyme and substrate
concentration, and inhibitors on
enzyme activity.
5 Lesson5: Appreciate the importance of planning 2
and carrying out experiments under
Importance of controlled conditions.
enzymes in living
organisms
6 Lesson6: Understand the roles of enzymes in 2
industry and medicine.
Enzymes
technology
7 Assessment Classify fully enzymes and discuss the 2
mode of action and factors affecting
enzymes and their importance for the
existence of life.

160 Teachers’ Guide

 Lesson 1 : Criteria for naming enzymes
This is the first lesson of unit 10 and is a single lesson. This means that it has only one
period (40 Minutes). The first lesson also covers the introduction of the whole unit.

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

The learners should be able to state some enzymes particularly digestive enzymes such
as maltase, sucrase, pepsin and Trypsin and give the role of each. You need therefore
to ask question about the names of enzymes they know. You need to write them on
chalkboard or white board. You can challenge them by asking to predict criteria used in
naming enzymes. From the suggested names and prediction, move to the activity 10.1.

b) Teaching resources

List of digestive enzymes, biology dictionary, internet, textbooks on enzymes

nomenclature.

c) Learning activity 10

Facilitate this activity by asking students to work in groups and do analysis of the names
that they have suggested and other names that could help you and students to come
up with criteria for enzymes nomenclature.

Students to come up with those names, you need to challenge them by asking questions
about the similarities and differences that exist in the suggested enzymes.

You may have written those names of enzymes on flipchart so that it may facilitate the
learning. Ask them to present what they have done in groups. Use the presented ideas
to make a consolidation and come up with a conclusion.

Answers for introductory activity

1) Enzymes are biological catalyst produced by a living organism to control the

speed of specific biochemical reactions (metabolism) by reducing its activation
energy.
2) Time and less energy spent
3) The temperature of the hot food is more or less close that at body of which
the enzymes work optimally.
Answers for activity 10.1

a) Maltase hydrolyses maltose into glucose – Lactase hydrolyses lactose into

glucose and galactose – Dehydrogenase catalyses the removal of hydrogen
from a functional group – oxidase catalyes the oxidation of molecules – Pepsin
hydrolyse the proteins into polypeptides in the acidic medium in the stomach
– renine promotes the coagulation of liquid and soluble casein.

Teachers’ Guide 161

 b) Enzymes are named based on substrate catalyse, type of reaction they catalyse
of by using specific name.
Answers for self- assessment 10.1

•• Put the suffix – ase to the name of the substrate or type of reaction. Some
enzyme has specific names e.g. pepsin
•• Peptidase is the enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of peptide into single
amino acids.

Lesson 2: Characteristics of enzymes

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

Remember that students have already learnt about the diagram of energy content
(High and lower energy content) and the test for oxygen gas by relighting the glowing
splint. Start the lesson by asking the following questions: What is a catalyst?

b) Teaching resources

Test tubes, match box, liver, sands, 1% H2O2 and MnO2 powder. Internet, textbooks.

c) Answers for activity 10.2

Let learners work in small groups. Make sure that they follow the procedure and come
out with the following conclusions;

1) Both MnO2 and the liver speed up the rate of reactions by which hydrogen
peroxide decomposes into oxygen and water
MnO2
2) H2O2(l) H2O(l) + O2(g) 2H2O2(l) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Properties of enzymes

- Enzymes speed up the rate of metabolic reactions.

- Enzymes are protein in nature
- Enzymes lower the activation energy (Ea) required for reactions to take place.
Answers for self-assessment 10.2

1) Properties of enzymes are the following:

•• Enzymes speed up the rate of metabolic reactions.
•• Enzymes are globular proteins.
•• Enzymes lower the activation energy (Ea) required for reactions to take
place.

162 Teachers’ Guide

 •• Enzymes are highly specific in action. Enzyme possesses active sites and
will only catalyze a reaction when the substrate and active site have
complementary shapes.
•• Enzymes do not change after the reaction. They remain unaltered.
•• Chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes are usually reversible e.g.
enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyses both synthesis and breakdown
of carbonic acid.
2) The turnover of an enzyme is the number or reactions an enzyme molecule
can catalyse in one second. Enzymes have a high turnover number because
they are not altered at the end of the reaction but are capable of attaching to
new molecules of substrate.

Lesson 3: Mode of action of enzymes

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

Ask students to brainstorm the characteristics of enzymes which include specificity and
complementarity like the case of the key and the lock. Connect the learning activity the
brainstormed ideas.

b) Teaching resources

Key and lock, Manila paper, marker pens, textbooks, internet, and simulation.

c) Learning activity 10.3

For helping students to come up with understanding as well as skills related to mode of
action of an enzyme, you need to:

•• Use a simulation on the mode of action of enzymes which has to be observed

by students once projected
•• Project it and let students watch the video.
•• From the video, you ask questions.
•• If there is no simulation, provide two different keys in which one opens a class
lock while another could not or use at least 2 padlocks with their respective
keys and show how they cannot interchange their key.
•• Let them practice and ask them why one key opens the lock while another
could not. Ask other questions so that students come up with ideas related to
mode of action of enzymes.
•• Ask students to produce or draping a model on paper or Manila paper and use
that chart in explaining the mode of action of enzymes.

Teachers’ Guide 163

Answers for Self- assessment 10.3

1. The lock represents the enzymes

2. The key represents the substrate
3. The active site is on the cylinder of the lock
4. Another diagram that can better represent the induced fit hypothesis.

The shape of the substrate is not complementary to that of the active site of the enzyme.
But the active site modifies its shape in order to form the complex enzyme-substrate.

Lesson 4: Factors affecting enzyme action.

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

Ask students to individually brainstorm or to discuss in pairs the analogy of a lift and
a stair for bringing about the effect of an enzyme to lower down or to speed up the
activation energy. Listen their ideas and build on them towards activity 104.

b) Teaching resources

Source of heat, test tubes, starch solution, Benedict and Iodine solutions, test tubes,
amylase solution, and cold water (ice).

c) Learning activity 10.4

To help students to come up with learning outcomes, you are advised to do the
following:

•• Make different groups and provide the printed handout of the procedure of
the experiment.
•• Provide the same amount of solution to be used to each group and emphasize
on the following the procedure.

164 Teachers’ Guide

Each group of learners conducts the experiments and record the following observation:

•• The solution in tube C has light blue colour because amylase has hydrolysed
starch into maltose.
•• Solution in tube B and D are deep blue because of the presence of HCl that
denatures the enzyme amylase.
•• Tube A looks blue because the enzyme amylase was not active under the cold
condition.
At the end of the experiment, allow students to read the note on factors affecting the
rate of enzyme controlled reactions.

You give them a table having row of temperature and the one of temperatures
in degrees, so that they can do analysis and then come up with an explanation and
conclusion on Q10. From their conclusion, extend it to questions or explanation about
denaturation and end product inhibitor or allosteric inhibitor or allostery.

The teacher helps learners interpret the solution of worked example questions from
their textbook.

Answers of self-assessment 10.4

1) Q10 is the fact that the rate of the enzyme controlled reaction doubles when
the temperature is raised by 10° C
2)

3) Enzymes more likely to be thermostable/ resistant to Denaturation at high

temperatures; processes using these enzymes can be run at high temperature
/ over a wide range of temperatures.
4) (a) It is the end product inhibition / allosteric inhibition
5) (b) the compound Z acts as allosteric / non-competitive inhibitor

Teachers’ Guide 165

 Lesson 5: Importance of enzymes in living organisms.
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

Introduce this lesson by asking students to brainstorm on how enzymes are important
in living organism. Build on their ideas and go to the activity 10.5

b) Teaching resources

Books, internet, computer, scenarios etc.

c) Learning activity 10.5

Teacher provides a scenario, books etc. to each pair of students. Ask students to read
the scenario and can search for further information from textbooks or internet and
afterwards brainstorm reasons of having thousands enzymes in a living organism.
Teacher supplements information, challenge students through questions

Answers of the activity 10.5

There are thousands upon thousands of chemical reactions that happen in the body
that require enzymes to speed up their rate of reaction, or will never happen. Enzymes
are very specific, so nearly each of these chemical reactions has its own enzyme to
increase its rate of reaction.

Answers for self-assessment 10.5

(1) Missing terms: catalysts – living – Activation – proteins – tertiary.

(2) (a) The main role of enzymes is to speed up the rate of reactions in living
organisms
(b) If there were no enzymes in the cell, the metabolic reactions would
stop and therefore the cell would die
(c) Heat increases the motions of molecules and leads to collisions between
reactant molecules.

Lesson 6: Enzymes technology

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

Introduce the lesson by informing students that with advancement in technology,

different products are manufactured. Add that, naturally some enzymes are produced
like those produced by yeasts in alcoholic fermentation. Also, inform them that enzyme
amylase used in school laboratory is not extracted from the human saliva. Ask them to
guess if there are some technologies known that are used in enzymes manufacturing.
If they know any, allow them to mention some. From the above probing question, go
to the learning activity.

166 Teachers’ Guide

 b)Teaching resources

Starch solution, enzyme amylase, student textbooks

c) Learning activities

Towards learning objective, guide students how the activity 10.6 should be done as
described in students’ textbook.

After reading and answering to the questions of activity, ask them to present their
findings.

From what they have presented, help students to summarize the lesson through
questions. Extend the conclusion of the lesson and attract learners’ attention by a
concept of being a job creator (financial education) through enzymes technology.

a) Answers for self-assessment 10.6

Refer to the student’s book; unit 10 sub-unit 6

b) Answers for self-assessment 10.6

1. Alcohol and ammonium sulphate are used to precipitate the enzyme from a
solution
2. High temperatures occur during many industrial processes.
10.6 Summary of the unit 10
•• Individual enzymes are named by adding -ase to the name of the substrate
with which they react.
•• Classification based on the type of reaction catalysed by the enzyme was
recommended in 1961 by International Union of Biochemistry (IUB) e.g. ligase,
deshydrogenase, etc
•• Enzymes are protein in nature. The speed up the rate of the reaction by
lowering the activation energy.
•• Enzymes have generally high turnover number.
•• There are two main hypotheses that explain the mode of action of enzymes:
The lock and key hypothesis by Emil Fischer and the induced-fit hypothesis by
Daniel Koshland
•• Individual enzymes are named by adding -ase to the name of the substrate
with which they react.
•• Classification based on the type of reaction catalysed by the enzyme was
recommended in 1961 by International Union of Biochemistry (IUB) e.g. ligase,
dehydrogenase, etc

Teachers’ Guide 167

10.7 Additional information
Enzymes are biocatalysts. They speed up the rate of reactions. They are named
according to the type of reaction of type of substrate. Except for some of the originally
studied enzymes such as pepsin, rennin, and trypsin, most enzyme names end in
“ase”. The International Union of Biochemistry (I.U.B.) initiated standards of enzyme
nomenclature which recommend that enzyme names indicate both the substrate acted
upon and the type of reaction catalyzed. Under this system, the enzyme uricase is called
urate: O2oxidoreductase, while the enzyme glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT) is
called L-aspartate: 2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase. Each of the six main categories
holds the following subcategories.

Oxidoreductases

•• EC 1.1 includes oxidoreductases that act on the CH-OH group of donors (alcohol
oxidoreductases)
•• EC 1.2 includes oxidoreductases that act on the aldehyde or oxo group of
donors
•• EC 1.3 includes oxidoreductases that act on the CH-CH group of donors (CH-CH
oxidoreductases)
•• EC 1.4 includes oxidoreductases that act on the CH-NH2 group of donors
(Amino acid oxidoreductases, Monoamine oxidase)
•• EC 1.5 includes oxidoreductases that act on CH-NH group of donors
•• EC 1.6 includes oxidoreductases that act on NADH or NADPH
•• EC 1.7 includes oxidoreductases that act on other nitrogenous compounds as
donors
•• EC 1.8 includes oxidoreductases that act on a sulfur group of donors
•• EC 1.9 includes oxidoreductases that act on a heme group of donors
•• EC 1.10 includes oxidoreductases that act on diphenols and related substances
as donors
•• EC 1.11 includes oxidoreductases that act on peroxide as an acceptor
(peroxidases)
•• EC 1.12 includes oxidoreductases that act on hydrogen as donors
•• EC 1.13 includes oxidoreductases that act on single donors with incorporation
of molecular oxygen (oxygenases)
•• EC 1.14 includes oxidoreductases that act on paired donors with incorporation
of molecular oxygen
•• EC 1.15 includes oxidoreductases that act on superoxide radicals as acceptors
•• EC 1.16 includes oxidoreductases that oxidize metal ions
•• EC 1.17 includes oxidoreductases that act on CH or CH2 groups

168 Teachers’ Guide

 •• EC 1.18 includes oxidoreductases that act on iron-sulfur proteins as donors
•• EC 1.19 includes oxidoreductases that act on reduced flavodoxin as a donor
•• EC 1.20 includes oxidoreductases that act on phosphorus or arsenic in donors
•• EC 1.21 includes oxidoreductases that act on X-H and Y-H to form an X-Y bond
•• EC 1.97 includes other oxidoreductases
Transferases

•• EC 2.1 includes enzymes that transfer one-carbon groups (methyltransferase)

•• EC 2.2 includes enzymes that transfer aldehyde or ketone groups
•• EC 2.3 includes acyltransferases
•• EC 2.4 includes glycosyltransferases
•• EC 2.5 includes enzymes that transfer alkyl or aryl groups, other than methyl
groups
•• EC 2.6 includes enzymes that transfer nitrogenous groups (transaminase)
•• EC 2.7 includes enzymes that transfer phosphorus-containing groups
(phosphotransferase, including polymerase and kinase)
•• EC 2.8 includes enzymes that transfer sulfur-containing groups
(sulfurtransferase and sulfotransferase)
•• EC 2.9 includes enzymes that transfer selenium-containing groups
Hydrolases

•• EC 3.1: ester bonds

(esterases: nucleases, phosphodiesterases, lipase, phosphatase)
•• EC 3.222: sugars (DNA glycosylases, glycoside hydrolase)
•• EC 3.3: ether bonds
•• EC 3.4: peptide bonds (Proteases/peptidases)
•• EC 3.5: carbon-nitrogen bonds, other than peptide bonds
•• EC 3.6 acid anhydrides (acid anhydride hydrolases,
including helicases and GTPase)
•• EC 3.7 carbon-carbon bonds
•• EC 3.8 halide bonds
•• EC 3.9: phosphorus-nitrogen bonds
•• EC 3.10: sulfur-nitrogen bonds
•• EC 3.11: carbon-phosphorus bonds
•• EC 3.12: sulfur-sulfur bonds
•• EC 3.13: carbon-sulfur bonds

Teachers’ Guide 169

Lyases

•• EC 4.1 includes lyases that cleave carbon-carbon bonds, such

as decarboxylases (EC 4.1.1), aldehyde lyases (EC 4.1.2), oxo acid lyases(EC
4.1.3) and others (EC 4.1.99)
•• EC 4.2 includes lyases that cleave carbon-oxygen bonds, such as dehydratases
•• EC 4.3 includes lyases that cleave carbon-nitrogen bonds
•• EC 4.4 includes lyases that cleave carbon-sulfur bonds
•• EC 4.5 includes lyases that cleave carbon-halide bonds
•• EC 4.6 includes lyases that cleave phosphorus-oxygen bonds, such as adenylate
cyclase and guanylate cyclase
•• EC 4.99 includes other lyases, such as ferrochelatase
Isomerases

•• EC 5.1 includes enzymes that catalyze racemization (racemases)

and epimerization (epimerases)
•• EC 5.2 includes enzymes that catalyze the isomerization of geometric
isomers (cis-trans isomerases)
•• EC 5.3 includes intramolecular oxidoreductases
•• EC 5.4 includes intramolecular transferases (mutases)
•• EC 5.5 includes intramolecular lyases
•• EC 5.99 includes other isomerases (including topoisomerases)
Ligases

•• EC 6.1 includes ligases used to form carbon-oxygen bonds

•• EC 6.2 includes ligases used to form carbon-sulfur bonds
•• EC 6.3 includes ligases used to form carbon-nitrogen bonds
(including argininosuccinate synthetase)
•• EC 6.4 includes ligases used to form carbon-carbon bonds
•• EC 6.5 includes ligases used to form phosphoric ester bonds
•• EC 6.6 includes ligases used to form nitrogen-metal bonds
Enzymes have different optimum pH. This is why the two proteases pepsin and Trypsin
work on the protein but the first at low pH in the stomach, which the second one
work at high pH in the duodenum.

The induced – fit theory of enzyme action is a modified version of the lock – and – key
theory. It does not depend on such precise contact being made between the substrate
and the active site. In this model, the active site is able to change its shape to enfold

170 Teachers’ Guide

a substrate molecule. The enzyme takes up its most effective catalytic shape after
binding with the substrate, just as the shape of glove is effective by the hand wearing it.

An enzyme allows the reaction to go through a more stable transition state than would
normally be the case. As a result, the rate of reaction is increased.

An allosteric binding site is separate from the active site. When it is occupied by a ligand,
it undergoes an induced fit which affects the shape of the active site. This will affect the
ability of the active site to ‘recognise’ the substrate and hence affect enzyme activity.

Both the active site and allosteric binding site are likely to contain amino acids with
aliphatic side chains, some of which may be important to the binding process. The
ability of a binding site to accept a wide variety of differently shaped molecules will
vary depending on the specific binding site involved.

10.8 Answers for End of unit assessment 10

4) The following are the answers:

a) The following are the explanations:

(i) A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate at which reactions take
place but does not get involved in the reaction and is reused many times.
Catalysts are used in industrial processes and are found in living organisms.
(ii) The lock and key means that the active site of the enzyme has a specific
shape as that of a lock and the shape of the substrate can fit in as a specific key
in its lock.
(iii) Activation energy is the energy required by molecules to start a reaction.
(iv) Q10means the rate of a reactions doubles for every 100C increase in
temperature, up to the optimum temperature.
b) There are hundreds of different enzymes in our cells because of hundreds of
different reactions taking place in cell, each enzyme only catalyses one reaction.
c) Enzymes hold the substrate in such a way as to allow them to react more easily
at lower temperature than usual.
4) The following are the answers:

a) Enzyme work faster at high temperature because the heat energy provides
molecules with energy; the more heat the faster the molecules move
around; more likely that a substrate will bump into an enzyme; increasing
temperatures, increase the rate of reactions up to a maximum point called the
optimum temperature.
b) High temperatures provide so much energy that the atoms making up the
enzyme vibrate; the bonds to break down; the enzyme loses its globular shape
(its tertiary structure) and becomes denatured. However, a few bacterial
enzymes found in hot springs and the industrial are temperature-resistant.

Teachers’ Guide 171

 c) The number of H+ or OH- ions in a solution affects the distribution of charges
over the surface of the enzyme. The pH affects the ionisation of side chain in
amino acid residues and affects the hydrogen bonds and di-sulphur bridges
which hold the enzyme in 3D shape. Extremes of pH denature the enzyme.
d) Enzymes catalyze different reactions and are found in different cellular
environments; for example, extra-cellular digestive enzymes have to be able to
work in acidic or alkaline conditions in the stomach or intestine respectively. In
addition, each enzyme has a different combination of amino acid side chains.
e) Differences between reversible and irreversible enzyme inhibitors:

Reversible enzyme inhibitor Irreversible enzyme inhibitor

Binds loosely to the enzyme and reduces its Binds permanently to enzyme
activity
Can be removed without permanent damage Once removed from the enzyme, it
causes permanent damage.
Inhibition can be reduced when the Inhibition cannot be reduced by the
concentration of correct substrate is increase of concentration of correct
increased. substrate.
e.g. malonate inhibits the enzyme succinate e.g. Arsenic and cyanide
dehydrogenase (in Krebs’ cycle) permanently damage respiratory
enzymes.

5) They have optimum temperatures of up to 900C. They can be used in reactions

where high temperatures are involved. They are stable at high temperatures so
can be re-used many times.
6) The following are the answers:
a) I plot the curve

172 Teachers’ Guide

 b) The optimum temperature is 450C
c) The rate of the reaction is increasing with temperature / linear increase; rate
doubles with every 100C increase in temperature; reference to Q10.
d) Rate at 200C is 0.1, rate at 300C is 0.2; Rate of increase is 0.1/100C or 0.01 per 0C
7) Answers are summarized in the following table:
a) I complete the table and the plot the curve
Temperature / °C Mass lost by reactants /mg Rate of reaction = mass
lost : temperature
10 5 0.5
20 10 0.5
30 40 1.3
40 80 2.0
50 20 0.4

b)

c) Between 20 and 30C the rate of the reaction increases exponentially because the
increasing temperature is giving energy to enzyme molecules but between 40
and 50C the rate of the reaction is decreasing as the excessive heat is denaturing
the enzyme which loses its globular shape/its tertiary structure.
b) The answers are:
a) Proteins
b) Linear increase in activity between pH=4-7. Calculation of the percentage
increase in activity with each pH unit; reaches optimum / Peak at pH = 7.8-8.0;
activity remains high until pH=9; then activity decreases; decrease in activity
not as steep as the increase in the activity.

Teachers’ Guide 173

 c) Increase in activity is less steep; enzyme activity over greater range of pH
values; maximum activity over 4 pH units, which is much larger than obtained
for human digestive enzymes.
9) The steps are the followings:
•• A specific gene is introduced in the DNA of a given bacteria
•• Bacteria are cultivated is a specific medium
•• Enzyme is precipitated by alcohol or ammonium sulphate
•• Enzyme is extracted by chromatography or electrophoresis.
10.9 Additional activities

10.9.1 Remedial activities

1) What do you understand by enzyme peptidase?

Answer:

Peptidase is the enzyme that hydrolyses the breakdown of peptide into amino acids.

2) What characteristic among the following does not describe enzymes?

A Enzymes speed up the rate of reaction

B Enzymes lower down the activation energy
C Enzymes provide a reaction surface for a reaction to take place
D Enzymes are hydrophilic in nature.
Answer: A

3) Which of the following statements is not true regarding the active site of an enzyme?

A An active site is normally a hollow or cleft on the surface of an enzyme.

B An active site is normally hydrophilic in nature
C Substrates fit into active sites and bind to functional groups within the
active site.
D An active site contains amino acids which are important to the binding
process and the catalytic mechanism.
Answer: B

4) What will happen to the rate of the enzyme controlled reaction if the
temperature passes from 15°C to 25°C?
Answers

174 Teachers’ Guide

The rate of the reaction will double because the temperature increases by 10°C from
15°C to 25°C

5) What is meant by the end-product inhibition?

Answers

The end product inhibition is when the end product comes to fit in the active site of the
enzyme and therefore prevents the enzyme from binding to another substrate.

6) Answer by True or False:

A A single enzyme catalyses only a specific reaction or a closely related

group of reactions
B A single enzyme can catalyse the breakdown of several molecules of
different natures
C An enzyme can speed up or slowdown the rate of reaction
D There are thousands of enzymes because each reaction requires its
optimum conditions and its specific enzyme
E Digestive enzymes are found in the saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice
and the bile
Answers:

A. True B. False C. False D. True E. False

7) Why does an enzyme catalyse only a specific reaction or a closely related group of
reactions?

Answer

Enzyme can only catalyse reactions in which the substrate shape fits that of its active
site.

8) Differentiate between intracellular and extracellular enzymes

Answer

An intracellular enzyme is produced inside a microorganism while an extracellular

enzyme is excreted by an organism.

10.9.2 Consolidated activities

Use the Excel program to draw the curve of the rate of enzyme controlled reaction
from the data bellow.

Teachers’ Guide 175

 Temperature / °C 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Rate of the 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6 0.8 0.2 0.05
reaction

Answer:

2) What do you understand by the turnover of an enzyme controlled reaction?

Answer

The turnover number of an enzyme is the number or reactions an enzyme molecule can
catalyse in one second.

3) What is the difference between key –and-lock theory and fit induced theory?

Answer

In key –and-lock theory the shape of active site is complementary to that of the substrate
whilst in the fit induced theory, the shape of the active site is not complementary to
that of the substrate but is modified.

4) Only enzyme amylase and simple materials such as the sauce pans, empty 1.5L plastic
bottles are required to carry out this activity on effect of amylase. The source of starch
can maize or cassava flour, or boiled Irish potatoes.

•• Boil 100g of starch in 5L of mineral water in clean a saucepan.

•• Cover the saucepan and then let the mixture cool down
•• Put 1L of the starch solution in each of the 4 empty and clean bottles labeled
A – D.
•• Put 0g – 0.1g – 0.5g and 1g of amylase powder on bottles A – D respectively.
•• Shake the mixture in each bottle and then divide each into two bottles A1 and

176 Teachers’ Guide

 A2, B1 and B2, C1 and C2, and D1 and D2.
•• Keep bottles A1 – D1 in cold conditions but A2 – D2 in warm conditions.
•• After 24 hours, pipette 2 ml from each bottle which you mix with 1ml of
Benedict’s solution.
•• Boil the samples from A1 and A2 at the same time for 1minute, then B1 and B2,
C1 and C2 and finally D1 and D2.
•• Record your observation and draw a conclusion.
Answer

•• There is no reducing sugar in the bottles A1 and A2 but much reducing sugar in
bottle D2. Mixtures in bottles A1 and A2 served as control.
•• Bottles B1, C1 and D1 have lesser reducing sugars than the bottles B2, C2 and
D2.
•• The enzyme amylase hydrolyzed the starch into maltose, a reducing sugar. The
rate of the reaction was expressed in term of the concentration of reducing
sugar in the solution.
The rate of reaction depended on the concentration of the enzyme and the temperature.

5) Ptyalin is the specific name of the salivary amylase. What is the role of ptyalin?

Answer

Ptyalin hydrolyses the large molecules of starch into small molecules of maltose

6) Make research on the applications of enzymes is industrial processes.

Answer

Application Enzymes Uses

Biological Lipase , Protease, Use in washing powders and dishwashers
detergents Amylase to digit and break down fats, proteins and
starch
Thermostable enzymes isolated from thermophilic bacteria have been
isolated and produced by genetic engineering to function over a wide
range of temperature
Cellulase To digest the loose damaged cellulose
microfibrils, soften and brighten coloured
cotton fabrics

Teachers’ Guide 177

Dairy Renin (from stomachs of To coagulate milk proteins in the
products calves) manufacture of cheese
Chymosin enzymes
(generally engineered
from E. coli)
Immobilized enzyme
lactase
Production of lactose-free milk

10.9.3 Extended activities

1. Make research on the enzyme called Alcohol dehydrogenases (ADH) and get
ready to present your finding.
Answer: Alcohol dehydrogenases (ADH) are a group of dehydrogenase enzymes
that occur in many organisms and facilitate the interconversion between
alcohols and aldehydes or ketones with the reduction of nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NAD+ to NADH). In humans and many other animals, they serve
to break down alcohols that otherwise are toxic, and they also participate in
generation of useful aldehyde, ketone, or alcohol groups during biosynthesis
of various metabolites. In yeast, plants, and many bacteria, some alcohol
dehydrogenases catalyze the opposite reaction as part of fermentation to
ensure a constant supply of NAD+
2. Suggest how you would set an experiment to show that enzyme speed the rate
of reaction
Answer: Set a control solution and a treated solution with en enzyme. Allow time
for the experiment to take place. Compare both solutions at the same interval of
time. Draw your conclusion.
3. Use the modelling/ natural clay or plasticine to design models of key –and-lock
theory and fit induced theory
Answer: (Provide the modeling clay and allow learners to improvise their models
which shall have the Enzyme – the active site – the substrate)

178 Teachers’ Guide

 4. Plan to take students for a field trip to nearest industry that use enzyme to
make their products (e.g. Bralirwa, Inyange etc)
5. It was found that both pepsin and Trypsin play the same role of breaking down
protein into polypeptides. What is the relevance of having both pepsin and
Trypsin?
Answer:

Pepsin and Trypsin amylases are useful because:

•• Pepsin works in acid medium (pH = 2) while Trypsin requires a basic medium
(pH = 8.2)
•• There are large amounts of proteins in our diets. Pepsin alone would not
enough to carry out such an activity
•• If pepsin suffers end product inhibition, Trypsin will come up.
6. You can plan for a field trip to a nearest industry making dairy product and ask
students to record and present their observations using the following guiding
questions:
a) What enzyme is used?
b) What is the maximum temperature?
c) How standard is the process?

Teachers’ Guide 179

180 Teachers’ Guide
UNIT 11: PRINCIPLES OF GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEMS
11

11.1 Key Unit Competence

Explain the principles of gaseous exchange systems

11.2 Prerequisites (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values)

Learners should have the prior knowledge on characteristics of living things especially
the respiration. All aerobic organisms need oxygen and each has a specialized respiratory
organ whereby fish use gills but other vertebrates use lungs in gaseous exchange. They
need also to be able to apply formulae to calculate the area and volume of an object
such as cube and sphere.

11.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed

One of the most cross cutting issue to be addressed by this unit is financial education.
This will be addressed when a teacher speaks about the tobacco. People waste money
for cigarettes which instead of being beneficial to humans is just causing health
problems.

11.4 Guidance on the introductory activity

The unit is introduced with the case study of Kalisa and Uwase’s fish which is in
introductory activity 11. Brainstorm what do you think to be the cause of death of that
fish on the third day? Did you also think what could happen to people who smoke?
Extend the case and then ask them to predict what will happen to people who smoke.
Value what has been brainstormed and introduce the whole unit.

Expected answers to the introductory activity

The fish died from shortage of oxygen and relate to the students’ book

Teachers’ Guide 181

11.5 List of lessons/sub-heading

Lesson title Learning objectives Number of

lessons
1 Lesson1: Explain the relationship between size 1
and surface area to volume ratio.
Relationship
between size and
surface area to
volume ratio.
2 Lesson2: Describe how different respiratory 2
surfaces are modified to speed up the
Modifications of diffusion
gaseous exchange
surfaces to speed Appreciate the evolution of gaseous
up diffusion exchange surfaces from simple to
complex.

Dissect fish gills and observe the

surface area for gas exchange.

Observe mammal’s lungs and state

their adaptation for gaseous exchange.
3 Lesson3: State the characteristics of gaseous 1
exchange surfaces.
Characteristics of
gaseous exchange Observe prepared slides of gaseous
surfaces. exchange surfaces and identify their
characteristics.
4 Lesson4: Describe the effects of tar and 2
carcinogens in tobacco smoke on the
Smoking and gas exchange system with reference
related risks. to lung cancer and Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Disease (COPD).

Describe the short-term effects of

nicotine and carbon monoxide on the
cardiovascular system.
5 Assessment Explain the principles of gaseous 1
exchange systems and diseases that
impair these

182 Teachers’ Guide

 Lesson 1: Relationship between size and surface area to volume ratio
As this is the first lesson in this unit, within this lesson, the introduction of the entire
unit is to be done in a period of this lesson.

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

The learners should be able to calculate the surface area and the volume of a given
object but emphasize on spherical objects because they reflect the shape of alveolus.
The surface area for cube is A=6S2 and its volume V= S3. The surface area of a sphere is
calculated by and its Volume by:

b) Teaching resources

Manila papers, calculators, rulers,

c) Learning activities

Lest student work in groups of 3-7 Students to make cubes and calculate the surface
area and volume. Let them calculate the ratio of each and draw the conclusion that
when the size increases, the surface area to volume rations decreases.

Answers for activity 1.1

1) The following are the answers:

a) Remember that for a cube, Area A=6S2 and its volume V= S3 (You better use the
excel software to calculate)

Side mm Area (A) Volume (V) A to V ratio

3 54 27 2
2 24 8 3
1 6 1 6
Conclusion as the size increase the volume also increases but the surface area to volume
ratio decreases.

b) The surface area of a sphere is calculated by A= and its Volume by: V =

Radius/ Volume
mm Area (A) (V) A to V ratio
3 113.04 113.04 1
1 12.56 4.2 3

Teachers’ Guide 183

2) The surface area to volume ratio is the relationship between the volume of an organ
and it volume.

Answers for self- assessment 11.1

1) The surface area to the volume ratio gets smaller as the cell or animal gets larger.
Thus, if the cell grows beyond a certain limit, not enough material will be able to cross
the membrane fast enough to accommodate the increased cellular volume. The volume
of the cell will be so large that the diffusion rate will be too low to distribute necessary
substances throughout the cell within a reasonable time. This brings about the need of
having a mechanism of ventilation that speeds up the rate of gaseous exchange.

Lesson 2 :Modifications of gas exchange surfaces to speed up diffusion

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

Knowledge, skills and attitudes related to dissection, observation and identification are
needed for students.

b) Teaching resources

Fish – Guinea pig (rat or rabbit) – Insect – razor blade – dissecting dish – Hand lens

c) Learning activity 11.2

You are requested to do the following so that students will develop competences
related to this lesson. Facilitate the dissection of fish and mammals. Provide the hand-
outs of diagrams of respiratory systems of insects, fish and Mammal. If the school has
microscope and prepared slide, students would rather complete their live observation
with the microscopic observation. Students work in group and brainstorm their findings.

Activity 11.2

Observations:

•• The gills and the lungs have blood capillaries; they are moist and have a large
surface area.
•• There are some small pores on the surface of the body of insects. These are
known as spiracles. A fish has gills below the operculum. Each gill is made of
thousands of tiny filaments that are in contact with water.

184 Teachers’ Guide

 •• The structure of the gas exchange system in insects

Answers for activity 11.2

Answers for self-assessment 11.2

1) Adaptations of gills:

•• The gills provide a large surface area to volume ratio

•• The gills are very thin
•• There is a high concentration gradient between blood in the gills and water
passing over them
2) Nasal cavity – pharynx – trachea – bronchi – bronchioles – alveoli

3) The skin would not provide a sufficient large surface area for gas exchange, and
gaseous exchange through the skin would also result in excessive water loss.

Lesson 3: Characteristics of gas exchange surfaces

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

Students should have skills of conducting research from the internet or from the
textbook. They should be able to summarize information in few paragraphs.

Teachers’ Guide 185

b) Teaching resources

Internet and textbooks

c) Learning activity 11.3

Tell students to work in groups and orient them on the source of information.

You can provide textbook or bring students in the smart computer laboratory to carry
out the research. Invite them to make a report of what they have read and acquired
from the reading resource.

Answers for self- assessment 11.3

1) Characteristic features of respiratory surface areas common to all living organisms

(unicellular and multicellular, plants and animals) are the following:

•• Large surface area

•• Thin surface or thin wall
•• Moist surfaces area
•• High diffusion deficit / concentration gradient
2) The following features of a respiratory surface helps gaseous exchange because:

a) A good blood supply makes gases diffuse into the blood and is carried to and from
the body cells.

b) Protection in order to avoid injuries or damage of delicate organs such as the gills or
the lungs involved in gaseous exchange.

c) A thin surface to enable quick diffusions of gases.

Lesson 4 : Smoking and related risks

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

Introduce the lesson by asking students to brainstorm the risks associated to smoking
as they may experience them. They may report that many people have the habit of
smoking tobacco. Smokers have more risks of tuberculosis and cancer. Based on their
ideas, move to the activity 11.4 given in student textbook.

b) Teaching resources for lesson

Source of heat, test tubes, starch solution, Benedict and Iodine solutions, test tubes,
amylase solution, and cold water (ice)

c) Learning activity for lesson 11.4

186 Teachers’ Guide

Sensitize students to find diagram or picture of lungs attached by tuberculosis. If there
is no if there is no network, use the suggested diagrams of individuals A and B in activity
11.4.

Ask questions about the person who suffer from tuberculosis and why? Don’t argue
with them who might argue that both individuals seem to be sick but emphasize to the
one who looks more affected? The answer to that question should be the individual B
because of the granules appearing in the lungs.

To the second question, allow some time to students read the short term and long
term effects of smoking. This requires a discussion in order to focus on the change of
attitude and values. You expect them to shown their concern about smoking.

Answers of self- assessment for lesson 11.4

1) Both the parent and the baby suffer from tobacco smoke. The parent is consuming
the tar, the nicotine and CO. the baby does not consume all these components in
the cigarette by the immune system of the baby is still weak to protect it against the
adversities of the smoke.

•• The list of consequences will be generated from the notes in the students’
book. They include the short term and long term consequences such as:
•• Tar paralyses the cilia which remove dirt and bacteria; the accumulation of
extra material in the air passage can restrict air flow.
•• Smoke acts as an irritant; this causes secretion of excess mucus from goblet
cells and excess fluid into the airways, making it more difficult for the air to
pass through them.
•• Mucus accumulating in the alveoli limits the air that they can contain and
lengthens the diffusion pathway.
•• Coughing of many smokers, way of trying to remove the build-up of mucus
from the lungs, can cause damage to the airways and alveoli; scar tissue builds
up which again reduces air movement and rates of diffusion
•• Infections arise because the cilia no longer remove mucus and pathogens
•• Bronchitis: Bronchitis is inflammation of the lining of the air passages and may
be acute or chronic.
•• Emphysema: One in every five smokers will develop the crippling lung disease
called emphysema i.e. condition of gradual breakdown of the thin wall of
the alveoli leading to sensation of breathlessness as the gaseous exchange
reduces.
•• Lung cancer: Lung cancer usually starts in the epithelium of the bronchioles
and then spreads throughout the lungs as dividing cells cease to respond to
the normal signals around them and form unspecialized masses of cells called

Teachers’ Guide 187

 tumours. The tar is the smoke is carcinogen i.e. contains chemicals which
cause cancer. The irritation causes thickening of the epithelium by extra cell
division and this may trigger the cancer. Almost all people who die from lung
cancer are smokers
2) Students will design several sign posters and the teacher will appreciate and
encourage them.

For example

11.6 Summary of unit

All aerobic organisms must obtain regular supplies of oxygen from their environment
and return to it the waste gas carbon dioxide. The movement of these gases between
the organism and its environment is called gaseous exchange.

Gaseous exchange always occurs by diffusion over part or the entire body surface. This
is called a respiratory surface and in order to maintain the maximum possible rate of
diffusion respiratory surfaces have a number of characteristics such as large surface
area to volume ration, permeability, thin, moist, efficient transport system.

For insect, diffusion of gases over the whole body surface is done through spiracles.
Fish use the girls while other chordates use the lungs.

11.7 Additional information

a) Emphysema

Emphysema is a lung condition that causes shortness of breath. In people with

emphysema, the air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) are damaged. Over time, the inner walls
of the air sacs weaken and rupture — creating larger air spaces instead of many small
ones. This reduces the surface area of the lungs and, in turn, the amount of oxygen that
reaches your bloodstream.

When you exhale, the damaged alveoli don’t work properly and old air becomes
trapped, leaving no room for fresh, oxygen-rich air to enter.

Most people with emphysema also have chronic bronchitis. Chronic bronchitis is
inflammation of the tubes that carry air to your lungs (bronchial tubes), which leads to

188 Teachers’ Guide

a persistent cough.

You can have emphysema for many years without noticing any signs or symptoms. The
main symptom of emphysema is shortness of breath, which usually begins gradually.

You may start avoiding activities that cause you to be short of breath, so the symptom
doesn’t become a problem until it starts interfering with daily tasks. Emphysema
eventually causes shortness of breath even while you’re at rest.

You need to see your doctor if you’ve had unexplained shortness of breath for several
months, especially if it’s getting worse or it’s interfering with your daily activities. Don’t
ignore it by telling yourself it’s because you’re aging or out of shape. Seek immediate
medical attention if:

•• You’re so short of breath, you can’t climb stairs

•• Your lips or fingernails turn blue or gray with exertion
•• You’re not mentally alert
b) Cutaneous respiration

Cutaneous respiration is a form of respiration in which gas exchange occurs across

the skin or outer integument of an organism rather than gills or lungs. Cutaneous
respiration may be the sole method of gas exchange, or may accompany other forms,
such as ventilation.

Because of their dependence on water, many amphibians have retained the traits
of their ancestors, including reduced or even absent lungs. Many rely on breathing
through the skin, cutaneous respiration, for some or their entire oxygen intake, and
especially for carbon dioxide output.

The trait of cutaneous respiration is present in all three groups of amphibians: Caudata
(salamanders and newts), Anura (frogs and toads), and Caecilians (uniquely legless
amphibians).

Cutaneous respiration occurs by way of countercurrent exchange, where blood

circulating through the skin flows in the opposite direction of the absorbing oxygen
or surrounding water. Think of countercurrent exchange as two pipes pressed parallel
together, with water flowing through at the same speed. Water in one tube is hot,
and flows one direction, and water in the other tube is cold, flowing in the opposite
(counter) direction. If the tubes are made of conductive material, like metal, and
contact one another, heat will pass across one tube to the other.

This is similar to crosscurrent exchange; which bird lungs use to pick up oxygen. Blood
capillaries branch across an air capillary at right angles, almost as if they were wrapped
around one another. In contrast, our own lungs also pass carbon dioxide and oxygen
between blood capillaries and in the tiny spaces in our lungs, but this transfer is across

Teachers’ Guide 189

a gradient.

It might sound like leaving the water in the first place was an evolutionary gamble. Why
did organisms adapt to live on land? And how did organisms such as amphibians keep
both adaptations simultaneously?

Lungs allow a direct gas exchange with a greatly increased surface area, where oxygen
and carbon dioxide are exchanged into and out of the bloodstream across grape-like
pockets known as alveoli, or larger pockets called faveoli in amphibians. This adaptation
allowed vertebrates to fully take on the transition to land, to develop thicker and drier
skins, and to colonize areas far from water sources. Despite this, cutaneous respiration
still persists in amphibians. Now let’s look at some of the advantages and disadvantages
of skin breathing, across the evolutionary history of vertebrates.

Embryonic vertebrate animals already exchange respiratory gases through the thin,
skin-like membrane that surrounds them. But by the time they mature and are born,
organisms like reptiles, birds, and mammals carry out relatively little gas exchange
across the skin. This is not so in amphibians.

11.8 Answers for End of unit assessment

1) – (D) (2) – (E) (3) – (B) (4) – (C) (5) – (A)

2)Adaptations for gaseous exchange in the lungs.

•• The alveoli provide a large surface area for gaseous exchange

•• The surfaces of the alveoli are moist for gases to dissolve before diffusion can
occur
•• Surfactant cells (septal cells) secrete surfactant (a phospholipid). This allows
the surface tension of the fluid lining the inner surface of alveolus and speeds
up gaseous exchange
•• The alveoli have thin walls (on cell thick) which minimize the distance for gas
diffusion
•• The walls are permeable to diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide
•• The alveoli are surrounded by numerous blood capillaries, which bring carbon
dioxide for diffusion into the alveoli and carry away oxygen to the circulatory
system
•• A good ventilation system provides a constant supply of oxygen to the alveoli
and removes carbon dioxide
•• Stretch receptors in the lungs help to initiate the breathing relax
•• Elastic fibers in the lungs permit optimum extension during inspiration.

190 Teachers’ Guide

3) The following are the answers:

a) When an individual suffers from Emphysema there is a gradual breakdown of the thin
walls of the alveoli, decreasing the total surface area for gaseous exchange.

b) In people with emphysema, the air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) are damaged. Over
time, the inner walls of the air sacs weaken and rupture — creating larger air spaces
instead of many small ones. This reduces the surface area of the lungs and, in turn,
the amount of oxygen that reaches the bloodstream.

c)

•• Gills are efficient respiratory surface areas because:

•• They provide a large surface area to volume ratio
•• They are very thin to allow diffusion
•• They maintain a high concentration gradient between the blood in the gills
and the water passing over them
d)

•• (a) Similarities between respiratory surface area in the fish and in the mammals
•• Both have a large surface area
•• Both have blood capillary network
•• Both have thin wall
Differences between respiratory surface area in the fish and in the mammals

Fish Mammals
Use gills Use lungs
Adapted for gas exchange in water Adapted for gas exchange in air
Unit structures for gas exchanges Unit structures for gas exchange are
are gill filamments alveoli
High affinity to oxygen Lower affinity to oxygen

e) Tobacco smoke contains a number of carcinogens i.e. substances that cause cancer.
These cause mutations that lead to uncontrolled mitosis and formation of tumours.

The tar is the smoke is also carcinogen. The irritation causes thickening of the epithelium
by extra cell division and this may trigger the cancer. Almost all people who die from
lung cancer are smokers.

Teachers’ Guide 191

f) The diagram they will design will look like the following:

11.9 Additional activities

11.9.1 Remedial activity

1) Between an elephant and a rat which animal is expected to have a big surface area
to volume? Why?

Answer:

It is the rat because the small the volume the bigger the surface area to volume ratio.

2) The diagram below shows the respiratory system in a human. Label the structures
A – G.

Answer:

A – trachea; B – rib; C – heart; D – Diaphragm; E – Alveolus; F – Bronchus; G – bronchiole.

3) List the adaptations of alveoli that make them suitable for gaseous exchange.

Answer:

Well ventilated and highly perfused with blood to maintain a high concentration
gradient; numerous, small, and highly folded to provide a very large surface area; thin
(one cell thick) to minimize diffusion distance between the blood in the capillaries and

192 Teachers’ Guide

the air in the lungs.

Name the gas in cigarette smoke that prevents oxygen from binding to haemoglobin

Answer:

Carbon monoxide

11.9.2 Consolidated activity

1) What is the consequence of having a small surface area to volume ratio?

Answer:

Animal with a too small surface area to volume ratio cannot meet the demand of
transport of substances by diffusion.

2) Arthropods do not have the haemoglobin to transport oxygen. Explain the relevance
of the tracheole system in insect to overcome the shortage of oxygen supply.

Answer:

Air is directly brought to the active tissues where the gas exchange is directly done by
diffusion.

3) If the air contains 0.04% of CO2, calculate p (CO2). Assume that the total pressure of
the air is 101.3KPa.

Answer:

P (CO2) = 0.04% x 101.3KPa = 0.04KPa.

4) Explain why cigarette smoking increases the risk of osteoporosis

Answer:

Cigarette smoking lowers oestrogen levels and reduces bone mineralization

11.9.3 Extended activity

1) Answer the following questions:

Use excel software to find out the surface area to volume ration of the following cubes:

Side/ Volume
mm Area (A) (V) A to V ratio
1

Teachers’ Guide 193

 2
3
4
5
6
(b) Plot a curve of Surface area to volume ration against the size of each cube

Answer:

(a)

Side/ A to V
mm Area (A) Volume (V) ratio
1 6 1 6
2 24 8 3
3 54 27 2
4 96 64 1.5
5 150 125 1.2
6 216 216 1

(b)

3) Why the fish cannot survive longer out of water at yet the atmosphere has plenty
oxygen than water?

Answer

Because the gills are adapted to fix little amount of oxygen dissolved in water. The
flow of water in parallel current or countercurrent direction allows the efficient gas
exchange. But the open air does not match with such an adaptation in fish.

4) Suggest why each cubic centimeter volume of a frog lung has a total gaseous
exchange surface of 20 Cm2, whereas a cubic centimeter volume of a mouse lung has a
gaseous exchange surface of about 800 cm2.

Answer

The shape of the respiratory surface areas of both frog and mouse are not the same.

5) How does tar in cigarette smoke contribute to the development of emphysema?

Answer: Tars irritate and damage lung tissue both mechanically and chemically.

Teachers’ Guide 195

196 Teachers’ Guide
UNIT 12: GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
12
12.1 Key unit competence
Describe structures of gaseous exchange organs in plants.

12.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values)

For progressing well in this unit, students should be equipment with knowledge and
skills pertained to photosynthesis, transpiration and gaseous exchange in animals.
Knowledge and skills related to them should have been developed in studying unit 7 of
senior two which is about photosynthesis, unit 5 of senior four which is about diversity
of specilised tissues including parenchyma tissues and unit 11 of senior 4 which is about
gaseous exchange in animals.

12.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed

Inclusive education and environment and sustainability will be developed in this unit.

For addressing inclusive education, as they may be some students with impairments
such as visual and hearing. Use of illustrations as well as models which are larger will help
those with visual disabilities for their effective learning. Those with hearing disabilities,
sign language as in addition to enlarged pictures will effectively help the learning.

For addressing the issue of environment and sustainability, by appreciating the role
of gas exchange in plants; students will understand how plants by their gas exchange
whereby carbon dioxide is absorbed and oxygen being released by stomata; play
important role to them so that they can cater plants.

Addressing the above issues can be done in the progress of the lesson as well as at the
end of the lesson or unit depending to the situation. They can be addressed through
questions or through the practices or materials used.

12.4 Guidance on the introductory activity

Introduce the unit by interacting with students through the statement and questions
below:

Teachers’ Guide 197

As you know, all living organisms are characterized by gaseous exchange or simply
by respiration. In a human being, the organs that are involved in respiration are more
visible. Did you think about how do plants exchange gas? If so, how do they do? What
are the structures that are involved?

Use their ideas to introduce a whole unit.

Expected students’ prediction

•• Plants exchange gas through tiny pores

•• The structures involved in gas exchange in plants are stoma.
12.5 List of lessons

Lesson title Learning objectives Number

of periods
1 Structure of stoma Describe structure of stomata 1

Draw and label a diagram of stoma as

observed under light microscope
2 Theories used Explain the theories of opening and 2
to explain the closure of stomata stating limitations of
mechanism of each.
opening and
closure of stomata
3 Structural Explain how stomata, lenticels and 2
adaptations breathing roots are adapted for their
and function of function.
stomata, lenticels
and breathing roots Compare gaseous exchange structures
of aquatic and terrestrial plants.

Relate the differences between the

structures of aquatic and terrestrial
leaves to a habitat.

Defend the relationship between

structure and function in aquatic and
terrestrial plants.
4 Assessment Describe structures of gaseous exchange 2
organs in plants

198 Teachers’ Guide

 Lesson 1: Structure of stoma
This is the first lesson of the unit 12 and is a single lesson. This means that it has only
one period (40 minutes). The first lesson also covers the introduction of the whole unit.

a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

Introduce the lesson 1 by asking students to sketch and brainstorm how stoma looks
like. Inform them to write down their ideas in relation to what they sketched and
invite them to do activity 12.1. If your school does not have the required material for
performing the suggested practical experiment, you are advised to draw pictures on
Manila paper and ask students to describe them.

b)Teaching resources

Leaves of Commelina zebrine or Commelina clavata, light microscopes, glass slides,

cover slips, razor blade, forceps, Pasteur dropper, pictures, textbooks, diluted iodine
solution.

c)Learning activity 12.1

Through clear instruction as given in activity 12.1, facilitate learners to perform

experiment given in 12.1.

•• Ask them to do the questions given after performing experiment.

•• Give them the opportunity to report their work.
•• Use students’ findings, challenge them through questions like why do you
think it is necessary to focus on lower epidermis than upper? etc and move
towards the conclusion.
Answers for activity 12.1

1) To enable clear observation of the internal structures including stomata and

neighbouring cells.

2) A labelled diagram of stoma

Teachers’ Guide 199

2)Answers for self-assessment 12.1.

1)D 2)B 3)A 4)C 5)A

Lesson 2: Theories used to explain the mechanism of opening and closure

of stomata

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

Introduce the lesson by asking students to brainstorm chemicals of life that are more
important for plant cells. Connect the brainstormed ideas to the activity 12.1

b) Teaching resources: Figures, textbooks and internet

c) Learning activities

Invite students and help them to analyse the diagrams given in textbook activity 12.2
found in and do the following:

•• Note down what causes the increase of guard cells’ size

•• Note down what causes the decrease of guard cells’ size.
•• Predict theories that explain the mechanism of opening and closure of stomata
Invite them to present their findings. After they have presented, consider their ideas
and then clarify the theories used to explain the mechanism of opening and closure of
stomata.

200 Teachers’ Guide

Answers for activity 12.2

Entry of water and potassium in the guard cells

Theory of Photosynthesis in Guard Cells and Active Potassium Pump Theory

Answers for self-assessment 12.2

1) Potassium increases the permeability of carbon dioxide into the guard cells.

2) Osmotic pressure will increase and guard cells will open wider.

3) The rate of photosynthesis is equal to the one of cell respiration or the volume of
the carbon dioxide released by respiration is equal to the volume of oxygen released
by photosynthesis.

Lesson 3 :Structural adaptations and function of stomata, lenticels and

breathing roots

d) Prerequisites / Revision/Introduction

Start the lesson by asking students to observe pictures given in student textbook or
on chart if there are available in school. Ask them whether those plants have the same
ways of adaptation. Allow them to give their views. From their thoughts, help them to
do the activity 12.3 given in student textbook.

e) Teaching resources

Pictures or illustrations, charts, and textbook

f) Learning activity 12.3

Ask students to make observations on the plants pictures given in the activity 12.3 and
answer to the questions given in activity.

•• How each of these plants is adapted for gas exchange?

•• Read through the notes that follow and describe any two adaptations for gas
exchange
Ask them to report their observation through diagramme

Ask them to present their work and you may challenge them through other questions
so that they may deepen their understanding.

g) Expected answers to activity 12.3

1)Mangroves have long aerial roots on the surface of water used for water absorption
as well as gas exchange. Breathing roots by krene exhibit long aerial roots on the

Teachers’ Guide 201

surface area of the soil for gas exchange. Pneumatophores crack or break compact soil
surface and develop upward to get more oxygen for gas exchange.

2)Adaptations of plants for gas exchange include: stomata, breathing roots, lenticels
and cuticles

h) Answers for self-assessment 12.3

Plants that inhabit arid regions (desert). Are known as xerophytic plants or xerophytes
and have the following adaptations:

•• Stomata sunken in grooves, reduced in number

•• Ability to fix CO2 at night, so the stomata are closed during the day.
•• Epidermis infolded to reduce the surface area
•• Leaves reduced to scales or thorns to reduce the surface area for transpiration
Plant that grows in water of high salinity, are known as halophytes. Halophytes come
into contact with saline water through its roots or by salt spray, such as in saline semi-
deserts, and are adapted to their environment in the following ways.

•• Store water in succulent tissues which have high concentration of salt. They
can thus take up water from the sea water by osmosis.
•• Have extensive air spaces throughout the stem and roots making air available
to all cells, and giving buoyancy to the stem and leaves at highest tides.
•• They develop breathing roots called pneumatophores which grow upward
and protrude out of the ground. e.g. mangrove tress.
12.6 Summary of the unit
This unit 12 consists of three lessons. As described in student textbook, there are in
the following order: Structure of stoma, Theories used to explain the mechanism of
opening and closure of stomata, and Structural adaptations and function of stomata,
lenticels and breathing roots.

The main structures involved in gas exchange in plants are stomata. Each stoma is made
of two guard cells. The opening and closing of stomata is controlled by the intensity of
light and the concentration of ions (K+ ions, malate ions, H+ ions).

In water stress, the plant secretes the abscisic acid which leads to formation of stomata
in order to reduce the loss of water by stomatal transpiration.

Hydrophytes, xerophytes and halophytes have adaptations that allow plants to

withstand the plenty of water, the lack of water and high salinity of in their substrates.
Hydrophytes have stomata on the upper epidermis of their leaves. Xerophytes have
reduced number of stomata while halophytes have succulent tissues rich in salt; some
have lenticels and pneumatophores which are breathing roots.

202 Teachers’ Guide

12.7 Additional information
Theories of opening and closing of stomata are summarised in student textbook.
The detailed is given to you so that you may be equipped with knowledge and
understanding about them while using this guide. These theories are also followed by
further information related to the adaption of plants in gas exchange.

The four theories of opening and closing of stomata are highlighted as follow:

1) Theory of Photosynthesis in Guard Cells:

Von Mohl (1856) observes that stomata open in light and close in the night. He then
proposed that chloroplasts present in the guard cells photosynthesize in the presence
of light resulting in the production of carbohydrate due to which osmotic pressure of
guard cells increases.

Its explanation is based on following sequence:

Light Photosynthesis in guard cells Formation of sugar Increase of osmotic

pressure of cell sap Endosmosis takes place from subsidiary cell to guard cell
Increase of TP in guard cells Stomata open.

Demerits:

•• Increasing the CO2 concentration around the leaves should lead to wide
opening of stomata but here occurs their partial closure.
•• Chloroplast of guard cells are poorly developed and incapable of performing
active photosynthesis.
1) Starch Sugar Inter-Conversion Theory:

According to Lloyd (1908) turgidity of guard cell depends on inter-conversion of starch

and sugar. It was supported by Loft-field (1921). He found out that guard cells contain
sugar during day time when they are open and starch during night when they are closed.

Sugar Inter-Conversion Part 1

Sayre (1926) observed that stomata open in neutral or alkaline pH, which prevails
during day time due to constant removal of carbon-dioxide by photosynthesis. Stomata
remain closed during night when there is no photosynthesis and due to accumulation
of carbon-dioxide, carbonic acid is formed that causes the pH to be acidic. Thus,
stomatal movement is regulated by pH due to inter-conversion of starch and sugar.
Sayre concept was supported by Scarth (1932) and Small et. al. (1942).

Yin and Tung (1948) isolated for the first time phosphorylase enzyme from the guard
cells. According to them starch is converted into glucose-1, phosphate in the presence
of this enzyme. During the process, inorganic phosphate is also used and light and dark

Teachers’ Guide 203

phases (changing CO2 concentration) control the changes in pH. The reaction maybe
represented as follows:

Starch Sugar Interconversion Part 2

Steward (1964) proposed another modified scheme of inter-conversion of starch

and sugar for stomatal movement. He believes that conversion of starch to Glucose
-1 phosphate is not sufficient. It should be converted to glucose in order to increase
sufficient osmotic pressure. For this, ATP is also required which means that the process
should be through respiration in presence of oxygen. Guard cell carries enzymes
like Phosphorylase, Phosphoglucomutase, Phosphatase and Phosphorylase. These
enzymes help in opening and closing of the stomata.

Starch Sugar Interconversion Part 3

Based on the above mentioned theory, process of opening and closing of stomata may
be summarized as given below. In light:

Photosynthesis (1) Decreased CO2Concentration in leaf cells (2) Increase in pH

of guard cells (3) Hydrolysis of starch to sugar by enzymes (4) Increase of O.P.
of guard cells (5) Endosmosis of water in guard cells (6) Increase in T.R of
guard cells (7) Aperture

2)Theory of Glycolate Metabolism:

Zelitch (1963) proposed that production of glycolic acid in the guard cells is an important
factor in stomatal opening. Glycolate is produced under low concentration of CO2. He
suggested that glycolate gives rise to carbohydrate, thus raising the osmotic pressure
and also that it could participate in the production of ATP. Which might provide energy
required for the opening of stomata?

Demerits:

•• It fails to explain the opening of slomata in dark (e.g., – in succulent plants).

•• In some plants slomata have been found to remain closed even during daytime.
•• It fails to explain the effect of blue light on stomatal opening.
3)Active Potassium Pump Theory:

The concept of K+ ion transport was given by Fujino. It was supported and elaborated
by Levitt & Rashke in 1975 It appears to be an active mechanism which needs ATP. It is
based on recent observations and (explains the mechanism as follows.

A. Opening of Stomata during Daytime (in presence of light):

Opening of stomata depends upon following conditions:

204 Teachers’ Guide

 •• Presence of light.
•• Decrease in starch contents of guard cells.
•• Increased concentration of malic acid in guard cells.
•• Influx of K+ ions in guard cells.
•• Efflux of H+ ions from guard cells.
•• Intake of CI ions by guard cells.
•• Low CO2 concentration in an around guard cells.
•• High pH (more than 7) in guard cells (hence, alkaline medium of the cell sap in
guard cells).
•• High T.P. in guard cells due to endosmosis, (turgidity of cells).
•• TP more towards thin wall of guard cell & stomata open.
According to Levitt, in the guard cells, starch is converted into malic acid in presence of
light (during day time).

12.8 Answers of end of unit assessment

Section A : Objective questions

1. B. 2. D. 3. A. 4. C. 5. B.

Section B

6. During the day, K + pumps of guard cells open and K + ions flow in guard cells by
active transport. This makes guard cells permeable to carbon dioxide which is used
in the chloroplast of guard cells to make glucose by photosynthesis. High amount of
sugar (malate) increases the osmotic pressure in the guard cells. Water moves from the
neighbouring cells into the guards cells which become turgid. The guard cells stretch
backwards and the aperture of stoma opens wider. Water vapour and Oxygen are
released.

7. Stems of woody plants have narrow openings or slits at intervals called lenticels.
They are surrounded by loosely arranged cells where the bark is broken. They have
many large air intercellular spaces through which gaseous exchange occurs. Oxygen
enters the cells by diffusion while CO2 leaves. Unlike the rest of the bark, lenticels are
permeable to gas and water.

8. Gaseous exchange occurs in the root hair of young terrestrial plants. Oxygen in the
air spaces in the soil dissolves in the film of moisture surrounding soil particles and
diffuses into the root hair along a concentration gradient. It diffuses from root hair cells
into the cortex where it is used for respiration. CO2 diffuses in the opposite direction. In
older roots of woody plants, gaseous exchange takes place through the lenticels.

Teachers’ Guide 205

9. Roots of aquatic plants e.g. water lily is permeable to water and gases. Oxygen from
the water diffuses into roots along a concentration gradient. CO2 diffuses out of the
roots and into the water. The roots have many small lateral branches to increase the
surface area for gaseous exchange. They have air spaces that help the plants to float.

10.The mangrove plants grow in permanently waterlogged soils, muddy beaches and
estuaries. They have roots that project above the ground level. These are known as
pneumatophores.

(i) Refer to the student book (Figure 12.2)

(ii) Refer to the student book (Figure 12.3)

(i) Stomata open during daylight hours to allow CO2 in for photosynthesis. Stomata
close at night, when no light, which reduces transpiration.

(ii) (i) During day K+ ions move into the guard cells lowering the water potential and
drawing in water by osmosis. Guard cells with swollen vacuoles pull apart and stomata
open.

(iii) K+ ions pass from low to high concentration by active transport. An input of energy
is required provided by ATP. Protein carriers are involved in active transport across a
membrane.

12.9 Additional activities

12.9.1 Remedial activities

1) Define each of the following terms: (a) Stoma – (b) pneumatophores – (c) Lenticels

2) Name the structures involved in gaseous exchange in plants

3) State the adaptations for gaseous exchange in mangroves.

Answers:

1) (a) Stoma is the aperture between two guard cells that opens and closes to control
water transpiration and gaseous exchange in plant leaves and stems (b) Pneumatophores
are breathing roots of plants (c) Lenticels are any of pores in the stems of woody plants
that allow gas exchange between the atmosphere and the internal tissues.

2) Structures involves in gaseous exchange in plants are stomata, cuticles, lenticels and
pneumatophores.

3) Adaptation of gas exchange in mangroves:

•• Presence of stomata on leaves

206 Teachers’ Guide

 •• Presence of lenticels
•• Presence of pneumatophores

12.9.2 Consolidated activities

1) Why do plants living at high altitudes need xeromorphic adaptations?

2) Why do halophytes have very little lignified tissues?

3) Glassworts are edible, salty tasting plants. Why do they accumulate salt in their
tissues?

Answers:

1) Plants at high altitudes have xeromorphic adaptations to reduce transpiration losses

when soil is frozen and free water is unavailable

2) Hydrophytes are supported by water

3) Salt is actively absorbed in tissues of glassworts to create a concentration gradient

for the uptake of water by osmosis.

12.9.3 Extended activities

Have a Commelina leaf. Remove its upper epidermis and its lower epidermis. Use 2mm
x 2mm portion from each epidermis. Mount each portion on a drop of dilute iodine
solution. Observe each preparation under the lower magnification. Count the number
of stomata from each side. Repeat the same procedure using the leaf of mango leaf.

a) Fill the table below:

Plant Number of stomata on low- Number of stomata

leaf er epidermis at upper epidermis.
ommelina

Mango
What conclusion can you draw from the data in table above?

Answers:

a) The answer can vary from one student to another

b) The leaves of monocotyledonous plants have stomata on both upper and lower
epidermis but the leaves of dicotyledonous plants do not have stomata on the upper
epidermis.

Teachers’ Guide 207

208 Teachers’ Guide
UNIT 13: GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN
PLANTS AND ANIMALS 13

13.1 Key Unit Competence

Account for the processes of growth and development in plants and animals.

13.2 Prerequisites (Knowledge, skills, attitudes and values)

Before introducing this unit, it is essential to know that learners already have prior
knowledge, attitudes and skills acquired in previous unit as follows: Knowledge about
enzymes in Unit 10, plant tissues in unit 5 which enables learners to explain the processes
of growth and development in plants and animals.

13.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed

The two main issues to be addressed by this unit include inclusive and gender
education. Inclusive education will be addressed when particularly students with
physical impairment will be involved in all learning activities particularly experimental
ones where they will be playing role of giving instructions to students who are capable
to do manipulation. They will also have to interpret and present the results.

Gender education will be addressed when anybody among learners irrespective of

their gender will present and reports during learning activity. This cross cutting issue
will be enhanced when students and teachers will give role models of those who are
successful in real life.

13.4 Guidance on the introductory activity

Introduce the unit by using the situation given in introductory activity which is found in
student textbook and ask students to brain storm what they think to be the causes of
body changes in living organisms.

Expected answers for introductory activity

Cells divide; new cells absorb nutrients and water. They get bigger thus the organism
increases in height and width: this is growth.

Teachers’ Guide 209

13.5 List of lessons/sub-headings

Lesson Lesson name Learning objectives Number

num- of
ber periods
1 Fruit, seed and bud Explain how dormancy is maintained 2
dormancy. and broken.
Observe structures of endospermic and
non-endospermic seeds.
Demonstrate how fruit and seed
dispersal takes place.
State the conditions required for
germination.
Outline the role of enzymes in the
process of germination.
Appreciate the importance of fruit and
seed dormancy and germination in the
life cycle of plants.
2 Types and stages of Describe the stages and types of 1
germination. germination.
Identify the hypocotyl and coleoptile in a
germinating seed.
Demonstrate hypogeal and epigeal
germination.
3 Primary and State that a meristem is a growing point 2
secondary growth. of the plant and the main meristematic
regions of a tree.
4 Determination of Carry out an investigation to distinguish 1
growth between primary and secondary growth.
5 Phytohormones. State types of plant growth hormones 2
and their functions.
6 Plant movements and Describe current views about 2
Photoperiodism in photoperiodic control of flowering.
plants.

210 Teachers’ Guide

 7 Metamorphosis and Carry out an experiment on the 3
growth patterns development of eggs at different
in insects and temperatures. –
amphibians
Describe the process of metamorphosis
in arthropods and amphibians.

Distinguish the various stages of

development in frogs.

Analyse complete and incomplete

metamorphosis.

Compare growth patterns in arthropods

and vertebrates.

Appreciate the demands of the

terrestrial environment to the
adaptation of amphibians
8 Assessment: Students can correctly explain the 1
reasons for the changes in growth
and development in insects, plants
and amphibians during their life
cycle.

Lesson 1: Fruit, seed and bud dormancy

Introduce all units within the period of this lesson. This means that you have to start
with general introduction of the unit and then move to the lesson 1.

a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Before starting to teach, remind students that they have learnt about fruit, seed and
seed germination in senior three. Ask them some questions so that they may recall
what they have learnt that are related to the aforementioned topics. Based on their
ideas, move to the activity of the lesson of the day. During the lesson, create awareness
of learners the fact that the content in this unit will help the learners to gain knowledge
which help them to understand well the external and internal factors that affect the
processes of plants growth and development. From that knowledge, the learners can
control some factors and become successful farmers. Tell learners that more details
on plants and animals growth will be studied at high levels of studying. This will enable
learners to be familiar with the importance of learning plants and animals’ growth and
development.

Teachers’ Guide 211

b)Teaching resources

Different student’s books, graph charts, seeds, plants in garden, butterfly, grasshopper,
house fly frog, projector.

c)Learning activity 13.1

For students to develop competencies that are related to this lesson, you need to do
the following:

•• Ask learners to do individually activity 13.1 given in their student book

•• Move around to monitor and support them in the activity
•• Remember to assist those who are weak but without giving them the
knowledge
•• Invite students to present their findings
•• Ask other students to follow carefully the presentations
•• ask one of the presenting group member to note on chalk board / Manila
paper what they are presenting
•• Exploit findings through challenging questions.
•• Through questions harmonize and conclude the lesson. On the learned
knowledge and still engage students in making that conclusion
Answer for activity 13.1

•• Carry out the experiment

•• Diagram in the student’s book figure 13.1
•• No. some organs are dormant (not active) due to changes in growth factors
(internal as well as external factors), organs like seeds, bud and fruit depending
on the period; can stop temporary growing or developing. However, if
conditions become favorable, the dormancy breaks and the growth restarts.
Answers for self-assessment 13.1

•• Dormancy is the period of low metabolic rate with little or no growth in plant
organs.
•• The plant organ remains dormant until environmental conditions become
favorable to allow the organ to grow again.
•• Helps them to survive harsh conditions
•• Water, Oxygen and temperature (warmth).
•• Softening the seed-coat and activating the enzymes in the seed.
•• Diagram in the student’s book.

212 Teachers’ Guide

 Lesson 2: Types and stages of germination
a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

This is the second lesson of unit 13. The first thing to do before starting teaching is
to remind students that they have learnt about seed germination in senior three, and
ask them to discuss about the types of seed germination so that they can prepare
themselves for this lesson.

b) Teaching resources

Students’ books, graph charts, seeds, grains, water, plastic container, soil, projector,
improvised diagrams on manila paper.

c)Learning activity 13.2

Help students develop the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that are expected by
this lesson by doing the following:

•• Ask learners to form and work in the groups of four.

•• Asks students to carry out the experiment (project work) at least ten days
before the lesson starts.
•• Ask learners to record their observations.
•• Invite students to report what has been recorded
•• Build on what has reported and ask some challenging questions like why is it
not good to pour more water? What would happen if much water in poured
on the seeds?
•• Through questions, help students to harmonize and conclude the lesson.
Answers for activity 13.2

Obtained results depend on the environmental conditions in which each group/ class
worked.

Answers for self-assessment 13.2

•• Imbibition, radicle sprouting and plumule sprouting

•• Diagrams in student’s textbook figure 13.3 and Figure 13.4

Teachers’ Guide 213

 Lesson 3: Primary and secondary growth.
a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Introduce this lesson by reminding what they have learnt about plant specialized tissue
in unit 5 by using questions. Then ask them to think and mention about the plant tissues
that are involved in the process of plant growth. Build on their ideas and then move to
the learning activity 13.3.

b) Teaching resources

Students’ textbooks, monocot plants, dicot plants, projector, Diagrams on manila

paper.

c) Learning activity 13.3

Facilitate the smooth running of activity by:

•• Asking students to work individually 13.3 in student’s textbook.

•• Asking them to get out from your classroom for visiting an area (school
garden or a field) including monocot plants (most annual), dicot plants (most
perennial) and ask questions as suggested in activity
•• Invite them to present their findings.
•• Ask other students to pay attention when their colleagues are presenting
•• Help students to put their work on chalk board / manila paper.
•• Harmonize their work through questions and by ticking the correct findings
and correct and complete those ones which are incorrect or incomplete.
•• Help students to summarize and draw the conclusion of the lesson through
questions
Answer for the activity 13.3

•• They are similar in vegetative structure (all have leaves, stem and roots) and
they all grow in length. Differences in growth are given in the following table:

Monocots Dicots
Grow shorter Grow taller
Remain thinner Grow bigger
Develop less or no lateral shoot Develop lateral shoot
Are weak as they have herbaceous Are hard as they have woody stem
stem
When mature they dry out (are Exhibit unlimited growth (are
annual or biannual) perennial)

214 Teachers’ Guide

 •• They all have apical meristems
•• Dicots have lateral meristems, vascular cambium and cork cambium which
allow them to increase in width while monocot do not.
Answers for self-assessment 13.3

•• Answers are summarized in the following table:

Primary growth Secondary growth

is the increase in length the increase in width
Occurs in all plants Occurs in perennial plants only
it takes place on root and stem tips in root and stem
Is controlled by apical meristems Is controlled by lateral meristems

•• The wood consists of secondary xylem cells that are strengthened by lignin
and cellulose. Its role is to ensure mechanical support to the plant.
•• The increase in length would slow.
•• Suberin

Lesson 4: Determination of growth

a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Remind students that they have learnt about length measurement in mathematics and
physics. Then ask them to talk about the way of measuring length and width of plants.
Use their ideas and move to the activity 13.4.

b)Teaching resources

Students’ textbooks, graph charts, monocot plants and dicot plants prepared previously
in the pots, computer, projector, Manila paper with diagrams for improvisation

c)Learning activities 13.4

For the success of this lesson, the following are needed:

•• Ask students to work on the activity 13.4 in their previous groups of four.
•• Take them to the potted plants (of beans and maize) and invite them to
conduct the experiment as indicated in the activity 13.4
•• Assist those who are weak but without giving them the knowledge.
•• Invite some group to share what they have done.
•• Challenge students through questions.

Teachers’ Guide 215

 •• Help students to make a summary of the lesson and draw the conclusion.
•• Answer for the activity 13.4
•• Recording from each group
Answers for self-assessment 13.4

•• 12m
•• The increase in the dry mass, length, thickness and the ability to reproduce.
•• Girdling removes an entire ring of secondary phloem (part of the bark),
completely preventing transport of sugars and starches from the shoots to
the roots. Girdling also removes the cork, this phenomenon leads to severe
water loss and the plant dies with dehydration.

Lesson 5: Phytohormones
a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

Remind students that they have learnt about response and co-ordination in plants in
senior three. Then ask them to brainstorm how plants respond to auxin hormone based
on their experience.

b)Teaching resources

Students’ textbooks, internet connection and computer, graph charts, manila paper
with diagrams for improvisation

c)Learning activity 13.5

To make the lesson successful, you do the following:

•• Start with the scenario in student’s textbook

•• Ask the learners to work on the activity 13.5 in pairs.
•• Move around and monitor if they are having some problems and assist them.
•• Invite any three pairs to present their findings to the rest of students.
•• Harmonize the students work through questions so that they may concur or
still disagreeing.
•• Help them to make a summary and conclude the lesson.
Answer for the activity 13.5

•• Increase of abscissic acid in avocado plants cause the fruit to drop before
maturity

216 Teachers’ Guide

 •• The auxins that promote the growth in length move away from light so that as
the plant grows longer the auxins concentrate in the lower part of the plants.
This causes decrease in growth rate.
•• Auxins stimulate flowering process by promoting cell division so that the flower
turns away from light source to maintain necessary auxins concentration.
Answers for self-assessment 13.5

•• There are five groups of plant hormones: Auxins or Indol Acetic Acid (IAA),
Gibberellin or gibberellic acid (GA), Cytokinins, Abscissic acid (ABA) and
Ethene or ethylene (C2H4).
•• The answer is given in the following table:

Plant hor- Functions

mone
Auxins Promote cell growth by cell elongation stimulation
Promote root formation on stem and leaf cuttings
Increase number of fruit
Prevent abscission
Prevent germination of stored potatoes and onions
Gibberellins (GA) Promote growth of shoots and leaves
Stimulate seed germination, and seedling growth
Increase size of fruit
Stimulates parthenocarpy
Cytokinins Promote growth through cell division stimulation
Promote lateral bud growth in dicots
Slow down senescence
Abscisic acid stimulates stomatal closure during water stress
(ABA) stimulates seed dormancy
Inhibits growth promoters so that it blocks growth
Ethylene stimulate ripening of fruit
Promotes flowering in mangoes and pineapples
Promotes abscission (detachment of leaves).
Stimulate seed dormancy

• The growth in height slows down and the lateral shoot grows dramatically.

Teachers’ Guide 217

 Lesson 6: Movements and photoperiodism in plants.
a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

Remind students that they have learnt about response and co-ordination in plants
in senior three. Then ask them to discuss the way by which plants respond to the
environmental factors like light so that they can prepare themselves for this lesson.

b)Teaching resources

Students’ textbooks, internet connection, graph charts, computer, projector, Manila

paper with diagrams.

c)Learning activity 13.6

For smooth running of the activities, help students by:

•• Guiding them to work on the activity 13.6 in pairs.

•• Supporting them when needed
•• Calling at least three pairs to present their findings and asking the rest of the
class to pay attention.
•• Helping them to note on chalk board / Manila paper their ideas
•• Harmonizing their work by asking questions and clarifying the correct findings
•• Helping them to draw the conclusion
Answer for the activity 13.6.1

•• The shoot grows toward the light but the root grows away from the light. It
grows away from that physical material. The fold when touched.
•• Because plants respond to the relative length of light and dark period in
24-hours cycle.
•• Photoperiodism
Answers for self-assessment 13.6.1

•• Phytochrome are photoreceptors (light-sensing) present in very low

concentration in many plant organs whose role is to detect the amount of
light to induce flowering.
•• Short-day plants (SDP) will only flower when the dark period is longer than a
critical length while long-day plants (LDP) are those which only flower when
the dark period is shorter than a critical length.
•• They will not flower.

218 Teachers’ Guide

Learning Activity 13.6.2

Ask students to carry out a research project as indicated in student’s textbook at least
a week before teaching plant movements.

Answers for self-assessment 13.6.2

• The following is the answer

(a)

(b) Geotropism and photoperiodism

(c) The downward cells grow shorter than the upward cells.

(d) The use of clinostat

• If two or more growth hormones interact to give greater effect, those

substances are synergists. For example, auxins and cytokinins work together
for efficient growth. If a substance reduces the effect of the other, they work
antagonically. For example, Abcissic acid maintains dormancy in seeds but
gibberellins break it.

Lesson 7: Metamorphosis and growth patterns in insects and amphibians

a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Remind students that they have learnt about characteristics of amphibians and insects
in unit 1 of senior four. Then ask them to talk about the common characteristics for both
amphibians and insects; so that they can prepare themselves for this lesson.

Teachers’ Guide 219

b)Teaching resources

Students’ textbooks, internet connection, computer, projector, Manila paper with

diagrams.

c)Learning activity 13.7

To facilitate the smooth running of the activity you need to do the

following:

•• Asking students to conduct the experiment stated in the activity 13.7 in groups
of four
•• Ask them to do the experiment as a research project
•• Invite any three groups to present their findings to the rest of students.
•• Ask them to note on chalk board / manila paper their findings.
•• Affirm the correct findings and correct those which are incorrect.
•• Through different questions, harmonize and conclude the lesson.
Answer for the activity 13.7

•• In warmer climates, eggs may hatch within 1 or 2 days, while in colder

environments they may take 30 to 40 days to hatch into tadpoles.
•• They are similar
•• Both amphibians and butterfly exhibit complete metamorphosis. Their eggs
hatch into larva that are morphologically, physiologically and behaviorally
different from the adult.
Answers for self-assessment 13.7

•• Metamorphosis is a complete or marked change in the form of an animal as it

develops into an adult, e.g. the change from tadpole to frog or from caterpillar
to butterfly.
•• The adult frog lay eggs.
1. Each egg hatches into a tailed larva breathing through gills called
tadpole.

2. As the tadpole grows, it develops legs that replace the tail

3. Lungs replace gills

4. it also develops long, sticky, projectile tongue for catching insects

220 Teachers’ Guide

 5. when mature it is adapted to terrestrial life and then move from water
to land as a mature frog

•• The differences are given in the following table:

Differences
Metamorphosis of a butterfly Metamorphosis of a grasshopper
Is complete Is incomplete
Larvae are wormlike No larval stage the egg hatches into a
miniature grasshopper
Similarities
They both molt for metamorphosis

13.6 Summary of unit

Growth in living organisms results from the interaction between the organism and its
environment. Growth and development are affected by internal and external factors.
Plants like animals need a certain amount of water, light and temperature to grow.
Dormancy is a response to water and temperature changes preventing plants to grow
when conditions are not favourable. Phytohormones are internal factors that have
different effects on plant growth and plant development. Auxins for example promote
the increase in length but inhibit buds and roots growth. Plants are also sensitive to the
external factors like light, gravity, touch, water and chemicals. To the external factors
or stimuli, plants respond by movement involving growth called tropisms. Nastic
movements like the folding and unfolding of leaves or flowers in response to touch,
light or darkness are temporary and independent to the direction of the stimulus. The
change in daylight and darkness length induces flowering in some plants. The response
to daylight length by flowering is called photoperiodism.

13.7 Additional information

To be familiar with this unit, you should read different books and search on internet
whenever is available so that you will be able to complete some student’s incomplete
findings. You should also be creative when you are introducing the unit and lesson to
help students to engage themselves in different lessons. We welcome your advices,
corrections and questions.

13.8 Answers for End of unit assessment 13

•• Definitions in student’s textbook
•• Answers:
a)The increase in the dry mass, the increase in the volume of protoplasm,
the increase in the length, the increase in the thickness

b)Temperature, light, moisture and carbon dioxide (CO2).

Teachers’ Guide 221

Answers:

a) They are needed in a very low amount, they are produced in one part of a
plant and transmitted to another part, and they affect plant growth and
development.

b) Hormones

i) Ethylene

ii) Ethylene

iii) Cytokinins

iv) Gibberellins

(c) Parthenocarpic fruits are ones which develop from non-fertilized flower.
Example: Banana

•• The following are the answers:

a) The coleoptile will bend toward the light

b) Cells on the side A are shorter while cells in the side B appear longer.

222 Teachers’ Guide

13.9 Additional activities

13.9.1 Remedial activities

•• Match the terms with the most suitable descriptions

a) Photoperiodism (i) light induced control of plant growth and differentiation

b) Abscission (ii) The process of ageing, loss of cellular functions, leading to

death of plant parts or whole plant

c) Phytochrome (iii) Low metabolic rate with little or no growth

d) Long-day plant (iv) photoreceptor in plant involved in red light sensing

e) Short-day plan (v) the response of a plant to the relative length of light and
dark period in 24-hours cycle

f) Etiolation (vi) the dropping of leaves, unfertilized flowers and fruits from
a plant

g) Chromophore (vii) Plants will only flower when the dark period is longer than
a critical length

h) Senescence (viii) Plants will only flower when the dark period is shorter
than a critical length

i) Dormancy (ix) elongation of the stem or seedling due to less light

exposure
j) Defoliation (x) the process of causing the leaves of a plant to fall off
(xi)Non-protein light-absorbing part of phytochrome.

Answer:

(a) v (b) vi (c) iv (d) viii (e) vii (f) ix (g) xi (h) ii (i) iii (j) x

•• Distinguish between complete and incomplete metamorphosis. Give two

example for each.

Teachers’ Guide 223

Answer:

Complete metamorphosis: the egg hatches into wormlike larva called caterpillar, the
caterpillar develops into pupa the pupa becomes imago (adult) whereas in incomplete
metamorphosis, the egg hatches into a miniature organism which looks like the adult
known as nymph, it develops into an adult.

•• Explain the advantage of using a rooting powder.

Answer:

The use of rooting powder stimulates the formation of roots from plant cuttings helping
quick vegetative propagation.

Choose the best answer.

•• Which type of plants does a selective weed killer affect?

a) Broad leaves

b) Narrow leaves

c) Food crops

d) Trees

Answer: (a)

•• Auxins promote plant growth through:

a) Increasing the plasticity of plant cell walls

b) Causing the elongation of stem

c) Increasing the growth of root tip

d) Promoting the uptake of water by seeds

e) Increasing photosynthesis rate

Answer: (a)

•• Most plants have seeds that are stimulated to germinate by:

a) Exposure to red light.

b) Pollinator agents

c) Exposure to fire

224 Teachers’ Guide

 d) Spraying auxin

e) Exposure to ethylene

Answer: (a)

•• A tropism in which a plant “bends” towards the sun throughout the day.
a) Photoperiodism

b) Gravitropism

c) Phototropism

d) Hydrotropism

e) Chemotropism

Answer: (c)

•• A pea plant is growing near a cassava plant describe the change in pea plant.
Answer: the pea plant wraps around a cassava tree, such response is called
thigmotropism.

•• While animals can change their location as a response to a stimulus, plants

change their growth pattern. Answer by true or false.
Answer: true

13.9.2 Consolidation activities

•• Dormant seeds require suitable environmental conditions to break dormancy.
Suggest the reasons why people are advised not to put seeds deeply in the so
il.
Answer:

Burred seed deeply in the soil do not germinate because sunlight which provides
adequate temperature for activating enzymes and air providing oxygen for cellular
respiration do not reach deeper the soil. Then the seeds remain dormant

•• In a tabular form, identify the differences between tropisms and nastic

movements.

Teachers’ Guide 225

Answer: Differences between tropisms and nastic movements.

Tropism Nastic movement

The movement involves growth Does not involve growth
Depends on the direction of the is non-directional response
stimulus
The response is irreversible Is reversible
The frequency of the movement The frequency of such response
does not depend on the intensity of increases as the intensity of the
the stimulus stimulus increases

• Explain the importance of positive and negative phototropism with reference

to the root and the shoot of a flowering plant.
Answer:

The shoot has a positive phototropism; it grows toward light that is an adaptation to
effective photosynthesis. The root grows downward; negative phototropism this make
the root being more adapted to storage.

13.9.3 Extended activities

•• Four maize grains have been put in four test tubes having different condition
as shown below:

•• In which test tube are you expecting the germination to take place? Why?
Answer:

The test tube B because there are all suitable environmental conditions (moist, air and
temperature).

226 Teachers’ Guide

 •• Explain why the germination will fail in each of the other test tubes.
Answer:

Germination will fail in the test tube A because there is no humidity (water), in C because
the oil layer prevents air (oxygen) to reach the seeds, in D because there is very low
temperature that cannot activate enzymes.

•• Would you expect a tropical tree to have distinct growth rings? Why or why
not?
Answer:

Not. The growth rings of a tree from the tropics would be difficult to discern unless the
tree came from an area that had pronounced wet and dry seasons.

•• Discuss the importance of apical and lateral meristems in plant growth.

Answer:

Apical meristems are located on the stem and root tips; they control the increase in
length and formation of leaves, flowers, lateral shoot and fruits. This is primary growth.
If the stem apex is cut off, the increase in length decreases. The secondary growth is
controlled by lateral meristems which are the vascular cambium and cork cambium. The
multiplication of lateral.

•• Discus reasons why complete metamorphosis may have greater adaptive

value for an insect than incomplete metamorphosis.
Answer:

Complete metamorphosis has a greater survival advantage. As the larva and the adult
are morphologically, physiologically and behaviorally different, they do not compete
for the same resources (food, space) and they do not have the same predators. This will
help some stage of life to survive harsh conditions even if the other stage is attacked.

Teachers’ Guide 227

228 Teachers’ Guide
UNIT 14 : SUPPORT AND LOCOMOTION
14

14.1 Key unit competence

Explain and demonstrate modes of locomotion in protists, insects, fish, amphibians,
birds and mammals.

14.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values)

In order to succeed well this unit, students should possess knowledge and understanding,
skills and attitudes that are related to skeletal systems of organisms and joints and
movement acquired in Unit 10 and 11 of senior 1 and 2 respectively. They should be also
be able to do observation, analysis, interpretation of the pictures and then capable to
present and or communicate the results.

14.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed

Among the cross cutting issues that are to be addressed by the competence - based
curriculum, the issues of inclusive education, peace and values education will be
addressed within this unit with the purpose of raising awareness about different
movements in organisms particularly humans so that they may develop different values
such as respect, self-actualisation and understanding, acceptance, among others.

For inclusive education, as the unit uses pictures for students to learn, those with special
needs should be given models or tactile tools and or using scenario for students with
visual impairment. Using body language will help those who cannot hear so that they
may be involved in different learning activities. For the clarity and visibility of teaching
materials, make sure that students can see the pictures. Additional questions may be
asked at the end of each lesson after students’ presentation of the findings as well as
the conclusion.

Since some locomotion that are identified among organisms particularly people, further
questions for hearing what can be done to such kind of organisms might be asked for
promoting peace and values.

Teachers’ Guide 229

14.4 Guidance on the introductory activity
Give an assumption to students as provided in student textbook. Ask them to do the
following reflect or brainstorm on the following questions:

•• Brainstorm / reflect how an animal would look like without skeleton.

•• Predict what will happen if an animal could not move due to lack of skeleton.
•• Express their ideas after giving them time to think.
Appreciate their ideas/ thoughts. Inform students that by studying this unit, they will
be aware about to appreciate need for locomotion, distinguish different types of
locomotion depending to animals and their habitat and then appreciate locomotion
and support.

Expected students’ feedback

Without that skeleton, animal would look strange and funny. It would even be incapable
to move and may even die. Body shape, protection of internal organs, support of the
body, production of red blood cells and storage of the calcium are possible with skeletal
system.

Can you then think on the role of skeleton and muscles in living organisms?

In animals, skeleton as a framework plays important role in all animals. Without that
skeleton, animal would look crazy and funny, and not even capable to move. Thus,
apart from ensuring locomotion, skeleton:

•• Gives the body shape by forming a frame on which the internal organs are suspended
and kept in position.
•• In higher chordates, the skeleton is responsible for other important functions such
as protection whereby the skeleton encloses delicate organs like the heart and lungs
(this is done by the ribs), spinal cord (by vertebrae), brain (by skull) etc.
•• It also supports organism and this is mainly done by the vertebral column, pectoral
and pelvic girdles, and limb bones for example.
•• Skeleton system plays the role in production of red and white blood cells (by marrow
in leg bones and ribs).
•• The skeleton provides storage for calcium and phosphate which may be added to
the blood when needed.

230 Teachers’ Guide

14.5 List of Lessons

Lesson title Learning objectives Nmber

of
periods
1 Need for •• Explain how support structures are related to the 2
locomotion environment of the animal.
•• Observe locomotion of animals and identify
reasons for their movement
•• Appreciate the need for locomotion in animals
•• Recognise that the types of locomotion of
animals depends on their habitat
2 Support and •• Explain non-muscular movement in Amoeba, 3
locomotion in Paramecium, Trypanosoma and Euglena.
non-muscular •• Explain how support structures are related to the
organisms environment of the animal.
3 Support and •• Explain how movements and support of fish are 4
locomotion in brought about in water.
fish •• Explain how support structures are related to the
environment of the animal.
•• Demonstrate the arrangement of muscles in fish.
•• Dissect a fish to observe its swim bladder.
•• Develop research using internet through finding
relations between muscles, joints and musculo-
skeletal in fish.
4 Support and •• Describe support and movement on land 4
locomotion •• Explain how support structures are related to the
on land or environment of the animal.
muscular
•• Observe and explain the relationship between
skeletal basis of
muscles, joints and musculo-skeletal attachments
locomotion
in terrestrial animals.
•• Develop research using internet through finding
relations between muscles, joints and musculo-
skeletal.

Teachers’ Guide 231

 5 Flight/ •• Describe skeletal modification in birds. 4
movement •• Explain how support structures are related to the
through air environment of the animal.
by birds and
•• Observe and explain the relationship between
insects
muscles, joints and musculo-skeletal attachments
in birds.
•• Compare the flight of birds and insects.
•• Develop research using internet through finding
relations between muscles joints and musculo-
skeletal.
6 Comparison •• Observe and explain the relationship between 2
of jumping muscles, joints and musculo-skeletal
movements of attachments in insects and amphibians.
grasshoppers •• Compare the jumping movement of grasshoppers
and toads and toads/frogs.
•• Develop research using internet through finding
relations between muscles joints and musculo-
skeletal.
7 Assessment •• Explain and demonstrate modes of locomotion 2
in protists, insects, fish, amphibians, birds, and
mammals.

Lesson 1: Need for locomotion

This is the first lesson of unit 14 and is a single lesson. This means that it has only one
period (40 Minutes). The first lesson also covers the introduction of the whole unit.

a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

Ask students to state and describe (antagonists) muscles, bones, and joints. Ask
the role of the afore mentioned structures in relation to the functions. Ask them to
predict reasons for the increase in food production.

b)Teaching resources

•• Pictures on charts, textbooks, imaginary specimen

c)Learning activity 14.1

Help learners to develop competencies of this lesson by doing the following:

•• Help students to make groups of not more than six students each,
•• Ask students to refer to their daily experience and then do activity 14.1.

232 Teachers’ Guide

•• After they have worked on the activity 14.1, give opportunity to them so that they
present what they come up with
•• Use students’ findings, challenge students through questions like why do you think
some animals move only on the land while others could not? etc and move towards
the conclusion?
•• Extend the lesson by connecting it to how locomotion is done differently depending
to the animal and its habitat
Answers for activity 14.1

1) Locomotion is the movement from one place to another. It is different from

the movement which is the displacement of part of an organism. Although, all
organisms are characterized by the movement not the location.

2) There are different ways an animal use to move from one place to another.
Those are: hopping in kangaroo, rabbit, and grasshopper for example, flying for
birds and insects in general, swimming for aquatic dwellers such as fish, dolphin.
There are also running, climbing, crawling, jumping, and gliding, gripping and
floating.

3) Locomotion is necessary for: escaping danger fire or predator; look for food,
water and shelter; reproduce or find mates; avoid competition with other animals
of the same or different species; avoid unfavorable condition example migration.

Answers on self-assessment 14.1.

1) Locomotion for animal is the displacement from one place to another.

2) The requirements for locomotion are the skeleton and muscles.

3) Based on their habitat, zebra, antelope and cow run; frog, grasshopper and
kangaroo hop; dragonfly and bee fly; squid, fish, frog and duck swim; snake,
worm and spider craw.

4) Locomotion is necessary because it enables animals to escape danger fire

or predator; look for food, water and shelter; reproduce or find mates; avoid
competition with other animals of the same or different species; avoid unfavorable
condition example migration.

Teachers’ Guide 233

 Lesson 2 : Support and locomotion in non-muscular organisms
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

Start the lesson by asking learners to think about and name animals with muscles and
those without muscles locomotion. Ask them to brainstorm how animals without
muscular movement move about?

b) Teaching resources

Pictures/illustrations of different species, textbook, internet

c) Learning activities 14.2

Help learners to develop competencies of this lesson by doing the following:

•Form
• learning groups by considering the students’ differences
•Observe
• paramecium under microscope under your support/ guide
•Ask
• them to relate their observation to pictures given in the activity 14.2
•From
• the pictures and observations, ask them to produce a cartoon of their
observation and explain what has been produced.
Answers for activity 14.2

A cartoon having pictures like those below is expected to be produced.

•• Amoeba moves by amoeboid locomotion

234 Teachers’ Guide

•• Paramecium moves by cilia or by ciliary mode
•• Euglena and Trypanosoma move by flagellum or flagella
Answers for self-assessment 14.2

1) Answers:

a) Amoeba moves by means of pseudopodia. Those pseudopodia are extended

if it wants to move toward the food for example of when escaping a predator
or when the habitat is not conducing.

b) Having cilia on their cell membrane, Paramecium caudatum is capable to move

by beating their cilia in water.

c) (C&d) Trypanosoma gambiense, Trypanoma vaginalis, and Giardia intestinalis

move by beating flagellum or flagella.

2) Cilia are many structures or extension of the cell membrane whereas as flagella are
in most of cases one or two sometimes three in Giardia intestinalis for example. Both
are functionally the same.

3. A diagramme showing locomotion in amoeba

Lesson 3: Support and locomotion in fish

a)Prerequisites / Revision/Introduction:

Start the lesson by asking whether they have seen a swimming fish or a fish in general.
Ask them to brain storm how a fish swims. From their thoughts, help them to do the
activity 14.3 given in student textbook.

b)Teaching resources

Collected fresh/ live fish, pictures/figures of fishes, and dissecting equipment. Ask them
to do the following activity 14.3

c)Learning activity 14.3

Take students in school laboratory and caution them to take care of their safety and do
the the activity 14.3

•• Guide them on how they observe external parts of fish

•• Guide then on how they observe internal components of the fish
•• Ask them to report their observation through diagramme
•• Ask them to present their work challenge then about:

Teachers’ Guide 235

Answers for activity 14.3

1. Well labelled drawn of fish with its external features particularly fins

2. Dissected fish diagramme showing swim bladder

3. Diagramme showing skeleton system with muscles arrangement

Answers for self-assessment 14.3

1. Swim bladder helps the fish in its locomotion by changing its buoyancy thus the fish
can float at any depth.

2. Illustrate how the arrangements of fish myotomes that contribute to fish locomotion
in water are?

From the above fish, student shows V, W and parallel myotomes using like the above
fish diagramme.

2) Segmental body of fish muscles gives the ability to move in undulatory swimming;

2) The anatomical structures that give rise the direction of a fish and preventing diving
and rolling are pelvic fins.

Lesson 4 : Support and locomotion in terrestrial / land animals

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

Introduce the lesson by providing to students list of different animals (fish, dog, goat,
chicken, cow, duck, and frog) and ask them to identify among the list species which are
capable to move on land and those which are not capable to move on land. For those
moving on the land ask them to brainstorm how do they move?

b) Teaching resources

Pictures / illustrations or photographs, real specimen found in the environment,

students’ textbooks,

236 Teachers’ Guide

 c) Learning activity 14.4

Facilitate learners to develop competencies of this lesson by doing the following:

•• Form groups of not more than six members each,

•• Describe how skeleton and muscles of hind and forelimbs behave during or for the
locomotion of different animals e.g. a dog, chicken, frog and worm is brought about
on land.
•• Show by diagrammes how the relationship between muscles, joints and musculo-
skeletal attachment in mammals, birds, frog and earthworm could be.
Answers for activity 4.4

1.During their locomotion, a limb to move from one place to another, by the action of
muscles and skeleton.

•• For a dog, chicken, and frog; flexor bends a limb by its contraction and extensor
straightens a limb being a forelimb or hind limb.
•• A dog can run as a result of losing its quadrupedal movement whereby the forelimbs
move together, followed by the hind limbs due to the action of flexor and extensor.
•• For a worm; the locomotion is possible by the contraction of its muscles (circular and
longitudinal). Contraction of the circular muscles makes the worm thinner whereas
the contraction of the longitudinal fibres shortens the worm.
2. Diagrammes showing flexor and extensor muscles. And also muscular-skeleton at
the level of bone-muscle junction.

Answers for self-assessment 14.4

1) The main muscles that contribute to locomotion in mammals, amphibians and birds
are flexor and extensor

2) A diagramme showing circular and longitudinal muscles

3) Endoskeleton is found in mammals, birds, amphibians. In earthworm, there is hydro-

skeleton type of skeleton

4) A diagramme showing how flexor muscles contract and bone and then extensor
straightens a bone so that a limb is lifted.

Teachers’ Guide 237

 Lesson 5 : Flight/movement through air by birds and insects
a) Prerequisites/ Revision/ Introduction

Introduce the lesson by asking students to brainstorm how birds and insects move in
air. And ask also the means used by the insects as well as birds in moving in air.

b) Teaching resources

Pictures of birds and insects, real bird and insect specimen, video of flying insect and
bird

c) Learning activity 14.5

•• Help students to do activity 14.5 given in textbook

•• After its completion, invite them to present
•• Use their presentation to conclude the lesson
Answers for activity 14.5

a) Forelimbs are modified into wings show different structures such are keel of
sternum, pectoralis major and minor, coracoid, scapula, humerus, radius and ulna, and
metacarpals. Fused vertebrae of the trunk. Bird bones are hollow which reduce weight
and also there are air sacs attached to the lungs for providing necessary oxygen for
respiration.Addition to the action of flexor and extensor, the contraction of pectoralis
major and relaxation of pectoralis minor move up and down the wings.

b) A diagramme showing the above structures.

c ) Wings are spread or not being closer each other or on the body when atmospheric
pressure reduces and are very closer or not spread when atmospheric pressure
increases.

d) A comparing table of the flight in birds and insects

Answers for self-assessment 14.5

1) Muscles that enable the flight in birds are pectoralis major and minor which
are muscles attached on the sternum.

2) Skeleton contribute to flight by

•• Change in its shape which gives a streamline body shape

•• Forelimbs which are changed into wings. Each forelimb has pectoralis major and
minor on which flight muscles are attached.
•• Bones with empty interiorly

238 Teachers’ Guide

3) Birds are describing to flying by:

•• Modification of limbs particularly forelimbs,

•• Increased number of flight feathers provide a large surface area of wings without
increasing the weight;
•• Large and powerful pectoral muscles
•• Bones of vertebrae are fused
•• Enlarged sternum to provide a large surface area for attachment of the flight
muscles: pectoral muscles
•• Hollowed bones make birds light
•• Streamlined body covered with light feathers.
•• Backward arrangement of features for reducing air resistance

Lesson 6 : Hopping locomotion in grasshoppers and toads

a) Prerequisites/ Revision/ Introduction

Introduce this lesson by asking students to collect fresh specimen of grasshopper and
toads. If not found, provides pictures of grasshoppers and toads. Ask them to observe
them moving and then do activity 14.6 given in student textbook

b) Teaching resources

Pictures of frog, grasshopper, textbooks, live specimen

c) Learning activity 14.6

Ask students to work in group in collecting and analysing the movement of species

•• Ask students to put on a cemented ground the collected specimen.

•• Ask them to prudently and carefully observe them moving and then answer the
questions given in activity 14.6
•• Ask them to report their observation.
1) Identify and describe anatomic structures that enable them to jump

2) Illustrate how legs’ muscles behave when they are resting and or jumping

Teachers’ Guide 239

Answers for activity 14.6

1. Exoskeleton under which muscles for hopping are located the rear or back
legs of a grasshopper which are long and muscular extensor tibiae muscle which
contracts to extend the leg, and the flexor tibiae muscle which contracts to flex
the leg. Jumping or hopping muscles pull on tendons which are attached to the
tibia on either side of the joint pivot.

2. Illustration should focus on the flexor and extensor muscles whereby some
contracts while others relaxes and thus the shape of a leg may be in Z shape
or not as tibia extends resulting from contraction of extensor muscles and tibia
flexes as a result of relaxation of extensor muscle. At rest or sitting position,
the extensor muscle contracts which enables then the legs jerk or move very
quickly backwards propelling the grasshopper.Similarly, to toads and frogs like
in grasshopper:

•• A frog is at rest; the hind legs are folded up in the shape of a letter Z.
•• When it hops, the legs are quickly straightened out, lifting the animal of the ground.
But toads do not travel as high as far as a frog does at each hop.
•• The fore-limbs are used as shock absorbers on landing and they also support the
front end of the body when the animal is at rest.
Answers for self-assessment 14.6

1. Muscles that contribute to high jumping in a grasshopper are those (extensor and
flexor) of hind legs since they are the ones for jumping.

2. When toads and grasshopper relax flexor muscles contract whereas extensor
relax. When jumping, flexor relaxes whereas extensor contracts.

3. A hind leg showing a Z shape which is different from the one formed when it is
on jump.

14.6 Summary of the unit

This unit consists of six lessons. As described in student textbook, there are in the
following order: need for locomotion, support and locomotion in non-muscular
organisms, support and locomotion in fish, support and locomotion in terrestrial / land
animals, flight/movement through air by birds and insects, and hopping locomotion in
grasshoppers and toads.

In the first lesson, the concept of locomotion is described. In the same lesson, there are
the requirements for locomotion and why locomotion is very necessary. The second
lesson describes the locomotion in amoeba, paramecium, and flagellate animals. The
third lesson describes fish features that enable the movement and support in water.
The fourth describes walking, running and crawling type of locomotion as different

240 Teachers’ Guide

modes of locomotion on land. The fifth is about how animals particularly birds and
insects move in air. The last lesson is about jumping or hopping in toads/ frogs and in
grasshoppers.

For each lesson, introduction, resources, learning activities and self-assessment

questions have been provided. At the end of unit, end of unit assessment tasks are
provided.

14.7 Additional information

For effective facilitation of the learning, skeletal as well as muscular system deep
knowledge and skills as students have developed in unit 10 and 11 of senior one and
two respectively. Furthermore, you need to check knowledge, skills and attitudes and
values that are to be achieved by similar unit in senior six so that you may not go so far
but being limited to the expected unit learning outcomes.

14.8 Answers for End of unit assessment

1. Amoeba moves by means of pseudopodia/ cytoplasmic projections formed by
its cell membrane.

Differently from amoeba, paramecium moves by cilia which are structures on its
cell membrane.

Euglena and trypanosoma move by their flagellum or flagella depending to number

of flagella they possess.

2. A drawing /cartoon showing different fins, scales, and shape of fish as they enable
fish to move from one place to another. Also the one showing swim-bladder and
muscles arrangement is necessary.

3. Fins contribute to locomotion and balance in the following ways:

•• Tail fin increases the amount of water to be displaced as it enlarges area as well as
provides much of the push during swimming.
•• Pair of pectoral and pelvic fins bring about downward and upward movement.
•• Pectoral fins control of direction of a fish in water
•• Pelvic fins bring about the balance, preventing diving and rolling.
•• A single dorsal and anal fins stabilizes the fish and thus preventing it from rolling or
yawing.
4. The movements and support of fish in water occur by: its external features such as
fins; scales, shape; muscles/myotomes arrangement into parallel, V, and W shapes.

5) Diagrammes showing relationship between muscles, joints and musculo-skeletal

attachment in mammals, birds, frog and earthworm.

Teachers’ Guide 241

a) A diagramme showing muscles structures in joints when an animal is at rest or is
moving part of the body. In a human, a diagramme to indicate how muscles/ muscle
fibres look like at the level of kneel when someone. Also show femur as well as tibia
muscles.

b) In bird, show how sternum muscles (pectorals) look like.

c) In frog, show muscles of hind legs.

d) In earthworm, show muscles when earthworm is moving forward or backword.

6) Flexor and extensor muscles work antagonistically to enable the locomotion

on land, water and in air. One contracts (flexor) contracts and then bends a limb
whereas extensor contracts for extending or straightening.

7) The structures that enable flight in air by bird are: wings, sternum muscles, and
shape.

8) Description of how grasshopper and frogs are adapted to jumping:

•• A toad is good at jumping than a grasshopper.

•• Flexor and extensor are attached to the exoskeleton in insects and endoskeleton in
frogs.
•• There are also extensor tibiae muscle which contracts to extends the rear/backleg,
and the flexor tibiae muscle which contracts to flex the leg
•• Those muscles pull on tendons which are attached to the tibia on either side of the
joint pivot.
•• Frogs like grasshoppers hope by means of their hind limbs which are capable to be
shortened and straightened as a result of its jumping muscles. They are different by
having skeleton. And ability one possess over another like moving in water for frogs
and flying in air for grasshoppers.
•• The fore-limbs are used as shock absorbers on landing and they also prop up (to give
support) the front end of the body when the animal is at rest.
9) Advantages of locomotion are:

•• Escape danger fire or predator;

•• Look for food, water and shelter;
•• Reproduce or find mates;
•• Avoid competition with other animals of the same or different species;
•• Avoid overcrowding which enables offspring to move to another place;
•• Avoid unfavorable condition example migration.

242 Teachers’ Guide

14.9 Additional activities

14.9.1 Remedial Activities

1) Differentiate locomotion from movement

Answer:

Movement is the displacement of part of an organism

Locomotion is the displacement of the whole organism from one place to another.

Movement is common to all kind of living

Locomotion is specific to animals

2) What is the function of cilia, flagella and cytoplasmic invaginations, wings, hind
limbs, feathers?

Answer:

They enable the animals that exhibit them to move

3) How do the following animals move about? Cow, kangaroo, dog, grasshopper,
toad, butterfly, Trypanosoma sp., snails, snake, paramecium moves?

Answer:

Cow and dog walk by limbs; kangaroo, grasshopper, and toad hope or jump by hind
legs; Butterfly and grasshopper are adapted to flying by wings; snail and snake crawl,
trypanosoma and paramecium move by flagella and cilia respectively.

4) What are different fins that help a fish to swim?

Answer:

Tail, ventral, pectoral and dorsal fins

5) With examples of organism that exhibit particular type of skeleton, distinguish the
three types of skeleton that supports animals.

Answer:

Hydrostatic skeleton is found in most invertebrates and in annelids. It consists

of fluid filled body cavity surrounded by antagonistic sets of muscles.

Exoskeleton is particular to arthropods insects for example, is a hard cuticle

made of chitin which lies outside the muscles which move parts of it.

Teachers’ Guide 243

 Endoskeleton is characteristic to bony animals. It is on which muscles are
attached.

14.9.2 Consolidated activities

1) Based on different body structures, what does it cause the movement which may
result in locomotion in animals with:

a) Endoskeleton

b) Exoskeleton

c) Hydrostatic skeleton

Answer:

a ) Contraction of muscles bring about movement of their attached bones and finally
to the locomotion.

b) Muscles attached to exoskeleton in part of legs enable the locomotion

c) For animals with hydro skeleton, the movement is brought as result from compressive
contraction action.

2) Based on the table below, put the animals provided here into its respective way
of locomotion: spider, rabbit, mosquito, snake, seahorse, bat, whale, penguin,
worm, goose, and dragonfly.

Swim Hop Fly crawl

Answer:

Swim Hop Fly Crawl

Seahorse Rabbit Bat Snake

Whale Goose Mosquito Worm

Crocodile Penguin dragonfly Spider

Goose

Penguin
14.9.3 Extended activities

1) Draw and label a fish diagramme

244 Teachers’ Guide

Answer: a well labelled diagramme showing fins, scales, shape

2) Describe how major muscles of locomotion contribute to locomotion on land

Answer:

•• Description of flexor and extensor as well as circular and longitudinal muscles in

earthworm.
•• Flexor and extensor muscles work antagonistically to enable the locomotion on
land, water and in air. One contracts (flexor) contracts and then bends a limb
whereas extensor contracts for extending or straightening.
•• There are also extensor tibiae muscle which contracts to extend the rear/back leg,
and the flexor tibiae muscle which contracts to flex the leg.
•• Frogs like grasshoppers hope by means of their hind limbs which are capable to be
shortened and straightened as a result of its jumping muscles.
•• Draw and illustrate how muscles are arranged in a fish
Answer:

3) A diagramme showing muscles arranged in parallel, V, W shape

Teachers’ Guide 245

246 Teachers’ Guide
UNIT 15: CLASSIFICATION AND PATTERNS OF DISEASE
15
15.1 Key unit competence
Describe the social factors that affects good health and apply knowledge gained in
familiar and unfamiliar contexts.
15.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills and attitudes)
In order to succeed well this unit, students should possess knowledge and understanding,
skills and attitudes that are related to classification of diseases, non-infectious diseases
in unit 11 and unit 12 of senior 1 and 2 respectively. They should be also be able to do
observation, analysis, interpretation of the pictures and then capable to present and or
communicate the results.
15.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed
The cross-cutting issues to be addressed by this unit include inclusive and gender
education, and standardized culture.

a) Inclusive education
This unit involves a number of activities on research from different sources and
experiments that require the listening and vision. This may be challenging to students
with special educational needs especially children with visual impairment. However,
the teacher can do the following:
•• Grouping students with special educational needs with others and assigned
roles basing on individual student’s abilities.
•• Providing procedure earlier before the experiment so that students get familiar
with them. They can be written on the chalkboard or printed depending on
available resources. If you have children with low vision remember to print in
appropriate fonts.
•• Every important point is written and spoken. The written points help
students with hearing impairment. Speaking aloud helps students with visual
impairment
•• Remember to repeat the main points of the lessons.

Teachers’ Guide 247

 b) Gender education
•• Involve both girls and boys in all activities: No activity is reserved only to girls
or boys.
•• Teachers should ensure equal participation of both girls and boys during
experiments as well as during cleaning and tidying up related activities after
experiments.

c) Standardization culture
•• Some lessons involve carrying out experiments about diseases. Students will
understand the causes of diseases and also the drugs used to treat them.
Through questions they can develop awareness of the standardized culture
whereby the misuse use of some drugs as well as their state could not treat
diseases. Thus, learners have to always check if they are not using expired
chemicals or defective apparatus.
1.5.4 Guidance on the introductory activity
This introductory activity helps you to engage learners in the classification and patterns
of disease and invite the learners to follow the next lessons.
As facilitator help the learners to develop competences in the following:
•• Ask students to read and discuss the given questions.
•• Engage students in working collectively the activity.
•• Help students with different problems.
•• Ask any four students to present their findings while others are following
•• Help the learners to make summary of the group discussions.
The expected answers
Issues caused by eating without washing hands include diseases such as cholera,
typhoid, amoebic dysentery, etc. They can be prevented by washing hands before
eating, using toilets, not eating food which is not cleaned.

248 Teachers’ Guide

15.5 List of lessons/sub-heading

Number of
Lesson title Learning objectives
periods

Appreciate the importance of germ

Germ theory of theory of disease by showing that
1 diseases the death rate related to infections 1
is greater than those caused by
accidents.

Identify different categories of

disease and give an example of each.

Analyze and interpret records from a

Types of
2 given hospital to identify diseases as
diseases 1
endemic, epidemic or pandemic.

Apply knowledge gained to classify

common diseases.
Explain the theory of the disease and
the causes, sources, transmission,
Common symptoms and controls of the
3 infectious disease. 1
diseases
Discuss how global patterns of
disease are studied.

Health and
4 Explain criteria for good housing
community 1
Explain the organization and
Public health
5 functioning of public health services
services 1
in Rwanda.

Describe the factors that affect good

Assessment 2
health.

Teachers’ Guide 249

 Lesson 1: Germ theory of diseases
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction
This is the first lesson of the fifteenth unit. In this lesson you will be dealing with
works of different scientists like Louis Pasteur, Semmelweiss, Joseph Lister, Antoni
vanLeeuwenhoek and Robert Koch. The first thing to do before starting teaching is to
remind students that they have learnt about infectious diseases, (unit 12, Senior 2), and
ask them to discuss the meaning of some terms used like immunity, antigen, aetiology,
epidemiology, vector, carrier, prevention and antibody when discussing infectious
disease so that they can prepare themselves for this lesson.

b) Teaching resources
Different student’s books, graph charts, simulations and computer animations,
projector, Manila paper with diagrams for improvisation

c) Learning activity 15.1

As facilitator help the learners to develop competences in the following:
•• Ask learners to do in groups activity 15.1 in their student books
•• Provide the necessary materials.
•• Move around in silence to monitor if they are having some problems
•• Remember to assist slow learners but without giving them the knowledge.
•• Invites any three groups to present their findings to the rest of students.
•• Ask other students to follow carefully the representations.
•• Note on chalk board / Manila paper the student’s ideas.
•• Tick the correct findings and correct those ones which are incorrect and try
again to complete those which are incomplete.
•• Harmonize and conclude on the learned knowledge and still engage students
in making that conclusion.

Answers for activity 15.1

1) The cause of death are:

•• Accidents from car crashes and house burning
•• Disasters such as floods,
•• Diseases caused by microorganisms.
•• Drug abuse such as tobacco, alcoholism.

250 Teachers’ Guide

 2) Expected answers:
It is difficult to eradicate malaria because:
•• There is no effective vaccine against malaria
•• The pathogens are transmitted by mosquitoes which are not eradicated.
•• The plasmodium have become resistant to different anti-malarial drugs
•• Ignorance of some people toward the disease and how it is spread.

Answers for self-assessment 15.1

1) Koch’s Postulates
•• Postulate 1: A specific organism must always be observed in association with
the disease.
•• Postulate 2: The organism must be isolated from an infected host and grown
in pure culture in the laboratory.
•• Postulate 3: When the organism from the pure culture is inoculated into a
susceptible host organism, it must cause the disease.
•• Postulate 4: The infectious organism must be re-isolated from the diseased
organism and grown in pure culture.

2) Expected answers:
•• The theory of spontaneous generation was not used to explain how living
organisms’ canaries from non-living matter.
•• When food became covered in microbes, maggots, flies, and rodents: these
organisms were created by and arose from the food itself
•• When the food became covered in microbes, maggots, flies, and rodents: these
organisms were caused by tiny microorganisms invading a host organism.
•• The theory of spontaneous generation was not used to explain why heat and
refrigeration are best for preserving food

Lesson 2: Classification of diseases

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction
This is the second lesson of the fifteenth unit. In this lesson you will be dealing with
Categories of diseases. The first thing to do before starting teaching is to remind
students that they have learnt about infectious diseases and non- infectious diseases
in Senior one and ask them to discuss some disease they remember so that they can
prepare themselves for this lesson.

Teachers’ Guide 251

 b) Teaching resources
Students’ books, graph charts, simulations and computer animations, projector,
Microscope, Manila paper with diagrams for improvisation

c) Learning activity 15.2

As facilitator help the learners to develop competences in the following:
•• Ask students to do in pair activity 15.2 in student’s book.
•• Provide the necessary materials to the learners.
•• Move around in silence to monitor if they are having some problems, sharing
ideas in pair.
•• Encouraging slow learners during activity but without giving them the
knowledge.
•• Invites any three pairs to present their findings to the rest of students.
•• Ask other students to follow carefully the presentations
•• Note on chalk board / Manila paper the student’s ideas.
•• Tick the correct findings and correct those ones which are incorrect and try
again to complete those which are incomplete.
•• Harmonize and conclude on the learned knowledge and still engage students
in making that conclusion.

Answers for activity 15.2

1) There are many different diseases. Students will choose any two by their choice. As
a teacher you would consider any two diseases from students’ answer.
Example:

causal causal
prevention
Disease agents agents symptoms Treatment
methods
name type

Abdominal Use clean

pain drinking water,
vomiting tetracyclinec
Vibrio Proper treatment
Cholera Bacterium
cholera of sewage and
Rapid hloramphenicol
sanitation
dehydration
Vaccination
diarrhea

252 Teachers’ Guide

 fever,
Plasmodium anaemia,
falciparum, nausea, use insecticides,
P. vivax, P. headaches, clean bushes, quinine and
Malaria ovale, P. Protozoa muscle pain, avoid stagnant chloroquine,
malariae shivering, water, sleep doxycycline
sweating, under net,
enlarged
spleen
racking
cough,
coughing
Streptomycin,
Myco- blood,
Tube- chest pain,
Bacterium Vaccination rifampicin,
bacterium shortness
rculosis isoniazid
tuberculosis of breath, antibiotics
fever,
sweating,
weight loss
Proper treatment
Headache,
of sewage and
Muscular
disinfection of
pains, Take Chlora-
water supplies.
Fever, rash,
Salmonella -personal hygiene mphenicol,
Typhoid Bacterium diarrhea
typhus of food. Ampicillin,
mental Ciprofloxin
confusion Control of flies

Vaccination

2) Health includes mental, spiritual, and physical well-being as well as freedom from
disease.

Answers for self-assessment 15.2

1) Expected answers are
a) False b) True c) False d) False e) False
2) Morbidity refers to incidence of disease whereas mortality refers to deaths
associated with the disease.

Teachers’ Guide 253

 Lesson 3: Common infectious diseases
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction
This is the third lesson of the fifteenth unit. In this lesson you will be dealing with
different infectious diseases, their mode of transmission and symptoms, modes of
prevention and treatment. The first thing to do before starting teaching is to remind
students that they have learnt about infectious diseases in senior two, and ask them
to list some infectious diseases and their causal agents they know, so that they can
prepare themselves for this lesson.

b) Teaching resources
Students’ books, graph charts, simulations and computer animations, projector, Manila
paper with diagrams for improvisation

c) Learning activity 15.3

As facilitator help the learners to develop competences in the following:
•• Ask students to do in pair activity 15.3 in student’s book.
•• Provide the necessary materials to the learners.
•• Remember to help the students with disabilities if you have them in your class.
•• Move around in silence to monitor if they are having some problems, sharing
ideas in pair.
•• Encouraging slow learners during activity but without giving them the
knowledge.
•• Invites any three pairs to present their findings to the rest of students.
•• Ask learners to presents their findings to the rest of the classmates by using
computer and projector.
•• Ask other students to follow carefully the representations
•• Note on chalk board / Manila paper the student’s ideas.
•• Tick the correct findings and correct those ones which are incorrect and try
again to complete those which are incomplete.
•• Harmonize and conclude on the learned knowledge and still engage students
in making that conclusion

254 Teachers’ Guide

Answers for activity 15.3
The infectious diseases are: Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, tuberculosis, AIDS, polio,
measles, Ebola, malaria, sleeping sickness, trichomoniasis, candidiasis, athlete’s foot,
ring worms, elephantiasis, bilharzias, syphilis, gonorrhea.
The above diseases are infectious ones because:
•• They are caused by germs
•• They are transmitted from one person to another

Answer for self-assessment 15.3

1) Answer is C
2) Bacteria pass out in faeces of infected person; carried in, water / food, consumed by
uninfected person.
3) Cholera is a serious disease; death can occur very quickly after infection; spreads
quickly in population (especially after a disaster); deaths are avoidable.
4) There is a high death rate from TB in countries with a high proportion of the
population who are HIV-positive because:
•• TB linked with HIV infection
•• HIV weakens immune system
•• TB is an opportunistic disease
5) TB is an opportunistic infection because it strikes many people with a depressed
immunity.
6) A female Anopheles (mosquito) takes a blood meal from an infected person;
transfers parasite / pathogen / Plasmodium, in saliva when takes a blood meal from
an uninfected person.

Lesson 4: Health and community: criteria for good housing

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction
This is the fourth lesson of the unit fifteen. The learners already know different kinds
of diseases and how to fight against them, and you are recommended to help them to
discover the health impacts of housing quality. You will use the learner’s ideas through
group discussion about Rwanda housing conditions and learner’s presentations.

b) Teaching resources
This lesson requires some materials as cited below: Students’ books, simulations and
computer animations, projector, Manila paper with diagrams for improvisation, graph
charts for different houses.

Teachers’ Guide 255

 c) Learning activities 15.4
As facilitator help the learners to develop competences in the following:
•• Tell the learners to move outside the school.
•• Ask learners to observe different houses around the school.
•• Ask learners to compare those houses with ones of the village the come from
•• Supervise the work how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity to
work in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to present what they have discovered.
•• Help learners to summarize what they have learnt.
•• Guide the learners to understand the importance of good housing in promoting
good health

Answers for activity 15.4

1) Different factors of housing quality associated with morbidity
•• Infectious diseases
•• Chronic illnesses
•• Injuries
•• Poor nutrition
•• Mental disorder

Answer for self-assessment 15.4

Measures are taken by Rwanda government to ensure high quality of housing
conditions. To answer this question student might give different ideas. As a teacher,
you can help by giving the following answers:
•• Rwanda government has initiated a good project named “Bye Bye Nyakatsi”
where all Rwandans could participate and get rid of grass thatched houses in
our country.
•• Rwanda government is aiming at constructing the model villages for the
disadvantaged and poor families in different districts countrywide.
•• Construction and rehabilitation of houses are controlled to ensure the high
quality of housing conditions.
•• Shifting people from danger zones not planned for habitation.
•• Prohibition of sleeping with animals especially goats and cows in the same
house
•• Provision of electricity and water in villages

256 Teachers’ Guide

 Lesson 5: Public health services
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction
This is the fifth lesson of the fifteenth unit Classification and patterns of disease. In this
lesson Public health services, you will be dealing with organization and functions of
local state and international health services, food inspection and need for control of
housing conditions, clean water, hygiene. The students already know different kinds
of diseases and how to fight against them, and you are recommended to help them to
discover health impacts of housing quality, clean water, and hygiene. You will use the
learner’s ideas through group discussion about the initiative of Rwanda Government
for Rwandan’s health promotion and assist learner’s presentations.

b) Teaching resources
Students’ books, graph charts, simulations and computer animations, projector, Manila
paper with diagrams for improvisation

c) Learning activity 15.5

As facilitator help the learners to develop competences in the following:
•• Ask students to do in individually activity 15.5 in student’s book.
•• Provide the necessary materials to the learners.
•• Move around in silence to monitor if they are having some problems.
•• Encouraging slow learners during activity but without giving them the
knowledge.
•• Invites any three students to present their findings to the rest of students.
•• Ask other students to follow carefully the representations
•• Note on chalk board / Manila paper the student’s ideas.
•• Tick the correct findings and correct those ones which are incorrect and try
again to complete those which are incomplete.
•• Help learners to harmonize and conclude on the learned knowledge and still
engage students in making that conclusion.

Answer for activity 15.5

1) The main requirements for good production to be inspected:
•• Quantity
•• Packing
•• Labeling
•• Dimension
•• Weight and visual aspects.

Teachers’ Guide 257

2) The ways you can clean water at home are:
•• Use of Sûr–eau
•• Heating water.
•• Using water purification etc.The steps of water purification are:
storage reservoir, aeration, filtration, disinfection, reduction of chlorine
concentration,covered service reservoir, distribution.

Answer for self-assessment 15.5

1) Ways by which a personal cleanliness may be achieved.
•• Hands should always be washed thoroughly with soap before preparing food,
eating and after a visit to a toilet.
•• Hands frequently touch many things which may carry pathogens.
•• Fingernails and toenails should always be kept short and clean so that they do
not provide breeding places for germs.
•• It is essential to bathe frequently. This helps to prevent skin infections. Sweet
and oil secretions on the skin enable bacteria and fungi to breed easily. Bath
towels and sponges should not be shared with other people.
•• Hair should be washed frequently to avoid lice and mites. These can spread
typhus fever. Combs and hairbrushes should not be shared.
•• The spaces between teeth where food particles are trapped provide excellent
breeding grounds for bacteria. Teeth should therefore be cleaned at least
twice a day, preferably after each meal.
•• Cloths must be clean and changed frequently.
•• Shoes should be worn to prevent cuts and infection by hookworms
2) How to promote hygienic food preparation
•• Washing hands while preparing food
•• Proper cleaning of food preparation areas
•• After touching uncooked food and while preparing meals, wash the hands.
•• Refrigeration of foods.
•• Proper disposal of food and packaging
3) Good personal Hygiene
•• Daily washing of the body and hair by using soaps
•• Wash more frequently the hands or face
•• Cleaning of clothes and living places
•• Cover the mouth with hand while sneezing or coughing.

258 Teachers’ Guide

15.6 Summary of the unit
This unit of Classification and pattern of diseases comprises five lessons. Germ theory
states that many diseases are caused by the presence and actions of specific micro-
organisms within the body.Spallanzani and Louis Pasteurobserved germs in the blood
of people suffering fromdisease; they suggested that the germs were an effect of the
disease, rather than the cause.The work of Jenner and Semmelweiss directed doctors
and scientists to think that perhaps infectious diseases were caused by an infectious
agent or ‘germ.’
Louis Pasteur developed the germ theory of disease which postulates that all contagious
and infectious diseases must be caused by pathogenic microorganisms.
Many types of diseases are broadly divided into two categories: Infectious diseases
and Non-infectious diseases.Pathogens can spread when you have direct contact with
an infected person. Pathogens can also be spread in contaminated food, water or air.
Infected animals can spread pathogens to people.The study of patterns of disease and
of the various factors that affect the spread of disease is called epidemiology.
Endemic disease is a disease that is always present in people e.g. malaria in tropical
Africa. Epidemic disease is a disease that spreads rapidly, suddenly, and unexpectedly
to affect many people e.g. cholera in refugees’ camp.
Pandemic disease is a disease that affects people over very large area, such as a
continent or even the whole world e.g. AIDS and TB are pandemic at present. Non-
infectious diseases are also called non-communicable diseases. They are diseases that
cannot be transmitted from one person to another example: albinism, kwashiorkor,
cancer, diabetes, etc.
Housing refers to houses or buildings, accommodation of people. It is an important
determinant of health, and substandard housing is a major public health issue.
For being healthy, only clean water must be used. Different materials are used to clean
water.Health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being
and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity.Exercise, recreation and rest are
other factors apart from hygiene that are important in promoting health.
15.7 Additional Information for teacher
Do your best to be familiar with this unit, you should read different books and search
on internet whenever is available so that can be able to complete some student’s
incomplete findings.
Be creative when you are introducing this unit to help students to engage themselves
in different lessons. We welcome your advices, corrections and questions.

Teachers’ Guide 259

15.8 Answers for end of unit assessment
1) Expected answers are:
a) Germ theory of disease is a theory which states that “many diseases are caused by
the presence and actions of specific micro-organisms within the body.”
b) Any four causes of diseases in our life.
•• Genetic fault that may be passed from parents to children
•• A gradual decline in function often associated with ageing.
•• Drug dependence, often induced by social pressure and social behaviour.
•• Disorder in mind which may or may not have a physical or chemical cause.
•• Under eating or overeating
•• Poor diet lacking one or more essential nutrients.
•• Pathogen like bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi, worms.
•• Drug abuse
2) Any two diseases caused by:
a) Bacteria
•• Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, tuberculosis, etc.
b) Protozoa
•• Malaria, sleeping sickness, trichomoniasis, etc.
c) Microscopic fungi
•• Candidiasis, athlete’s foot, ring worms, etc.
3) Matching the scientists with their Scientific contributions
1------------------------------------>B
2------------------------------------>C
3------------------------------------>A, D and E
4)
a) The vector of malaria is “female Anopheles mosquito”
b) Is D which takes place in red blood cell and C takes place in the hepatic cell (liver?)
c) Any two symptoms of malaria displayed in individual in stage E
•• Fever, anaemia, nausea, headaches, shivering, etc.
5) Malaria is endemic disease in tropics because
•• Tropical climate provides the best breeding and living conditions for the
Anopheles mosquito which transmits malaria

260 Teachers’ Guide

 •• The Anopheles cycle requires areas of stagnant water and these are common
within tropics
•• In the tropical areas there is presence of bushes or abundant vegetation which
makes suitable habitat for mosquitoes
•• Plasmodium needs temperature in excess of 20ᵒC for it to complete its cycle
within the mosquito.
6) The biological factors that make malaria a difficult disease to control.
•• There is no effective vaccine against malaria
•• The pathogens are transmitted by mosquitoes which are not eradicated.
•• The plasmodium have become resistant to different anti-malarial drugs
•• Ignorance of some people toward the disease and how it is spread.
7) The precautions that people can take to avoid catching malaria.
•• Drainage of stagnant water: The larval stages of the mosquito live in stagnant
water, so drainage removes breeding sites. This has had some success.
•• Destruction of the breeding sites of the mosquito: The larvae and pupae of
mosquitoes obtain their oxygen by means of small tubes which are pushed
through the water surface film. Thus any method of blocking these tubes will
result in the death of the intermediate life stages of the mosquito (petrol,
oil….)
•• Destruction of the adult mosquitoes:This is aimed at killing the mosquitoes
that enter houses. Thus, the indoor surfaces are sprayed with a persistent
insecticide.
•• Clean bushes nearest their homes where mosquitoes lay eggs
•• Avoid stagnant water where mosquitoes lay eggs
•• Sleep under net to avoid the bite of mosquitoes during the night
•• Control birth that leads to population growth and this contributes to disease
spread.
8) Ring vaccination is a vaccination of everyone within a certain place of the
outbreak of the disease.

15.9 Additional activities

15.9.1 Remedial Activities:

1) Among scientists you know, who has developed the germ theory of disease
2) Diseases are broadly divided into two categories. What are they?
3) What do you think is a causal agent of cholera?

Teachers’ Guide 261

4) What do understand with Housing?
5) What steps do you use to purify water at home?

Expected answers:
1) Louis Pasteur
2) two categories of diseases are
•• Infectious diseases
•• Non-infectious diseases
3) Vibrio cholerae.
4) Housing refers to houses or buildings, accommodation of people.
5) Storage reservoir, aeration, filtration, disinfection, reduction of chlorine
concentration,covered service reservoir, distribution.

15.9.2 Consolidation activities:

1) Tell about the work of microbiologist Robert Koch on Cholera
2) Differentiate Antibody from Antigen.
3) Comment on inherited diseases
4) Suggest the importance of living in good house
5) In your own words explain how exercise is highly important in the promotion of good
health.

Expected answers:
1) Robert Koch isolated the bacterium Vibrio cholerae which cause a Cholera disease
2) Difference between Antibody and Antigen is:
3) Antibody: is a protein produced by the body’s immune system when it detects
harmful substances called antigen while Antigen is any substance that causes your
immune system to produce antibodies against it.
4) Comment on inherited diseases:
Inherited diseases are caused by a genetic fault that may be passed from parents to
offspring.
5) Importance of living in good house is
•• Prevention of infectious disease
•• Prevention of jiggers attack
•• Prevention of injuries from small animal bites
•• It gives confidence in community

262 Teachers’ Guide

 •• It gives the value in community…
•• Importance of exercise in the promotion of good health:
•• Exercise makes the muscles strong so that they can support the body better.
•• Exercise helps to get rid of excretory materials and to improve digestion.
•• Exercise quickens blood circulation and improves the action of the glands and
nerves.

15.9.3 Extended activities

1) What are contributions of Louis Pasteur in microbiology and medicine?
2) Explain how to calculate the incidence rate and mortality rate.
3) Work on the following question
Observe the figure and answer to the question below.

a) What is this figure presenting?

b) Give the effect of living organism in figure to human body life?
4) Observe the figure 15.7 in student book of Grass thatched houses of house quality
and link it to health problems and personal community consideration
5) Give at least four ways by which the Personal cleanliness may be achieved in Rwanda

Expected answers:
1) Contributions of Louis Pasteur in microbiology and medicine are:
•• The fight against spontaneous generation theory
•• The technique of sterile culturing of microorganisms
•• The technique of fermentation and conservation of drinks. That technique is
known as Pasteurization; by treating drinks (wine and milk) at a brief period
on moderate heating.
•• The technique of antiseptic surgery to prevent contamination of wounds
during the surgical operations in hospitals.

Teachers’ Guide 263

2) How to calculate the incidence rate and mortality rate?

Incidence / morbidity rate = x 100

Mortality rate = x 100

Alternatively, it may be calculated using only those people who have disease.

Mortality rate = x 100

3) Expected answer are:

a) The figure is presenting Salmonella typhus
The effect of Salmonella typhus to human body life is that it causes the disease Typhoid
4) Expected answers:

For health problems, this kind of house may cause the following:
•• Accidents from house damaging and easy burning
•• Infectious diseases like Tuberculosis and Malaria
•• Injuries due to different animals’ bites
•• Mental disorders
•• Jiggers attack…

For community consideration

•• Luck of confidence for those people who live in this kind of house
•• Community does not give value to those people who live in this kind of house
•• Luck of personal and environmental hygiene
•• Community considers people living in this kind of house as a burden to the
society...
5) Ways by which the Personal cleanliness may be achieved are:
•• Hands frequently touch many things which may carry pathogens. They must
be always washed using a soap before preparing food, eating and after a visit
to a toilet.
•• It is essential to bathe frequently because sweat and oil secretions on the skin
enable bacteria and fungi to breed easily. This helps to prevent skin infections.
•• Bath towels and sponges should not be shared with other people
•• Combs and hairbrushes should not be shared.

264 Teachers’ Guide

 •• Hair should be washed frequently to avoid lice and mites. These can spread
typhus fever.
•• Teeth should therefore be cleaned at least twice a day, preferably after each
meal because the spaces between teeth where food particles are trapped
provide excellent breeding grounds for bacteria.
•• Clothes would be clean and changed frequently.
•• Shoes should be worn to prevent cuts and infection by hookworms.
•• Finger nails and toe nails must be always kept short and clean so that they do
not provide breeding places for germs.

Teachers’ Guide 265

UNIT 16: ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
16
16.1 Key unit competence
Explain how diversity is threatened by climate change and human activities.

16.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values)

The learners learnt about asexual reproduction in plants in senior three in unit thirteen.
Create awareness of learners the fact that the content in this unit will help them to
gain knowledge, skills and attitudes that can lead them to career development in
reproductive issues.

16.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed

This unit will address different cross-cutting issues particularly standardization
culture, inclusive education, and gender education. The standardization culture will
be addressed when students will appreciate the utilization of non-expired chemical
reagents in relation to positive or good results of the activities. Emphasize should be
made so that students should always check the date of manufactured and expiration of
chemicals/substances even the food material.

For addressing inclusive education, while students will be conducting learning activities,
instructional information should be given clearly and students with visual or physical
impairment will be involved in learning activities by asking their colleagues who do not
have impairment to perform tasks and asking them to report the results of learning
activities. They can sometimes use their sense organs for identifying the results of
learning activities.

For addressing issue of gender, both boys and girls should share equally responsibilities
in different learning activities and arranging materials in learning activities for proper
conducting learning activities

Teachers’ Guide 267

16.4 Guidance on the introductory activity.
Introduce this unit by challenging students through asking different
questions like:

•• Write on how lower organisms such unicellular plant and another like cassava,
sugar cane and apple reproduce asexually.
•• Difference between sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction
•• Describe the techniques used by people to grow Irish potatoes, cassava and
bananas.
•• Describe each of the following methods of asexual reproduction:
fragmentation, budding and spore formation.
•• Ask them to brainstorm on the above questions so that they can come up with
good results and give room to students so that they may share their thoughts.
Use students’ ideas and then introduce a whole unit.
16.5 List of lessons/sub-heading

Lesson title Learning objectives(from the syllabus Number

including knowledge, skills and attitudes: of
periods
1 Difference Differentiate between asexual and sexual 2
between sexual reproduction.
and asexual
reproduction
2 Types of asexual Describe the various methods of asexual 3
reproduction reproduction: fragmentation, budding, and
spore formation.
Demonstrate asexual reproduction
mechanisms in lower organisms.

3 Advantages and Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of 2

disadvantages asexual reproduction.
of asexual Apply principles of artificial propagation
reproduction in growing varieties of plants that are
economically important.

4 Vegetative Describe the characteristics of vegetative 4

and artificial reproductive parts in a flowering plant.
propagation in
flowering plants

268 Teachers’ Guide

 5 Application Apply the know how to produce economically 3
of artificial important plants.
propagation in
growing improved Appreciate the use of artificial propagation in
varieties of plants increasing crop yields.

6 Assessment: Learners can account for various methods of 2

asexual reproduction as means of increasing
crop yield.

Lesson1: Difference between sexual and asexual reproduction

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

This is the first lesson of unit 16 and is a double period lesson. Before you start this
lesson, you are requested to introduce the whole unit as given in the guidance on the
introductory activity of this unit. Start this lesson by asking students to differentiate
asexual and sexual reproduction, let students give their views. Build on students’ ideas
and then connect to learning activity of this lesson.

b) Teaching resources

•• Illustrations and computer aided materials.

c) Learning activity 16.1

Facilitate learners to do activity 16.1 and develop competencies in this lesson by doing
the following:

•• Ask learners to brainstorm the difference between asexual and sexual

reproduction.
•• Supervise the work how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity to
work in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to make discussion in group.
•• Ask learners to write the summary of the group discussions,
•• Use students’ products and further questions if need for summarizing and
concluding the lesson.
•• Through questions, guide learners to come up with a summary, write it
progressively on the chalkboard or flipchart and ask learners to note it in their
notebooks.
•• Finally, assess the lesson through questions and then invite students to
attempt self- assessment 16.1.

Teachers’ Guide 269

 Answers to the activity 16.1

Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson one) in student book.

Answer for self-assessment 16.1

1. Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction done by a single organism without

production of gametes while sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction in
which two parents are involved, each capable of producing gametes.

2. Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson one) in student book.

Lesson 2: Types of asexual reproduction.

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

Do introduction by asking students to brainstorm on asexual reproduction in lower

organisms and write reports.

b) Teaching resources

Illustrations and computer aided materials.

c) Learning activity 16.2

Facilitate learners to do activity16.2.1 and develop competencies in this lesson by doing

the following:

•• Ask learners to brainstorm the types of asexual reproduction in activity 16.2.1

and activity 16.2.2 on fragmentation method.
•• Supervise the work how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity to
work in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to make discussion in group.
•• Ask learners to write the summary of the group discussions,
•• Use students’ products and further questions if need for summarizing and
concluding the lesson.
•• Through questions, guide learners to come up with a summary, write it
progressively on the chalkboard or flipchart and ask learners to note it in their
notebooks.
•• Finally, assess the lesson through questions and then invite students to
attempt self- assessment 16.2
Answers to the activity 16.2

Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson two) in student book.

270 Teachers’ Guide

Observation and Interpretation of results

Figure 16.1: Asexual reproduction by fragmentation in Spirogyra.

It will be noticed that there is an increase in size of algae. However, the increase is not
uniform. The spirogyra in beaker A and E show the least increase in size. Fastest growth
reflected in size of algae is in beaker B, C and D. One of the factors that control the rate
of growth is the amount of fertilizers in each beaker.

Table 16.1: Rate of growth

Beaker Rate of Reason
growth
A Low The amount on fertilizer was little
B Medium The amount of fertilizers was more than that in beaker A
C High The amount of fertilizers was very high causing abnormal
high rate of growth
D Medium The amount of fertilizers was too much that it altered the
water potential in the beaker to be low. The alga is affect as
its cells loose water to the beaker and end up with inadequate
water.
E Low The amount of fertilizers was too much that it altered the
water potential in the beaker to become very low. The algae
are affected as their cells loose too much water to the beaker
and fail to grow.

It is clearly demonstrated that spirogyra is capable of reproducing asexually by the

fragmentation method. It should also be noted that artificial fertilizers have an effect
on the rate of algae growth. Great care must be taken by farmers to avoid polluting
rivers with excess fertilizers on their far.

Answer for self-assessment 16.2

1) Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson two) in student book.

Teachers’ Guide 271

2) Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction where a new organism grows
from a fragment of the parent. Each fragment develops into a mature, fully grown
individual. Fragmentation is seen in many organisms such as fungi, photosynthetic
algae and plants.

Lesson 3: Advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Through question of revision on the asexual reproduction, do you think on the asexual
reproduction? Build on learners’ ideas and then go to the activity 16.3 given in student
textbook.

b) Teaching resources

•• Illustrations and computer aided materials.

c) Learning activity 16.3

Help students to develop competencies that are related to this lesson you need to
facilitate learners to do activity 16.3 by doing the following:

•• Ask learners to brainstorm on the advantages and disadvantages of asexual

reproduction.
•• Supervise the work how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity to
work in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to make discussion in group.
•• Ask learners to write the summary of the group discussions,
•• Use students’ products and further questions if need for summarizing and
concluding the lesson.
•• Through questions, guide learners to come up with a summary, write it
progressively on the chalkboard or flipchart and ask learners to note it in their
notebooks.
•• Finally, assess the lesson through questions and then invite students to
attempt self- assessment 16.3
Answers for activity 16.3

Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson three) in student book.

Answers for self-assessment 16.3

Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson three) in student book.

272 Teachers’ Guide

 Lesson 4: Vegetative and artificial propagation in flowering plants
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Learners have knowledge about vegetative and artificial propagation in flowering

plants as they have learnt it from senior three in asexual reproduction and ask them
to brainstorm on the asexual reproduction in plants by cuttings and build on learners’
ideas and then go to the activity 16.4 given in student textbook.

b) Teaching resources

Illustrations and computer aided materials, sweet potatoes vines, elephant grass,
sugarcane or cassava stems, secateurs/sharp knife and rooting hormone.

c) Learning activity 16.4

Facilitate learners to do activity16.4 and develop competencies in this lesson by doing

the following:

•• Ask learners to brainstorm on the asexual reproduction in plants by cuttings.

•• Supervise the work how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity to
work in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to make discussion in group.
•• Ask learners to write the summary of the group discussions,
•• Use students’ products and further questions if need for summarizing and
concluding the lesson.
Through questions, guide learners to come up with a summary, write it progressively
on the chalkboard or flipchart and ask learners to note it in their notebooks.

Finally, assess the lesson through questions and then invite students to attempt self-
assessment 16.4.

Answers for activity 16.4

Observation and Interpretation of results

Through using of cassava stems, sugarcane, sweet potatoes planted in moist soil.
After about 13 days, we observe the development of roots and leaves at nodes.

Teachers’ Guide 273

Figure16.2. Asexual reproduction by cuttings in sugar cane

Answers for Self-assessment 16.4

1) Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson four) in student book.

2) The people prefer to grow cassava by cutting rather than germination of s e e d

because of:

•• Many new plants can be produced in a limited space from a few stock plants.
•• It is simple and can be easily applied without having to learn the special
techniques.
•• It is rapid because there is no need to produce rootstocks.
3) Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson four) in student book.

Lesson 5: Application of artificial propagation in growing improved

varieties of plants

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Through question of revision on the asexual reproduction, do you think on the asexual
reproduction? Build on learners’ ideas and then go to the activity 16.5 given in student
textbook.

274 Teachers’ Guide

b) Teaching resources

•• Illustrations and computer aided materials.

c) Learning activity 16.5

Help students to develop competencies that are related to this lesson you need to
facilitate learners to do activity 16.5 by doing the following:

•• Ask learners to brainstorm on the application of artificial propagation in

growing improved varieties of plants.
•• Supervise the work how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity to
work in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to make discussion in group.
•• Ask learners to write the summary of the group discussions,
•• Use students’ products and further questions if need for summarizing and
concluding the lesson.
•• Through questions, guide learners to come up with a summary, write it
progressively on the chalkboard or flipchart and ask learners to note it in their
notebooks.
•• Finally, assess the lesson through questions and then invite students to
attempt self- assessment 16.5
Answers for activity 16.5

Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson five) in student book.

Answers for self-assessment 16.5

Expected answers are under the unit 16 (lesson five) in student book.

16.6 Summary of the unit

Asexual reproduction generates offspring that are genetically identical to a single
parent.There are five common modes of asexual reproduction: fission, budding,
vegetative reproduction,spore formation and fragmentation.Asexual reproduction
needs one parent only while sexual reproduction usually needs two parents, asexual
reproduction depends on mitosis while sexual reproductiondepends on meiosis being
present at some stage in life cycle to prevent chromosome doubling in every generation.
The gametes are produced in asexual reproduction while sexual reproduction gametes
are produced. In asexual reproduction offspring are identical to parent while in sexual
reproduction offspring are not identical to parents. They show genetic variation
as a result of genetic recombination. In asexual reproduction often results in rapid
production of large numbers of offspring while in sexual reproduction there are less
rapid increase in numbers

Teachers’ Guide 275

Important advantages of asexual reproduction include:Rapid population growth. The
disadvantage of asexual reproduction includes the following: asexual reproduction
does not have genetic diversity, there is less variation produced with the offspring,
asexual reproduction usually leads to struggle for existence as well as overcrowding.

Vegetative and artificial propagation in flowering plants occur in cutting, layering

and grafting.Artificial vegetative propagation is usually used in agriculture for the
propagation of those plants which produce either very few seeds or do not produce
viable seeds.

16.7 Additional information

This unit contains more practical activities you are advised to work on before you got to
teach them the students in order to avoid the failure of any activities before students.

16.8 Answers for End of unit assessment 16

i) Answer is C

ii) Answer is D

iii) Answer is B

iv) Answer is B

5) Some plants that are grown by grafting method are the following: mango, apple,
banana, pear, grape, pineapple and peach.

6) Grafting is a horticultural technique whereby tissues of plants are joined so as to

continue their growth together.

8) The potato tubers have nodes or eyes from which the new growth begins. The new
stems growing from each eye are called sprouts which gives rise to the new plant.

9) Cutting method.

10) The names of the different methods of artificial vegetative propagation are the
following: Cutting, Layering and Grafting

11) Vegetative reproduction is a type of asexual reproduction found in plants where

new individuals are formed without the production of seeds or spores by meiosis.
Examples of vegetative reproduction include in strawberry.

16.9 Additional activities

16.9.1 Remedial Activities

1) What is fertilization?

276 Teachers’ Guide

2) List five common modes of asexual reproduction.

3) Define vegetative reproduction.

•• Mention any two disadvantages of vegetative reproduction.

Answers for remedial activities

1) Fertilization is the moment when a sperm and egg join together, and the genes from
the mother and father combine to form a new life. The prize is the egg, which is
released from the ovary and then travels along the fallopian tube to meet the sperm.

2) There are five common modes of asexual reproduction: fission, budding, vegetative
reproduction,spore formation and fragmentation.

3) Vegetative reproduction is the formation of a new individual from any vegetative

partof the plant body.

4) Disadvantages of vegetative reproduction.

i. Year after year same variety is produced. New varieties cannot be produced by this
method.

ii. Since all the plants are genetically alike, they are susceptible to same diseases.

iii. The plants when grown repeatedly may lose vigor.

iv. Undesirable characters get transmitted from one generation to another.

16.9.2 Consolidation activities

1) State at least three differences between asexual and sexual reproduction.

2) Write on the spore formation.

3) Discuss the popular use of grafting.

4) Rose is propagated both by cutting and budding. What are the advantages of these
methods?

Teachers’ Guide 277

Answers for consolidation activities

1 Answer:

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

No gametes are produced Gametes are produced. These are haploid and nuclei
of two gametes fuse (fertilization) to form a diploid
zygote.
Depends on mitosis Depends on meiosis being present at some stage in
life cycle to prevent chromosome doubling in every
generation.
Offspring identical to parent Offspring are not identical to parents. They show
genetic variation as a result of genetic recombination

2) This may look similar to seed formation in flowering plants, but spore production
only occurs in non-flowing plants and in other microscopic organisms. Examples of
such organisms include fungi, green algae, protozoa, and ferns.

3) A popular use of grafting is to produce fruit trees, sometimes with more than one
variety of the same fruit species growing from the same stem. Rootstocks for fruit
trees are either seedlings or propagated by layering.

4) Both cutting and budding are artificial methods of vegetative propagation.

Advantages of cutting

i) is a very simple method.

ii) It takes less time and is less expensive.

Advantages of budding

i) New varieties with desired characters like color or disease-resistance can be obtained
by taking recourse to sexual process.

ii) It can be easily practiced.

16.9.3 Extended activities

i) Explain isogamy.

ii) Distinguish between Stocks from scion.

The diagram below shows one of the methods used in vegetative propagation of plants.
Identify it and write short notes on how it is done.

278 Teachers’ Guide

Differentiate between cutting and grafting.

Answers for extended activities

1) The isogamy is union of structurally similar physiologically different gametes.

2) The stock is the plant of which the root system is taken on while the scion or graft is
the plant of which the shoot is selected

3) Method is layering; Layering is a method of propagating a plant in which a shoot

is fastened down to form roots while still attached to the parent plant. Layering
has evolved as a common means of vegetative propagation of numerous species
in natural environments. Layering is also utilized by horticulturists to propagate
desirable plants. Natural layering typically occurs when a branch touches the ground,
whereupon it produces adventitious roots.

Difference between cutting and grafting

Cutting Grafting

-A single individual is involved. Two different individuals are involved.

Short pieces of stem or root are taken, The root portion (stock) of one plant
cut obliquely at the lower end and attached with the stem portion (scion)
placed in soil. of the other plant; the ends of stock and
scion are cut obliquely, placed face to face
and tied.
-It does not bring about any It is practiced to improve the varieties or
improvement in the subsequent plant. produce disease-resistant plants.
Examples: Coleus rose. Examples: Mango, citrus, apple.

Teachers’ Guide 279

280 Teachers’ Guide
UNIT 17: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
17
17.1 Key unit competence
Describe sexual reproduction in plants.

17.2 Prerequisites
For the successive teaching learning process of this unity, students should have enough
knowledge on plant anatomy. They have also to be well skilled on drawing a plant with
all parts, manipulating the microscope so that they can observe micrographs under the
microscope.

17.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed

The “peace and value education.” It should be integrated in sub-heading including
pollination. As a plant with female flowers needs another plant with male flowers for
pollination and fertilisation, we also need each other.

•• Financial education. This cross-cutting issue should be integrated in the sub-

headings which require observing micrographs under microscope. When
guiding students on how to manipulate the microscope, you should give a
caution of handling them carefully as they are very expensive, and that the
country spends a lot of money to buy them.
•• Gender education. This cross-cutting issue should be integrated in all sub-
headings which will involve formation and working in groups like. When
forming groups for learning activities, when currying out practical activities,
and when cleaning materials used during practical activities: both boys
and girls should participate equally. It should also be integrated where ever
teaching about the pollination and fusion of male and female gametes.
•• Inclusive education. This cross-cutting issue should be integrated in all sub-
headings. When forming groups for learning activities, when currying out
practical activities, and when cleaning materials that have been used during
practical activities: students with disability should be considered and helped
regarding their specific cases: hearing impairment, vision impairment, students
without arms and legs; you the teacher and other students should help them
to achieve the competences as required in all teaching-learning activities.

Teachers’ Guide 281

17.4 Guidance on the introductory activity
•• Provide the chart, books or micrographs with students which show different
flowers containing insects or birds for pollination.
•• Engage students to use resources provided, and work on the introductory
activity.
•• Give students the time to present their findings.
•• Receive answers and ideas from students and summarize them by valuing
students’ contributions.
•• Inform students about the general knowledge, skills and values that they will
get from this unit.
•• The expected answers for introductory activity
•• Students should give answers related to pollination by insects and birds.
•• The pictures are related to reproduction, as they represent flowers and
pollination which are involved in reproduction in flowering plants.
17.5 List of lessons
Number
Lesson title Learning objectives of
periods
Explain alternation of generations
Alternation of generations in in bryophytes and pteridophytes
1 3
bryophytes and pteridophytes

To classify flowers
2 Types and structure of flowers To dissect a flower and a fruit. 2
To appreciate fruits.

Pollination and double Identify pollinating agents

3 fertilization in flowering Describe double fertilization 3
plants.
Classify fruits and seeds
Structures, types of fruits and
4 Describe the structure of seed and 2
seeds
fruit

Fruits and seeds dispersal with Discuss dispersal agents.

their adaptations Explain adaptations of seeds and
5 2
fruits to the mechanisms of their
dispersion
Learners can describe sexual
6 End unit Assessment reproduction in lower organisms 2
and plants.

282 Teachers’ Guide

 Lesson 1: Alternation of generations in bryophytes and pteridophytes
a) Prerequisites

For a successful teaching-learning process of this unity, students should have enough
knowledge on plant anatomy and plant physiology.

b) Teaching resources

The teaching aids or other resources needed include: microscope, prepared slides and
micrographs. You may use also charts, computer, projector and other specific materials
for disabled students. You can also use the students’ text books.

c) Learning activity 17.1

•• Ask students to form groups, and provide learning-materials to be used in the

activity.
•• Ask students in their groups to work on the Activity 17.1from the students’
text books,
•• Monitor how the students are progressing towards the knowledge to be
learned. Boost those who are still behind (but without communicating to
them the knowledge).
•• Move around the class, listening to students as they discuss and looking at
their answers.
•• Correct those which are false, completes those which are incomplete, and
confirms those which correct. Help learners to summarize the lesson (short
notes) and assess the lesson.
d) Answers for activity 17.1

Expected answer is found in the students’ text books, unit 17, and lesson 17.1.

Answers for self-assessment 17.1

1) Alternation of generation is a phenomenon in the plant life cycle in which a diploid

stage a sporophyte alternates with a haploid stage of gametophyte.

2) For fertilization to occur, the sperm of bryophyte must swim to an egg. Without
water, this movement is impossible.

3) The archegonium is special reproductive organs in which eggs are produced, while
antheridium is special reproductive organs in which sperms are produced. These
organs are very important in the life cycle of mosses as they produce gametes which
are involved is sexual cycle of bryophytes.

4) In ferns it is the sporophyte that dominates over the gametophyte

Teachers’ Guide 283

5) Sporophyte is a dominant generation over the sporophyte generation.

6) Gametophyte (haploid) produces eggs and sperms by mitosis, formed from spores,
while sporophyte (diploid) produces spores by meiosis, formed during fertilization
with fusion of egg and sperm.

7) Bryophytes like Liverworts reproduce asexually by producing gemmae, small

multicellular reproductive structures. Gemmae can divide by mitosis to produce a
new individual.

Lesson 2: Types and structure of flowers

a) Prerequisites

For a successful teaching-learning process of this unity, students should have enough
knowledge of the parts of a flowering plant, and their functions.

b) Teaching resources

Student’s books, graph charts, simulations and computer animations, projector, Manila
paper with diagrams for improvisation

c) Learning activity 17.2

•• Ask students to form groups, and provide learning-materials to be used in the

activity.
•• Ask students in their groups to work on the Activity 17.2from the students’
text books,
•• Monitor how the students are progressing towards the knowledge to be
learned. Boost those who are still behind (but without communicating to
them the knowledge).
•• Move around the class, listening to students as they discuss and looking at
their answers.
•• Correct those which are false, completes those which are incomplete, and
confirms those which correct. Help learners to summarize the lesson (short
notes) and assess the lesson.
Answers for activity 17.2

A typical hermaphrodite or bisexual flower contains the following parts:

•• Pedicel: it is the stalk which attaches the flower on the main floral axis.
•• Receptacle: it is the swollen part at the end of the stalk where other parts of
the flower are attached.

284 Teachers’ Guide

 •• The calyx: it is the set of sepals, generally having green colour. They protect
the internal parts of the flower. In some plants, the sepals are coloured and
are called petaloids.
•• The corolla: it is the set of petals, with different colours and nectar glands
that produce sugary substances which participate in attraction of pollinating
agents. In some plants, the petals are green and are called sepaloids. Both
calyx and corolla are collectively called perianth. They are called floral envelope
or accessory organs as they do not participate directly in reproduction, or in
formation of fruits and seeds, they all insure the protection of internal parts
of the flower.
•• Androecium: is the male reproductive organ of the flower. It consists of many
stamens. A stamen consists of: the filament which supports anther, and anther
which contains the pollen grains or male gametes.
•• Gynoecium/pistil: is the female reproductive organ. It consists of many
carpels, and each carpel is made of: stigma (plural: stigmata), style and ovary
with ovules.
i) The stigmata: receive pollen grains from anther during pollination.

ii) Style: supports the stigma in a good position to receive pollen grains.

iii) Ovary: a sac where ovules are produced. Ovules become seeds after
fertilization.

2) A flower is a reproductive organ of a plant, which produces fruits and seeds

3) Expected answer is under the unit 17 (lesson two) in student book.

Answers for self-assessment 17.2

1) The male structures are the stamen (filament and anther), the female structures are
the carpels (ovary, style and stigma).

2) Many flowers together in a single structure might attract more insects, which might
improve chances of pollination.

3) The female gametophyte develops in the ovules, which are contained in the ovary of
the flower.

4) Flowers are reproductive organs that are composed of four kinds of specialized
leaves: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Stamens produce male gametophytes,
and the carpels produce male gametophytes.

Teachers’ Guide 285

 Lesson 3: Pollination and double fertilization in flowering plants
a) Prerequisites

For a successful teaching-learning process of this unity, students should have enough
knowledge of the parts of a flower, and their functions.

b) Teaching resources

Student’s books, graph charts, simulations and computer animations, projector, Manila
paper with diagrams for improvisation

c) Learning activity 17.3

•• Ask students to form groups, and provide learning-materials to be used in the

activity.
•• Ask students in their groups to work on the Activity 17.3 from the students’
text books,
•• Monitor how the students are progressing towards the knowledge to be
learned. Boost those who are still behind (but without communicating to
them the knowledge).
•• Move around the class, listening to students as they discuss and looking at
their answers.
•• Correct those which are false, completes those which are incomplete, and
confirms those which correct. Help learners to summarize the lesson (short
notes) and assess the lesson.
Answers for activity 17.3

1) The main pollinating agents include: insects (entomophily), wind (anemophily), water
(hydrophily), humans (anthropophily), and birds (ornithophily).

2) The process of double fertilization in flowering plants begins when a pollen

grain adheres to the stigma of the carpel, the female reproductive structure of a
flower. The pollen grain then takes in moisture and begins to germinate, forming
a pollen tube that extends down toward the ovary through the style. The growth
of the pollen tube is controlled by the pollen tube nucleus. In the pollen tube, the
generative nucleus divides mitotically into two haploid nuclei which are the male
gamete nuclei. These follow behind the tube nucleus as the pollen tube grows
down the style towards the ovule. The tip of the pollen tube then enters the
ovary and penetrates through the micropyle opening, releasing the two sperms
in the megagametophyte or ovule.

The tube nucleus degenerates, leaving a clear passage for the entry of male
nuclei. One nucleus fertilizes the eggcell to form a diploid zygote (2N), which will
grow into a new plant embryo; the other fuses with polar nuclei to form a triploid

286 Teachers’ Guide

 nucleus (3N), which will grow into a food-rich tissue known as endosperm, which
nourishes the seedling as it grows. This process is described as double fertilisation
and is typical of angiosperms.

Answers for self-assessment 17.3

1) Angiosperms are typically pollinated by animals such as insects, birds and bats
carry pollen from one flower to another as they gather nectar.

2) It is a food rich tissue that nourishes the embryo during germination. It is inside
the embryo sac.

3) Brightly coloured petals attract insects and other animals such as birds to the
reproductive structures of the flower and increase chances of pollination.

4) Double fertilization is means two fertilizations that takes place between the
male and female gametophytes. It may be one of the reasons that explain why
angiosperms have been so successful.

5) Both disintegrate and disappear after fertilization since they do not have any
important role to play.

Lesson 4 :Structures and types of fruits and seeds.

a) Prerequisites

For a successful teaching-learning process of this unity, students should have enough
knowledge of the parts of a flowering plant, their functions.

b) Teaching resources

Student’s gooks, graph charts, simulations and computer animations, projector, Manila
paper with diagrams for improvisation

c) Learning activity 17.4

•• Ask students to form groups, and provide learning-materials to be used in the

activity.
•• Ask students in their groups to work on the activity 17.4 from the students’
text books,
•• Monitor how the students are progressing towards the knowledge to be
learned. Boost those who are still behind (but without communicating to
them the knowledge).
•• Move around the class, listening to students as they discuss and looking at
their answers.

Teachers’ Guide 287

 •• Correct those which are false, completes those which are incomplete, and
confirms those which correct. Help learners to summarize the lesson (short
notes) and assess the lesson.
Answers for activity 17.4

a) The fruit can have a dry pericarp or fleshy pericarp. The fruits with fleshy pericarp
include: berry and drupe. Drupe is a fleshy fruit with only one seed, E. g. avocado.

Berry is a fleshy fruit having many seeds inside of it. E.g. tomatoes, orange, and pawpaw.
The fruits with dry pericarp include indehiscent fruit or dehiscent fruit.

Indehiscent fruits do not open. Seeds remain inside of the fruits. E.g. fruits of coconuts.

Dehiscent fruits open and release seeds.

Self-assessment 17.4

1) Drupe is a fleshy fruit with only one seed, E. g. avocado.

2) Drupe is a fleshy fruit with only one seed, E. g. avocado, while Berry is a fleshy
fruit having many seeds inside of it. E.g. tomatoes, orange, and pawpaw.

3) If ovules in the flower do not develop, the seeds will not develop in the fruit.

4) Seeds dispersed by animals typically have a tough coat and are contained in
fleshy fruits. Seeds dispersed by wind and water typically are lightweight and
may be encased in wing-like structure.

Lesson 5: Fruits and seeds dispersal with their adaptations

a) Prerequisites

For a successful teaching-learning process of this unity, students should have enough
knowledge of the parts and formation of seed and fruits and their functions.

b) Teaching resources

Student’s gooks, graph charts, simulations and computer animations, projector, Manila
paper with diagrams for improvisation

c) Learning activity 17.5

•• Ask students to form groups, and provide learning-materials to be used in the

activity.
•• Ask students in their groups to work on the activity 17.5 from the students’
text books,
•• Monitor how the students are progressing towards the knowledge to be

288 Teachers’ Guide

 learned. Boost those who are still behind (but without communicating to
them the knowledge).
•• Move around the class, listening to students as they discuss and looking at
their answers.
•• Correct those which are false, completes those which are incomplete, and
confirms those which correct. Help learners to summarize the lesson (short
notes) and assess the lesson.
Answer for activity 17.5

a) The main agents of fruits and seed dispersal are wind, water, and animals. Seeds
dispersed by wind or water are typically lightweight, allowing them to be carried in
air or to float on the surface of water. The wind carries also small seeds that have
wing-like structure. Seeds dispersed by animals are typically contained in sweet,
nutritious flesh fruits. They can be carried externally on their feet, fur, feathers, or
beaks. Those seeds with hooks or sticky substances rely on the chance that they
will attach themselves to a passing animal. Other seeds are eaten by animals and
passed out in the faeces.

b) Seeds dispersed by animals are typically contained in sweet, nutritious flesh

fruits. They can be carried externally on their feet, fur, feathers, or beaks. Those
seeds with hooks or sticky substances rely on the chance that they will attach
themselves to a passing animal. Other seeds are eaten by animals and passed out
in the faeces.

Answers for self-assessment 17.5

1) It allows for long-distance dispersal and for germination under ideal conditions.

2) It enables the species to recover after a fire and ensures that seedlings grow in
favorable environment.

3) The dispersal of seeds is important for the survival of the plant species because:

4) It minimises overcrowding of plants growing around the parent plant that could
then result in too much competition for nutrients and light;

5) It allows the plant species to colonise new habitats which can offer suitable
conditions.

17.6 Summary of the unit

This unit: “Sexual reproduction in plants” is divided into five sub-units such as:
Alternation of generations in bryophytes and pteridophytes, types and structure of
flowers, pollination and double fertilization in flowering plants; structures and types of
fruits and seeds, and fruits and seeds dispersal and their adaptations.

Teachers’ Guide 289

The unit deals with investigating the alternation of generations in bryophytes and
pteridophytes which allows knowing stages of lifecycle of bryophytes and ferns and
how they alternate.It helps to describe the structures and types of fruits and seeds.This
unit explains pollination and double fertilization in flowering plants.The unit describes
structures and types of fruits and seeds and this unit talks about fruits and seeds
dispersal and their adaptations.

17.7 Additional information for teachers

The longevity of lifecycle is controlled by phytohormones. The vegetative cycle is
controlled by growth the hormone. When the growth hormone is enough in the plant,
the vegetative cycle will be quick and then alternation of generations becomes also
quick.

17.8 Answers for end of unit assessment 17

1) Answer are:

a) True b) True c) False d) False e) False

2) Answers are: a) iv (Stem) b) ii (carpel) c) ii (fruit)

d) ii (anthers) e) ii (gemmae) f) ii (fruit) g) ii (fronds)

h) i (gametophyte)

3) The seeds of angiosperms, because the seeds are enclosed in fruits, which are eaten
by animals.

4) In seedless plants, the swimming of the male gametes is analogous to pollination in

seed plants.

5) The diploid sporophyte; the gametophyte grows independently of sporophyte. The

young sporophyte grows from the gametophyte.

6) Bryophytes produce sperms that must swim through water to reach the eggs of
others.

7) Bryophytes are limited in size because they lack vascular tissues and therefore can
draw only a few centimeters of water up from the ground by osmosis.

8) Favorable conditions may be short-lived (e.g. in autumn) and dormancy may increase
the chances of germination occurring when there is prolonged period on favorable
conditions (e.g. in spring). Dormancy increases the time during which seeds may be
removed away from parents.

290 Teachers’ Guide

9) The gametophyte is dominant, recognizable stage and is the form that carries out
most of plant’s photosynthesis. The sporophyte depends on gametophyte for water
and nutrients.

10) Bryophytes depend upon the presence of water to complete their life cycle, because
the only way the sperm can reach the egg is to swim through standing water or dew.

11) The dominant stage in the lifecycle of ferns is the diploid sporophyte, which, when
mature consists of roots, underground stems called rhizomes, and fronds, which are
large leaves. On the underground of fronds grow sporangia, which grow in clusters
called sori that release spores.

12) Students’ answers should reflect the concept that angiosperms have protected
seeds and many ways in which the seeds can be dispersed, which increase the
chances of survival.

13) Vascular tissue support a tall plant and curries water and nutrients from the soil
to its upper region. Thus, ferns, which have vascular tissues grow tall, whereas
moss plants cannot grow tall because they lack vascular tissues. Plants require a
method to transport water and nutrients throughout the plant body in order to
survive.

14) Answers are:

a) A= seed coast (testa), B= hypocotyl, C= endosperm (cotyledon).

b) Endosperm or cotyledon is the source of nutrients for a growing seedling.

15) The bright-coloured parts of the flower might attract insects and other animals for
pollination.

16) Endosperm is the stored food supply in angiosperm seeds that nourish the embryo
plant.

17) Fruit could not form on flowers that lack carpels, because fruits develop from the
ovary, which is the part of the carpel.

18) Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma, whereas
fertilization is the fusion of a male gamete with a female gamete.

19) Answers are: A= sepals, B= petals, C= stamen, D= carpel or pistil, E= anther, F=

filament, G= stigma, H= style, I= ovary, J= ovule.B (petals) as brightly coloured
structures they attract insects and birds which can promote pollination.E (anther):
it is where pollen grains are produced.G (stigma): receives pollen grain during
pollination.

20) They all benefit. Bees obtain a food source, and flowers have a mean of pollination.

Teachers’ Guide 291

21) The main advantage of cross-pollination is to increase variation of offspring.

22) Stamens of wind-pollinated flowers have to be exposed to the air, whereas those
of insect-pollinated flowers have to be enclosed so that insects have to brush past
them.

23) Comparison between wind-pollinated and insect-pollinated flowers

Typical wind-pollinated flower Typical insect-pollinated flower

Flower structure relatively simple Complex structural modifications
Small petal not brightly coloured Large coloured petal
Not scented Scented
Nectarines absent Nectarines present
Large branched and feathery stigma Small stigma, sticky to hold pollen and
hanging outside flower to trap pollen enclosed within flower

Stamens hanging outside flower to Stamens enclosed within flower

release pollen
Anthers attached only at midpoints at Anthers fixed at their bases or fused along
tip of filament so that they swing freely their backs to the filaments so that they are
in air current immovable

Large quantities of pollen owing to high Less pollen produced

wastage
Pollen grains relatively light, small and Pollen grains relatively heavy, large and
smooth sticky.

24) Answers are: a) Mediterranean squirting cucumber; b) Sycamore or European

maple;

c) Coconut; d) Mistletoe.

17.9 Additional activities

17.9.1 Remedial Activities:

1) Copy and complete the following sentence, by using the words: asexually,
gametophyte, sporophyte, and sexually In all land plants the …………..
Generation is haploid and produces…………. Whereas the ……………..
Generation is diploid and reproduces

292 Teachers’ Guide

 2) How do the leaves of bryophytes differ from the true leaves of ferns?

3) Which part of the life cycle of ferns is most dependent on water?

4) Differentiate dioecious plants from monoecious plants.

Answers for Remedial activities:

1) In all land plants the gametophyte generation is haploid and reproduces asexually,
whereas the sporophyte generation is diploid and reproduces sexually.

2) Bryophyte leaves are haploid whereas true leaves of ferns are diploid.

3) Gametophyte.

4) Dioecious plants are plants that have male flowers and female flowers on separate
plants (e.g. papaya) whilst monoecious plants are plants that have both male and
female flowers on the same plant (e.g. maize).

17.9.2 Consolidation activities

Why do many angiosperms produce less pollen than conifers?

Name all parts labeled on the diagram below:

1) What is parthenocarpy?

2) Study the diagram below and answer to the question

Teachers’ Guide 293

a) Between A and B; which part is the gametophyte?

b) What name can you give to the remaining part A or B?

Answers for consolidated activities

1) Many angiosperms are insect-pollinated whereas most conifers are wind-pollinated.

2) The answers are: A= nucellus; B= three antipodals, C= polar nuclei/ primary endosperm
cell; D= two synergids; E= funicle; F= placenta; G= micropyle, H= egg cell/ ovum; I=
integuments; J= embryo sac.

3) Parthenocarpy. It is when fruits mature without fertilization?

Answers are: a) A, b) sporophyte.

17.9.3 Extended activities

1) The diagram below represents a pollen grain.

a) Names the parts labelled X, Y, A and B.

b) State any one function of the nucleus A and any one function of the nucleus B.

294 Teachers’ Guide

2) A flowering plant can avoid the self- fertilization by Protogyny or Protandry.
Differentiate between Protogyny and Protandry.

3) With a diagram describe alternation of generations in a moss.

4) With a diagram describe alternation of generations in a fern.

Answers for extended activities

Answers are:

1) X= Intine; Y= exine; A= generative nucleus; B= pollen tube nucleus.

The generative nucleus divides to produce male gametes which fertilise the egg cell
and polar nuclei, while the tube nucleus controls growth of pollen tube.

2) The answer is: Protogyny: it is when female reproductive organs mature before male
reproductive organs, while Protandry is when male reproductive organs mature
before female reproductive organs.

3) Expected answer is under the unit 17 (lesson one) in student book.

4) Expected answer is under the unit 17 (lesson one) in student book.

Teachers’ Guide 295

296 Teachers’ Guide
UNIT 18: MICROBIOLOGY
18
18.1 Key Unit Competence
Describe the structure and characteristics of viruses, bacteria, and fungal and non-
fungal moulds.

18.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills and attitudes)

In order to succeed well this unit, students should possess knowledge and understanding,
skills and attitudes that are related to classification of living things, Classification of
diseases, infectious diseases and non-infectious diseases in Unit 11 and Unit 12 of senior
1 and 2 respectively. They should also be able to do observation, analysis, interpretation
of the pictures and then capable to present and or communicate the results.

18.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed

a) Inclusive education:

Since this unit requires observation and listening, special educational attention should
be done for children with visual and hearing impairment. Thus, you need to:

•• Group students with special educational needs with others and assigned roles
basing on individual student’s abilities.
•• Provide procedure earlier before the experiment so that students get familiar
with them. They can be written on the chalkboard or printed depending on
available resources. If you have children with low vision remember to print in
appropriate fonts.
•• Every important point is written and spoken. The written points help
students with hearing impairment. Speaking aloud helps students with visual
impairment
•• Repeat the main points of the lessons.

Teachers’ Guide 297

b) Gender education

Involve both girls and boys in all activities: No activity is reserved only to girls or boys.

Teachers should ensure equal participation of both girls and boys during experiments
as well as during cleaning and tidying up related activities after experiments.

c) Standardization culture

Some lessons involve carrying out experiments. Instruction should be clear for learners
to always check if they are not using expired chemicals or defective apparatus.

18.4 Guidance on the introductory activity

This introductory activity helps you to engage learners in the introduction of
microbiology and invite the learners to follow the next lessons.

•• Ask students to read and discuss the given questions.

•• Engage students in working collectively the activity.
•• Help students with disabilities or with different problems.
•• Write the summary of the group discussions
•• Ask any four students to present their findings while others are following
The expected answer for introductory activity

Because fresh milk was contaminated by microorganisms such as bacteria and some
fungi.

Food in a saucepan was exposed to harmful microorganisms that made to go bad.

Food in the flask was preserved and prevented from contamination by microbes thus
unaffected.

298 Teachers’ Guide

18.5 List of lessons/sub-heading

Number
Learning objectives (from the syllabus including
Lesson title of
knowledge, skills and attitudes)
periods
1
Explain how and why Archaebacteria are
thought to have been the first forms of life.
Introduction to
Describe the main structural forms of
microbiology 1
Eubacteria.
Explain how harmless bacteria can be changed
into potentially lethal ones.
2
The structure
Describe the structure and lifecycle of
and life cycle of
Escherichia Coli. 1
Escherichia coli
3 The structure
and life cycle of Describe the basic structure of viruses.
viruses Explain how a retrovirus reproduces. 2
Describe how plant viruses can be transmitted.
4
Describe the main features of moulds.
Describe the structure of Mucor hyphae.
Moulds
Explain how Mucor and Rhizopus feed and 3
reproduce.
5
Penicillium and Describe the structure of a yeast cell.
Saccharomyces Explain how Saccharomyces reproduce. 2
6
Describe the structure and life cycle of
Protozoa that
pathogenic protozoa limited to Entamoeba 3
cause disease
hystolitica, Plasmodium and Trypanosoma.

Students can clearly describe the structure and

Assessment characteristics of viruses, bacteria, and fungal 2
and non-fungal moulds.

Teachers’ Guide 299

 Lesson 1: Introduction to microbiology
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

This is the first lesson of the eighteenth unit Microbiology. In this lesson you will be
dealing with microorganisms and their classification. The first thing to do before starting
teaching is to remind students that they have learnt about microbes and infectious
diseases, (unit 12, Senior 2), and ask them to discuss the meaning of some terms used in
microbiology so that they can prepare themselves for this lesson.

b) Teaching resources

Different student’s books, different biology lab materials, graph charts, simulations and
computer animations, projector, Manila paper with diagrams for improvisation.

c) Learning activity 18.1

•• Ask learners to do in groups activity 18.1 in their student books

•• Provide the necessary materials.
•• Move around in silence to see whether they are having some difficulties.
•• Remember to assist slow learners but without giving them the knowledge.
•• Remember to assist students with disabilities.
•• Invites any two groups to present their findings to the rest of students.
•• Ask other students to follow carefully the representations.
•• Note on chalk board / Manila paper the student’s ideas.
•• Tick the correct findings and correct those ones which are incorrect and try
again to complete those which are incomplete.
•• Harmonize and conclude on the learned knowledge and still engage students
in making that conclusion.
Expected answers for activity 18.1.1

Microbiology is the study of microorganisms. Microorganisms are organisms that are

too small to be seen with the naked eye, and usually require a microscope to be seen.
They are also referred to as microbes. They include bacteria, viruses, some fungi and
protists.

Answers for activity 18.1.2

a) Archaebacteria

•• Archaebacteria were first discovered in extreme environments such as

swamps, salt lakes, hot springs. Examples include:

300 Teachers’ Guide

1) Methanogens:

•• They have unique method of harvesting energy by converting H2 and CO2 in

methane.
•• Methanogens can live only in anaerobic condition, such as the bottom of
a swamp, and in sewage where they are the source of marsh gas, because
oxygen is a poison to them.
2) Extreme homophiles:

•• These are salt-loving archaebacteria, live in environment with very high salt
concentration such as the Dead Sea. High salt concentration would kill most
bacteria, but this high concentration is benefic to the growth of extreme
homophiles.
•• These organisms use salt to generate ATP.
3) Thermoacidophiles:

•• This third group of archaebacteria lives in extremely acidic environments that

have extremely high temperature such as hot springs. Thermoacidophiles live
at 110ºC and at a pH of 2.
•• Thermoacidophiles live near volcanic vents on land or near hydrothermal
vents.
b) Eubacteria

They occur in many shapes and sizes and have distinct biochemical and genetic
characteristics.

Most Eubacteria have one of the three basic shapes. Eubacteria that are rod-shaped are
called bacilli, sphere-shaped are called cocci (sing. Coccus) and spiral-shaped are called
spirilla (sing. spirillum).

•• The bacilli: bacteria with rod-shape. For example, Clostridium tetani, Bacillus
subtilis
•• Vibrio: comma-shaped with a single flagellum. E.g.: Vibrio cholera
•• The cocci: bacteria with spherical shapee.g. Streptococci: cocci occur in chains
Staphylococci: grapelike clusters of cocci and Diplococci which is sphere
shaped that are grouped two by two.
•• The spirilla: bacteria with spiral shape. e.g.: Spirillum volutans.

Teachers’ Guide 301

Expected answers for self-assessment 18.1

1) Archaebacteria lack peptidoglycan and their membrane lipids are quite different.
Also, the DNA of key Archaebacterial genes is like those of eukaryotes.

2) They are identified by their shapes, the chemical nature of their cell walls, the ways
they move and the ways they obtain energy.

3) Bacteria are essential to maintaining the living world. Some are producers, others are
decomposers, and others are useful to humans.

4) Cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, DNA, ribosomes, pili and flagella.

5) Some consume organic molecules synthesised by other living organisms while others
make their own food from simple inorganic molecules.

Lesson 2: Structure and life cycle of Escherichia coli

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

This is the second lesson of the eighteenth unit. In this lesson you will be dealing with
E. coli and poisoning of food. The first thing to do before starting teaching is to remind
students what they have seen aboutharmful bacteria and their effects on food spoilage
in Senior one and senior two and ask them to discuss some disease they remember so
that they can prepare themselves for this lesson.

b) Teaching resources

Students’ books, microscope, different kind of food, graph charts, simulations and
computer animations, projector, Manila paper with diagrams for improvisation

c) Learning activity 18.2

•• Ask students to do in pair activity 18.2 in student’s book.

•• Provide the necessary materials to the learners.
•• Move around in silence and see if they sharing ideas in pair.
•• Assist slow learners but without giving them the knowledge.
•• Remember to assist student with disabilities
•• Invites any three pairs to present their findings to the rest of students.
•• Ask other students to follow carefully the representations
•• Note on chalk board / Manila paper the student’s ideas.
•• Tick the correct findings and correct those ones which are incorrect and try
again to complete those which are incomplete.

302 Teachers’ Guide

 •• Harmonize and conclude on the learned knowledge and still engage students
in making that conclusion
Expected answers for activity 18.2.1

Life cycle of E. coli occurs both asexually and sexually. Asexual reproduction occurs by
binary fission and sexually by conjugation. The most prevalent reproduction for E. coli
is asexual reproductions which take place
when the E. coli is undergoing binary fission. This type of reproduction begins with
the replication of one DNA molecule.

Secondly, the copies of the genetic material attach themselves to the cell membrane.

Thirdly, when the bacterium’s size has doubled from its original size, the cell membrane
starts pinching inward.

Fourthly, between the two DNA molecules, a cell wall is produced. Lastly, the cell wall
divides the cell into two daughter cells.

E. coli can also go through a second process of reproduction known as conjugation.

Conjugation is a reproduction process which involves the transferring of genetic
material by the sex pili between two bacteria. Basically, one has to take in consideration
that this is not a sexual reproduction because there is no combination of the gametes.

Expected answers for activity 18.2.2

Evolution of harmful strain: new strain of E. coli evolved into a much more dangerous
organism. The strain acquired a gene that enabled it to produce a powerful toxin which
damages the intestinal wall, causing severe diarrhoea and internal bleeding.

This may lead to internal serious dehydration and in young children and elderly people
may result into death. In majority of the cases, infections of pathogenic strain of E. coli
are not fatal and the disease clears without treatment.

How does E. coli cause food poisoning? E. coli is everywhere in the environment, but
the deadly strain is rare. Nevertheless, it takes only ten or so of the pathogenic E. coli
to infect a person. An outbreak of E. coli food poisoning was traced to drinking fresh
apple juice.

Therefore, touching a source of contamination and not washing hands before handling
food may be enough to cause the infection.

Teachers’ Guide 303

Meat is not the only source of infection. Contaminated person can pass the bacteria
on to vegetables, and other foods. It is therefore, important to practice good hygiene
even if not handling raw meat.

Expected answers for self-assessment 18.2

1) Asexually by binary fission and sexually by conjugation.

2) Bacteriophage gene.

3) Higher than 720c.

4) If food is contaminated by harmful E. coli when handling food unwashed hands.

5) Food can be preserved by: Food storage, packaging, pasteurisation and sterilisation.

Lesson 3: Structure and life cycle of viruses

Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

This is the third lesson of the eighteenth unit. In this lesson you will be dealing with
structure and life cycle of viruses, some common viral diseases, features that make
virus look like living thing, features that make viruses non-living things. The first thing to
do before starting teaching is to remind students that they have learnt about microbes
including viruses in senior one, and ask them to list some diseases caused by viruses
and their causal agents they know, so that they can prepare themselves for this lesson.

b) Teaching resources

Students’ books, graph charts, simulations and computer animations, projector, manila
paper with diagrams for improvisation

c) Learning activity 18.3

•• Ask students to do individually an activity 18.3 in students’ book.

•• Provide the necessary materials to the learners.
•• Remember to help the students with disabilities if you have them in your class.
•• Move around in silence to monitor if they are having some problems.
•• Assist slow learners but without giving them the knowledge.
•• Invites any three learners to present their findings to the rest of students.
•• Ask other students to follow carefully the representations
•• Note on chalk board / Manila paper the student’s ideas.
•• Tick the correct findings and correct those ones which are incorrect and try
again to complete those which are incomplete.

304 Teachers’ Guide

 •• Harmonize and conclude on the learned knowledge and still engage students
in making that conclusion
•• Exploitation of findings after presentation.
•• Analyze and evaluate the students’ findings and tell about those ones which
are not complete, which are correct or incorrect.
•• Together your students make a conclusion.
Expected answers for activity 18.3.1

Structurally, viruses consist of either ribonucleic acid (RNA) or deoxyribonucleic acid

(DNA)-never both plus a protective coat called capsomere made of protein or of protein
combined with lipid or carbohydrate components.

Vibrio, is an entire virus particle, consisting of an outer protein shell called a caspid and
an inner core of nucleic acid (either ribonucleic or deoxyribonucleic acid-RNA or DNA).
The core confers infectivity, and the caspid provides specificity to the virus.

Viruses replicate by using either the lytic cycle or the lysogenic cycle.

Viruses affect humans and plants by causing various diseases including HIV/AIDS, polio,
small pox, measles etc.

Expected answers for activity 18.3.2

•• The lytic cycle consists of five phases:

•• The Bacteriophage first attaches to susceptible bacterium by attaching its tail
fibers to a receptor site.
•• Next the Bacteriophage releases an enzyme that weakens a spot in the cell
wall of the host.
•• Then the phage presses its sheath against the cell and injects its DNA into the
host cell through the weak spot in the cell wall.
•• The Bacteriophage leaves its capsid outside.
•• The virus then takes control of the host’s protein synthesizing mechanisms,
transcribing mRNA from the viral DNA.
•• The resulting Bacteriophage DNA is translated by ribosomes and enzymes
that form Bacteriophage capsid. So the viral DNA is also replicated during this
phase.
•• The replicated viral genes are enclosed in the newly created virus capsid.
•• During the last phase of the lytic cycle, one of the enzymes that are produced
by the Bacteriophage genome causes the host cell to disintegrate, releasing
new Bacteriophage. The cell disintegration is called lysis.
The enveloped viruses, the newly formed viruses move to the cell surface and force
their way through the cell membrane.

Teachers’ Guide 305

Expected answers for activity 18.3.3

Viruses that stay in their host cell for an extended period of time: days, months or years
are in a lysogenic cycle. A virus that replicates through lysogenic cycle and doesn’t kill
the host cell immediately is called a temperate virus. Lysogenic cycle occurs as follows:

Expected answers for activity 18.3.4

Some biologists say that they should be considered as living organisms because they
possess the following features:

•• They have the genetic material composed of either DNA or DNA not but both
at ago.
•• They cause diseases to other living things: All viruses are infectious.
•• They evolve as a result of mutation and natural selection.
•• They reproduce /multiply only in other living things: they are obligate
intracellular parasites.
•• However, some biologists insist that they should be regarded as non-living
things due to the fact that:
•• They cannot metabolize.
•• They crystallize when in isolation.
•• They cannot reproduce outside of host.
•• They are not made of cells. This means that they have a relatively simple non-
cellular organisation.
•• They cannot respond to stimuli
•• They have one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. But living cells contain
both DNA and RNA.

Expected answer for self-assessment 18.3

1) A bacteriophage is a virus that infects bacteria while a prophage is the lysogenic viral
DNA that is embedded in the host’s DNA.

306 Teachers’ Guide

2) A retrovirus is a virus that contains RNA.

3) The strength of the hypothesis is that it explains the observations. One of the
weaknesses is that the viruses could not be seen, so the no direct evidence that they
exist.

4) One characteristic feature common to all viruses is that they enter living cells and,
once inside, they use the machinery of the infected cell to multiply.

5) It is essential because it binds to the surface of the cell and tricks the cell into allowing
it inside. Once inside, the viral genes take over.

6) The best way is prevention. Because once a viral disease has been contracted, it
might be too late, to control the disease.

Lesson 4: Moulds
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

This is the fourth lesson of the unit eighteen. The learners already know two different
types of fungi macroscopic and microscopic fungi in ordinary level biology, you are
recommended to help them to discover the health impacts of moulds. To help, you will
use the learner’s ideas through group discussion about life cycle of different moulds
and learner’s presentations.

b) Teaching resources

This lesson requires some materials as cited below: Students’ books, simulations and
computer animations, projector, Manila paper with diagrams for improvisation, graph
charts for spoiled food.

c) Learning activity 18.4

•• Tell the learners to make research in groups of four members about life cycle
of bread mould.
•• Provide necessary materials for easing the learners’ work
•• Supervise the work how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity to
work in their respective groups.
•• Remember to assist learners with disabilities.
•• Ask learners to present what they have discovered.
•• Help learners to summarize what they have learnt.
•• Guide the learners to understand the importance of checking the expiry date
of bread before taking it in.
•• Together your students make a conclusion

Teachers’ Guide 307

d) Expected answer for activity 18.4

Life cycle of a bread mould

Asexual reproduction takes place, when cells or hyphae break off from a fungus and
begin to grow on their own and sexual reproduction occurs by conjugation as described
in the student book in the activity 18.4.The sexual reproduction involves conjugation. It
occurs as follows:

Two hyphae from different mating types come together, making gametangia. Haploid
gametes produced in the gametangia fuse with gametes of opposite mating type to
form diploid nuclei. A thick wall develops around the nuclei producing zygospores that
may remain dormant for months. When conditions become favorable, the zygospore
germinate, undergo meiosis and develops into a new individual.

Expected answer for self-assessment 18.4

1) The cells of fungi are similar to the exoskeletons of insects in which both contain
chitin.

2) Hyphae are tiny filaments that are only one cell thick while the mycelium is a thick
mass composed of many hyphae tangled together.

3) Spores must land in favorable conditions. There must be a proper combination of

temperature, moisture and food.

4) Fungi are classified according to their structure and method of reproduction.

5) Like ascomycete Penicillium reproduces asexually via conidia.

6) Asexual reproduction takes place, when cells or hyphae break off from a fungus and
begin to grow on their own. Some fungi also produce asexually by spores. Sexual
reproduction in fungi usually involves two different mating types which mate to
form zygote nuclei.

7) Answers may vary. A typical answer might suggest that bacteria and fungi compete
for the same source and fungi evolved a mechanism for killing bacteria.

Lesson 5: Penicillium and Saccharomyces

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction

This is the fifth lesson of the eighteenth unit. In this lesson Penicillium and Saccharomyces,
you will be dealing with Penicillium and antibiotics, the structure of Penicillium, the
students already know different kinds of fungi and you are recommended to help
them to discover the impact Penicillium and Saccharomyces in human life. You will
use the learner’s ideas through group discussion about the impact Penicillium and
Saccharomyces for Rwandan’s health promotion and assist learner’s presentations.

308 Teachers’ Guide

b) Teaching resources

Students’ books, graph charts, simulations and computer animations, projector, manila
paper with diagrams for improvisation

c) Learning activity 18.5

•• Ask students to do in individually activity 18.5 in student’s book.

•• Provide the necessary materials to the learners.
•• Move around in silence to monitor if they are having some problems.
•• Assist slow learners but without giving them the knowledge.
•• Invites any three students to present their findings to the rest of students.
•• Ask other students to follow carefully the representations
•• Note on chalk board / manila paper the student’s ideas.
•• Tick the correct findings and correct those ones which are incorrect and try
again to complete those which are incomplete.
•• Harmonize and conclude on the learned knowledge and still engage students
in making that conclusion
Expected answers for activity 18.5

Structure of Penicillium and yeast cell

2) Saccharomyces cerevisiae can reproduce either asexually or sexually.

•• In asexual reproduction, the single cell divides by budding and separate into
two cells. Some buds group together to form colonies; other separate to grow
individually into a new yeast.
•• In sexual reproduction, two cells fuse to form a diploid cell which then forms
haploid spores by meiosis
3) Budding is a type of asexual reproduction by which the new organism develops from
an outgrowth known as bud through cell division at one particular part.

Teachers’ Guide 309

Expected answer for self-assessment 18.5

1) Features that all yeast cells have in common are:

•• Are all unicellular fungi

•• They can reproduce asexually by budding
•• They can reproduce sexually by fusion of two cells
•• They contain a single nucleus and are usually egg shaped.
•• The hyphae of Penicillium have cross-walls called septa but the ones of Mucor
do not have septa.
3) Evidences for penicillin’s effectiveness according to work of Fleming are:

•• Staphylococcus during experiment has been destroyed by moulds.

•• After studying Staphylococcus closely, Fleming concluded that the Penicillium
mould was producing a substance that killed the Staphylococcus.
•• Penicillin has treated wounded soldiers in Second World War.

Lesson 6: Protozoa that cause disease

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

This is the fifth lesson of the eighteenth unit. In this lesson Protozoa that cause diseases,
you will be dealing withcharacteristics, life cycle, symptoms, prevention of protozoa.
The students already know different kinds of protozoa and you are recommended
to help them to discover using different sources, the diseases caused by Entamoeba
histolytica, plasmodium, and Trypanosoma.You will use the learner’s ideas through
group discussion about the characteristics and life cycle of some of protozoa and assist
learner’s presentations.

b) Teaching resources

Students’ books, prepared slides, graph charts, simulations and computer animations,
projector, Manila paper with diagrams for improvisation.

2) Learning activity 18.6

•• Ask students to do in groups activity 18.6 in student’s book.

•• Provide the necessary materials to the learners.
•• Move around in silence to monitor if they are having some problems.
•• Assist slow learners but without giving them the knowledge.
•• Remember to assist learners with disabilities.
•• Invites any three groups to present their findings to the rest of students.

310 Teachers’ Guide

 •• Ask other students to follow carefully the representations
•• Note on chalk board / Manila paper the student’s ideas.
•• Tick the correct findings and correct those ones which are incorrect and try
again to complete those which are incomplete.
•• Harmonize and conclude on the learned knowledge and still engage students
in making that conclusion
Expected answer for activity 18.6

To answer the activity 18.6 students will be using microscope to observe the structure of
Plasmodium, Entamoeba hystolitica, Trypanosoma structures on prepared slides.Then,
ask them to draw the viewed structure and compare them. Answers from students
will not be similar. Guide them to summarize their observations and come up with the
common consensus.

Expected answers for self assessment 18.6

1) Name causal agent and vector of malaria:

a) Plasmodium spp(P.falciparum, the species that causes falciparum malaria, the

most dangerous type of malaria; P. malariae, the species that causes quartan
malaria; P. ovale, a species found primarily in east and central Africa that causes
ovale malaria; and P. vivax, the species that causes vivax malaria, which tends to
be milder than falciparum malaria.)

b) Female mosquitoes (the vector) belonging to the genus Anopheles.

2) Answers:

a) The vector of malaria is “female Anopheles mosquito”

b) Is D which takes place in red blood cell and C takes place in the hepatic cell (liver?)

c) Any two symptoms of malaria displayed in individual in stage E

d) Fever, anaemia, nausea, headaches, shivering, etc.

18.6 Summary of the unit

Microorganisms are organisms that are too small to be seen with the naked eye, and
usually require a microscope to be seen.Microbiology is the study of microorganisms.
Many microorganisms can be grown in the laboratory. Microorganisms include bacteria,
viruses, some fungi and protists.Taxonomists used to classify all prokaryotes in kingdom
monera, yet they slightly differ in characteristics.

Archaeabacteria were first discovered in extreme environments such as swamps, salt

lakes, hot springs.Most Eubacteria have one of the three basic shapes. Eubacteria that

Teachers’ Guide 311

are rod-shaped are called bacilli, sphere-shaped are called cocci (sing. Coccus) and spiral-
shaped are called spirilla (sing. Spirillum). E. coli is a rod-shaped bacterium measuring
about 2.5µm by 0.5µm. I t is mainly found in guts of vertebrates. It is chemoheterotroph,
capable of thriving on a variety of the organic molecules. Its presence in water indicates
contamination by faeces.In 1996, an outbreak of E. coli food poisoning was traced
to drinking fresh apple juice. The existence of viruses was established in 1892, when
Russian biologist Dmitry Ivanovsky discovered microscopic particles later known as the
tobacco mosaic virus.

Viruses consist of either ribonucleic acid (RNA) or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)-never

both-plus a protective coat called capsomere made of protein or of protein combined
with lipid or carbohydrate components.DNA and RNA viruses differ in the way they use
the host cell’s machinery to produce new viruses. Bacteriophages are viruses that infect
bacteria. Their discovery has increased biologist’s understanding of virus replication.
Viruses replicate by using either the lytic cycle or the lysogenic cycle.

Viral diseases include: Influenza, common cold, measles, mumps, Poliomyelitis and
HIV/AIDS.The sexual reproduction involves conjugation whereas asexual reproduction
occurs by spores.The non-fungal moulds include:bacterial moulds, slime moulds and
water moulds.Spores of Penicillium are exposed and free to be dispersed as they
are mature, but those of Mucor are enclosed in sporangia.Entamoeba histolytica
is a protozoan parasite responsible for a disease called amoebiasis. Commonly
known as African sleeping sickness, human trypanosomiasis is caused by the species
Trypanosomabrucei and is transmitted to humans through either a vector or the blood
of ingested animals.

18.7 Additional Information for teachers

Try your best to be familiar with this unit. Here you should read different books and
search on internet whenever is available so that can be able to complete some student’s
incomplete findings. Be creative when you are introducing this unit to help students
to engage themselves in different lessons. We welcome your advices, corrections and
questions.

18.8 Answers for end of unit assessment 18

1) Diseases caused by:
a) Bacteria: Tuberculosis, typhoid, cholera, tetanus, etc
b) Protozoa: Malaria, trichomoniasis, sleeping sickness, etc
c) Microscopic fungi: Ring worms, Candidiasis, athlete’s foot, etc
2) The main feature of moulds is:
Moulds contain cells arranged in long thread-like filaments known as the hyphae,
that form a mass called Mycelium

312 Teachers’ Guide

 3) Viruses are not generally considered to be living things because:

•• They cannot metabolize

•• They crystallize when in isolation.
•• They cannot reproduce outside of host.
•• They are not made of cells. This means that they have a relatively simple non-
cellular organisation.
•• They cannot respond to stimuli
•• They have one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. But living cells contain
both DNA and RNA.
4) Answers:

a) Names of:

A: Cytoplasm

B: Mesosomes

C: Nucleoid region (DNA)

D: Flagellum

b) Importances of parts B, C and E

Parts Importances

B Respiration

Carries genetic information inherited from past

C
generations

E Protects the inner parts of bacteria

5) Answers

a) Names of the parts HIV virus

A: RNA

B: Reverse transcriptase enzyme

C: Protein coats

D: Glycoprotein

Teachers’ Guide 313

b) Retrovirus is RNA viruses that contain an enzyme called reverse transcriptase in
addition to RNA. Reverse transcriptase uses RNA as a template to make DNA. The
DNA then makes an RNA transcript of itself. This RNA is then translated into proteins
that become part of new viruses. Reverse transcriptase is so given this name because
it reverses the normal process of transcription, in which DNA serves as a template
for producing RNA.

c) White blood cells mainly destroyed by HIV/AIDS are called Helper T cells.

6) The methods of reducing the risk of food poisoning by pathogenic bacteria are:

•• Storage and packaging

•• Pasteurization and sterilization
7) The hyphae of Mucor is called coenocytic because the fungal tissue is not separated
by cell walls.

8) Answer

Trypanosoma brucei

b) Name of the parts:

A: Metacyclic trypomastigote B: Long slender form

C: Short stumpy form D: Procyclic trypomastigote

E: Long epimastigote F: Attached epimastigote

9) Groups of bacteria

a. Bacillus b. Coccus c. Spirillum d. Spirochete

e. Vibrios f. Streptococcus g. Staphylococcus

h. Diplococci i. Chain of bacilli

18.9 Additional activities

18.9.1 Remedial Activities:

1) What do understand with prokaryote?

2) Most Eubacteria have one of the three basic shapes. What are those three shapes
of Eubacteria?

3) Answer the following by true or false

314 Teachers’ Guide

The following is feature that makes viruses non-living things:

a) Viruses crystallize when in isolation.

b) They cause diseases to other living things

c) They are not made of cells.

d) They cannot respond to stimuli

e) They evolve as a result of mutation and natural selection.

4) What do you think are two main types of moulds?

5) Who has discovered the antibody Penicillin?

6) Observe the following figure and answer the questions

a) What is this?

b) Name its vector.

Expected answers

1) Prokaryote is a unicellular organism that lacks a membrane –bound nucleus,

mitochondria and other membrane-bound organelle.

2)Shapes of Eubacteria are:

a) Bacilli: rod-shaped

b) Cocci (sing. Coccus). Sphere-shaped

c) Spirilla: (sing. Spirillum). Spiral-shaped

3) Answers

a) True b) False c) True d) True e) False

Teachers’ Guide 315

4) The two main types of moulds are fungal moulds and non-fungal moulds

5) Penicillin has been discovered by a scientist Sir Alexander Fleming

6) Answers:

a) Structure of Trypanosoma cell

b)Tsetse fly

18.9.2 Consolidation activities:

1) Suggest any three characteristics of prokaryotes

2) Suggest where Archaebacteria are found in environment.

3) Complete the following table of some common viral diseases

Name of disease Cause Signs and symptoms

Influenza
Measles
Poliomyelitis (Polio)
Yellow fever
AIDS
Hepatitis B
4)Suggest any two uses of moulds

5) Explain how scientist Sir Alexander Fleming discovered antibiotics Penicillin.

6)What symptoms can help you to know that a person is suffering from Entamoeba
histolytica?

Expected answers:

1) Characteristics of prokaryotes are:

•• The absence of a membrane around the nuclear materials

•• The absence of clearly defined membrane-limited organelles like mitochondria,
Golgi complex and lysosomes.
•• The genetic material is located on a single chromosome which consists of
circular double strand of DNA
•• The absence of nucleolus and mitotic apparatus
•• Etc.

316 Teachers’ Guide

2) Archaebacteria were first discovered in extreme environments such as
swamps, salt lakes, hot springs

3) Some common viral diseases

Name of disease Cause Signs and symptoms

Influenza Myxovirus (DNA Sudden fever with headache, sore throat
virus) and muscular aches.
Measles A paramyxovirus Occurs mainly in children. Sore throat,
(RNA virus) runny nose, watery eyes, cough and
fever.
Poliomyelitis Poliovirus (a Fever, headache and feeling of stiffness
(Polio) picornavirus) (RNA in neck and other muscles.
virus) Nerve cells to muscles are destroyed
causing paralysis and muscle wasting.
Most cases of paralysis occur in children
aged 4 – 12 years, but adults may be also
affected.
Yellow fever An arbovirus, that is Fever, headache, backache, nausea,
arthropod-borne virus tenderness in pit of stomach. Affects
(RNA virus) lining of blood vessels and liver.
AIDS HIV virus; a retrovirus Loss of appetite, loss of weight, fevers,
(RNA virus) persistent dry cough, …

Hepatitis B DNA virus Infects liver, flu-like symptoms, jaundice,

nausea and severe loss of appetite.

1) Uses of moulds

Even if species of Rhizopus and Mucor are responsible for the spoilage of food, they are
also useful as follow:

•• They are used to make the human foods. For example, Mucor is used with soya
beans to make a cheese called sufu, in eastern Asia.
•• In Indonesia, R. oligosporus and R. oryzae are used to produce a food called
tempeh from boiled skinless soya beans.
•• The fungal moulds belonging to the Zygomycota are used to make anaesthetics,
birth control pills, meat tenderisers, and the yellow colouring agents used in
margarines and butter substitutes.

Teachers’ Guide 317

2) Discovery of penicillium

Penicillin, the first antibiotic has been discovered in 1928 by a scientist Sir Alexander
Fleming when he was culturing some Staphylococcus bacteria during his medical
research. He left some Petri dishes for many days, and after he found a mouldy growth
of Penicillium notatum contaminating a corner of one of dishes. Then Fleming realised
that Staphylococcus next to the mould has been destroyed.

After studying Staphylococcus closely, Fleming concluded that the Penicillium mould
was producing a substance that killed the Staphylococcus. He carried on with finding out
if the broth of Penicillium mould contained penicillin which could destroy pathogenic
bacteria.

3) The symptoms of Entamoeba histolytica are:

•• Gas (flatulence) intermittent

•• constipation loose stools
•• stomach ache
•• Stomach cramping.
Extended activities

1) Compare between Phototrophs and Chemotrophs

2) Distinguish betweenGram-positive and Gram-negative

3) By using the diagram discuss the life cycle of Escherichia coli

4) Using the table, compare between a virus and a living cell.

5) Draw and label the structure of typical yeast cell.

6) Describe the mode of Trypanosoma transmission.

Expected answers

1) Phototrophs are organisms that obtain energy from light but chemotrophs those
organisms that obtain energy from chemicals.

During the Gram staining technique, some bacteria having no a lipid layer along with
their peptidoglycan cell wall take the gram stain and appear violet (purple) and are
therefore called gram positive, while some others having a lipid layer along with their
peptidoglycans cell wall do not take up the gram stain and are therefore called gram
negative

318 Teachers’ Guide

Life cycle of Escherichia coli

4) Comparison between viruses and cells

Characteristics of life Virus Cell

Growth No Yes
Homeostasis No Yes

Metabolism No Yes
Mutation Yes Yes

Nucleic acid DNA or RNA DNA

Reproduction Only within host cell Independently by cell division

Structure Nucleic acid, protein Cytoplasm, cell membrane,

covering and in some cytoskeleton and in eukaryotic
species an envelope cells, organelles.

Teachers’ Guide 319

5) The structure of yeast

6) Mode of transmission of Trypanosoma

The vectors for Trypanosoma cruzi include members of the order Hemiptera, such as
assassin flies, which ingest the amastigote or trymastigote and carry them to animals
or humans.

The parasites enter the human host through mucus membranes in the nose, eye, or
mouth upon release from the insect vectors. Left untreated, Chagas’ disease may cause
dementia, megacolon, and megaesophagus, and damage to the heart muscle, and may
result in death.

320 Teachers’ Guide

UNIT 19: CULTURING MICROORGANISMS

19
19.1 Key unit competence:
Explain the process of culturing microorganisms and the factors affecting their
population growth.

19.2 Prerequisites
Introduce the unit by asking learners identify different groups of microorganisms
studied in the previous unit. It is also necessary for the teacher, to ask learners about
what they recall about how microorganisms reproduce. Ask learners the significance
of microorganisms, what do microorganisms need in order to grow, how do we grow
microorganisms in a lab?

Learners have knowledge of classification of living organisms, basically the prokaryotes

like bacteria as well as eukaryotes such as protists and some microscopic fungi like
yeasts, and knowledge of microorganisms will enable learners to discover a lot about
culturing.

19.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed:

a) Environment and sustainability

Take precautions during culturing to avoid microorganisms harming the form of life
including humans. The attack of such harmful microorganisms can result into death
of living organisms which degrades the environment. As a teacher, you are required
to be creative and innovative enough, in integrating this cross cutting issue since it
applicable in all lessons of this unit for example in the lessons of the role of microbes
in plant and animals. Learners must recognise the significance of plants and animals
in environmental protection. Learners also need to understand their positive roles in
environment and sustainability.

b) Gender

In all lessons of this unit, this cross cutting issue can be integrated. As a teacher your
role is to ensure gender equality in activities you conduct inside and outside the

Teachers’ Guide 321

classroom. Gender can be integrated, for example by mix boys and girls in group work,
while setting tasks and when presenting.

c) Comprehensive sexuality education (HIV/AIDS, STI, Family planning, Gender equality

and reproductive health)

When facilitating a lesson of common bacterial diseases, learners need to be aware

that syphilis and gonorrhoea are STIs and at the same time caused by bacteria.

Lesson of the structure and classification of viruses, integrate in this cross cutting
issue. Link the cause of AIDS which is HIV to this issue and emphasise on preventative
measures. Learners are required to put into practice the preventative measures of HIV/
AIDS and STIs.

Peace and values education

The role of a teacher is to create and promote peace in a learning environment. In lesson
2.2, guide learners to ensure that all living organisms co – exist in harmony. This cross
cutting issue can be integrated at any time in classroom, outside classroom, in school
environment and anywhere in life. Teacher should not be a source of conflicts. Learners
need to appreciate peace and values and advocate for positive behaviour among them.

19.4 Guidance on the introductory activity

This activity is very essential since it captures the attention of learners: As a teacher,
you are required to give such activity because it has the following benefits:

•• It creates curiosity among learners and enhances active learning through

doing.
•• It promotes critical thinking and allows learners to predict the next lesson /
unit.
•• The teacher is encouraged to set clear introductory activity which can give a
general picture of the whole unit if possible.

322 Teachers’ Guide

19.5 List of lessons.

Lesson title Learning objectives Number

of
periods
1 Requirements List and describe the roles of microorganisms and 2
for culturing of their requirements for growth.
microorganisms
Explain the role of environmental variables in
culturing microorganisms.

2 Culture media Describe the different types of culture media. Show 3

perseverance when inoculating a solid and liquid
medium.
Show concern for taking the basic precautions in
the school laboratory when carrying out routine
microbiological work.
3 Aseptic Describe the main features of aseptic techniques. 3
technique.
Explain how pure cultures of pure bacteria can be
obtained.
Describe the methods of inoculation.
Explain how pure cultures of pure bacteria can be
obtained.
4 Population Draw and interpret the graph of the population 3
growth of growth of bacteria.
bacteria
Observe and compare the numbers of bacteria
present in fresh and stale milk.
Carry out research on why microorganisms are
particularly suitable for industrial.
5 Staining of Distinguish between gram negative and gram 2
bacteria and positive bacteria.
growing viruses
Carry out an experiment to stain bacteria for
examination with a light microscope.
6 Assessment: Can clearly explain the process of culturing of 2
microorganisms on different media and investigate
factors affecting their population growth. (2
periods)

Teachers’ Guide 323

 Lesson 1: Requirements for culturing of microorganisms
a) Prerequisite

Start the lesson by asking learners questions such as: what is meant by Microbiology
and microorganisms? How do we classify microorganisms? Why are microorganisms
important? Remember students have studied the five kingdoms of living organisms
and previous unit of microbiology so they are expected to answer correctly the asked
questions. Proceed with the lesson by introducing to them activity 19.1 in learners’ book
as follows:

b) Teaching Resources:

•• Manilas, markers, cards, text books or computer aided materials.

c) Learning activities 19.1

Guide learners to develop competencies of this lesson by doing the following:

•• Ask learners to make groups of not more than five students (depends on
number of students in class).
•• Provide each group with textbooks.
•• Ask learners to brainstorm the requirements for growth of microorganisms.
•• Ask learners to answer questions in activity 19.1, in student’s book following
the arrangement made.
•• Ask learners to present their findings guide them to summarise their findings
and add in any necessary requirement not addressed by learners.
Answers for introductory activity

It is essential to culture microorganisms because they are used for various purposes
for example in pharmaceutical industries to make antibiotics, vaccines and other drugs.
Also are used in food and beer processing industries and for study purpose among
others.

It would be dangerous to incubate cultures at temperatures close to body temperature

- 37°C because doing so might allow the growth of pathogens harmful to health

Answers for learning activity 19.1

Requirements for growth of microorganisms’ essential nutrients such as:

•• Source of carbon, nitrogen, growth factors, mineral salts, source of energy

and water.
•• Environmental variables such as: temperature, pH, oxygen concentration and
ionic and osmotic balance.

324 Teachers’ Guide

Answers for self-assessment 19.1

1) Culturing bacteria is a process of growing bacteria in very large numbers.

2) The conditions necessary for the growth of bacteria include:

•• Optimum temperature (30-400C) for enzymes to work better.

•• Source of energy such as glucose, maltose, juice.
•• Source or other nutrients (minerals such are as potassium, sodium, iron,
magnesium and calcium, vitamins, proteins)
•• Air for aerobic microbes or complete absence of air for anaerobic
microorganisms
3) Culturing is important in manufacture of antibiotics, disinfectants, and can be
investigated using cultures of microorganisms their populations that have been
grown for a purpose. It is important that the cultures are uncontaminated by other
microorganisms, so sterile conditions are needed:

4) It would be dangerous to incubate cultures at temperatures close to body temperature

- 37°C because doing so might allow the growth of pathogens harmful to health. So
the maximum temperature used in school and college labs is 25°C. However, higher
temperatures can be used industrially, and these produce faster growth.

Lesson 2: Culture media

a) Pre-requisite/ revision/ introduction.

Start the lesson by asking learners to explain what is meant by the term culture
media? How do you grow microorganisms in a school lab? Proceed to the next step by
introducing activity 19.2.

b) Teaching Resources:

•• text books, flip charts, markers, question papers. Alternatives are: computers
and projectors.
c) Learning activity 19.2

•• Provide learners with text books and guide them to brainstormsteps taken
during culturing and different forms of media.
•• Ask each group to display and present their findings.
•• The teacher evaluates learners’ presentations by asking them to explain each.
•• Extend the lesson by clearly highlighting the solid media, liquid media,
enrichment media and selective media.
Answers for activity 19.2

Teachers’ Guide 325

Solid medium: solid media are particularly suitable for bacteria and fungi and are
prepared by mixing the liquid nutrient solution with a getting agent, usually agar, at a
concentration of about 1-2%, thus, producing nutrient agar.

Liquid media: liquid media are often useful for measuring population growth. They may
be placed in a test tube, stopped by a plug of cotton wool or a metal cap, or in a glass,
screw-crapped bottle such as a universal bottle which holds about 25cm2 enough for
one agar plate.

Enrichment media: an enrichment medium is a medium in which substances are added

to meet the requirements of which substances are added to meet the requirements of
certain microorganisms in preference to others.

A selective medium: it is one in which one or more substances are added which inhibit
the growth of all but one or few organizing.

Answers for Self-assessment 19.2

1) Prepare a medium is free from any nitrogen-containing compounds but which

contains all other nutrients needed for growth. Inoculate the soil, place in contact
with nitrogen and incubate under sterile conditions. The only organisms which
will be able to grow and multiply will be nitrogen fixers.

2) Nutrient agar is a nutrient jelly like substance on which many microorganisms are
cultured.

3) Liquid Media is a sterilized media useful for measuring population growth while
enrichment media is a medium in which substances are added to meet the
requirements of certain microorganisms in preference to others.

Lesson 3: Aseptic technique

a) Prerequisite

This is a practical based lesson and as a teacher, you need to down load video, you
tube clips for learners to follow the steps well. Guide learners throughout in order to
develop and acquire knowledge and skills as well as attitudes and values. In addition
to sterilizing and media, great care is taken by learners to ensure that they are not
infected by the bacteria under investigation.

b) Teaching Resources

•• Video clips of aseptic and spread plate techniques, textbooks, flip charts and
markers

326 Teachers’ Guide

c) Learning activity 19.3

•• Ask learners to watch the provided videos of aseptic and spread plate
techniques.
•• Ask learners to summarize their observations.
•• Ask learners to analyse their findings and present
•• Help learners to summarize their findings.
•• Proceed the lesson by clearly explaining methods of inoculation.
Answers for activity 19.3

Procedures for culturing fungi

•• Aseptically, with a pair of forceps, place a sheet of sterile filter paper in a Petri
dish.
•• Place a sterile U-shaped glass rod on the filter paper. (Rod can be sterilized by
flaming, if held by forceps.)
•• Pour enough sterile water (about 4 ml) on filter paper to completely moisten
it.
•• With forceps, place a sterile slide on the U-shaped rod
•• Gently flame a scalpel to sterilize, and cut a 5 mm square block of the
medium from the plate of Sabouraud’s agar or Emmons’ medium.
•• Pick up the block of agar by inserting the scalpel and carefully transfer this
block aseptically to the centre of the slide.
•• Inoculate four sides of the agar square with spores or mycelia fragments of
the fungus to be examined. Be sure to flame and cool the loop prior to picking
up spores.
•• Aseptically, place a sterile cover glass on the upper surface of the agar cube.
•• Place the cover on the Petri dish and incubate at room temperature for 48
hours.
•• After 48 hours, examine the slide under low power. If growth has
occurred there will be growth of hyphae and production of spores.
If growth is inadequate and spores are not evident, allow the mold to grow
for another 24- 48 hours before making the stained slides.
•• Place a drop of lactophenol cotton blue stain on a clean microscope slide.
•• Remove the cover glass from the slide culture and discard the block of agar.
•• Add a drop of 95% ethanol to the hyphae on the cover glass. As soon as
most of the alcohol has evaporated place the cover glass, mold side down,
on the drop of lactophenol cotton blue stain on the slide. Examine the slide
under microscope

Teachers’ Guide 327

Answers for activity 19.3.1

Petri dishes1and 3 contains more colonies of bacteria than Petri dishes 2 and 4. This is
because in Petri dishes 2 and 4, bacteria were strongly destroyed or killed by heating
them.

The dishes where sealed to prevent microorganisms from air to contaminate the
cultures or microbes in the culture from escaping. The experiment was controlledat 25
˚C which isoptimum temperature for the growth of bacteria (microorganisms) in the
culture. Remember the experiment is controlled below normal body temperature for
safety reasons. They should be placed upside down to prevent condensation falling
onto the cultures.

Answers for activity 19.3.2

•• Yeast releases digestive enzymes which allow the transformation of glucose

into ethanol as result of anaerobic fermentation.
•• Alcoholic fermentation depends on a process known as malting.
•• You soak barley grains in water and keep them. As germination begins,
enzymes break down the starch in the barley grains into a sugary solution.
•• You then extract a solution produced by malting and use it as an energy source
for the yeast.
•• The yeast and sugar solution mixture is then fermented to produce alcohol.
•• Hops are added at this stage to give flavour.
•• The beer is given time to clear and develops its flavour fully before it is put in
bottles to be sold.
Answers for self-assessment 19.3

1) A 2) A 3) A 4) C 5) A

Lesson 4 Population growth of bacteria

a) Prerequisite

Start the lesson by asking learners questions like: How do bacteria grow? Ask students
to interpret the graphs. Learners can use the knowledge of population growth curves
studied in the previous units.

b) Teaching resources:

•• Textbooks, flip charts, charts of graphs and markers, simulations, computers.

328 Teachers’ Guide

Learning Activity 19.4

Guide learners to form groups of four each (you can consider the size of the class and
available resources).

Provide learners with text books or data or graphs of bacteria.

Ask learners to present and guide them to summarize their presentations and evaluate
them

After summarizing their presentations proceed with the lesson by explaining deeply
each phase.

Answers for activity 19.4

The graph showing population growth of bacteria.

•• The lag phase (a): period of adaptation of microorganisms to the new habitat
thus slow growth.
•• The log or exponential phase (b): period of high rate of reproduction thus
rapid growth.
•• The linear phase(c): the rate of reproduction slows down because of limiting
factors. The limiting factors of the growth of a population include the
temperature, the light, the pressure, the space, the amount of nutrients and
metabolic waste products.
•• The stationary phase (d): Stationary phase of plateau-growth slows down.
The population remains constant because the rate of dividing is equal to the
rate of death within the population.

Teachers’ Guide 329

Answers for activity 19.4

•• The fourth and second plates contain many colonies of bacteria due to rapid
growth of bacteria in stale milk. The conditions are suitable since the culture
was incubated at optimum temperature for bacterial growth. The growth was
slower in third and first plate than in the plates with stale milk.
•• Comment: milk become stale due contamination by bacteria which continue
to grow faster provided suitable conditions.
Answers for Self-assessment 19.4

1) The answers:

a) The following is the graph:

b) Banana juice contains glucose which provides necessary energy required in the
process.

c) Temperature and complete absence of oxygen since respires anaerobically.

d) Between 2 and 6, there is slow growth rate due to few yeasts reproducing.
Between 6 and 16, there is exponential growth rate due to high reproduction
and no limiting factors while between 16 and 20 there is stationary growth due to
limiting setting in and at 20, growth is constant then from 20 to 8, there is decline
in number of yeasts due to death.

2) The experiment is labeled as follows: Two agar plates are required, touch one agar
plate with a finger. Display the plates and leave them uncovered for 20 minutes.
Then cover the plates, keep them in a safe place in the classroom. Use a hand lens to
count the number of colonies after 24 and after 48 hours.

330 Teachers’ Guide

 Lesson 5: Staining of bacteria and growing viruses.
a) Prerequisite

Ask learners to identify different stains used in staining bacteria. Learners have prior
knowledge and skills of manipulating a light microscope. Use prepared slides or prepare
and stain bacteria for observation.

b) Teaching resources

•• Text books, microscope, slides, stains of different colors newspapers, journals,

magazines, flip charts and markers, photographs, videos
c) Leaning Activity 19.5

•• Guide learners in their respective groups to use text books and prepare a
presentation on importance of staining bacteria.
•• Ask learners to present in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to summarize their presentations as you evaluate them.
•• Answers for learning activity 19.5
Observation of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria through a light microscope.

Teachers’ Guide 331

Answers for Self-assessment 19.5

1) Match column A with column B in each case.

Gram-positive bacteria Stain red or pink

Gram-negative bacteria Stain blue or purple

Cell culture growing cells under controlled conditions

Spore staining Malachite Green and Safrinin

Differential staining multiple staining reactions are used.

2) The culture of viruses is made more difficult than the culture of bacteria or fungi
because viruses can only grow and multiply inside living cells.

3) Viruses are specific to the cells they infect because they must bind precisely to
proteins on the cell surface in order to penetrate the cytoplasm.

4) A vaccine is a preparation of weakened or killed pathogens while antibiotics are

chemical compounds that are administered to prevent the reproduction and growth
of bacteria.

19.6 Unit summary

Many microorganisms can be grown in the laboratory. Source nutrients include:
minerals such are as potassium, sodium, iron, magnesium and calcium, vitamins,
proteins. Temperature, pH and oxygen concentration are all important for bacterial
growth. A medium is a solid or liquid preparation containing nutrients for the culture
growth of microorganisms, animals. A culture is a collection of microbial cells growing
on or, in a medium.

A medium is a solid or liquid preparation containing cells or plant tissue culture medium.
A microbial culture undergoes four steps namely: Choice of the culture medium cells or
plant tissue cultures, Sterilization of the culture medium and streaking, carrying out a
pure culture.

Pure culture technique is a method of culturing microorganisms in which all of

the individuals in a culture have descended from a simple individual. Sterilization,
inoculation, and incubation are all required during culturing. When bacteria or any
other germs are incubated in a suitable culturing medium, they reproduce by binary
fission and the number of individuals increases.

332 Teachers’ Guide

In positive staining, cells structures take in the stain e.g. methylene blue while in
negative staining. The purpose of staining bacteria is to see, for example, how thick of
a layer of peptidoglycans their cell wall has. The culture of viruses is made more difficult
than the culture of bacteria or fungi because viruses can only grow and multiply inside
living cells.

19.7 Additional Information

•• Help students to develop observation skill by practicing many experiments on
microbiology.
•• Points out those bacteria are almost everywhere in nature, but some few
cause diseases. Make students carry out an experiment to find out where on
the human body are the most bacteria.
•• Ask pairs of students to prepare six Petri dishes of sterile nutrient agar. Have
learners choose one of the pair for investigation. The other learner should use
a separate sterile cotton swab to rub a 2cm area at five different places on the
first learner’s body: fore head, side of nose, cheek, and palm of the hand and
on ankle. For each rubbing the learner should roll the cotton swab over the
agar in one of the dishes and slow the swab away. Have learners, cover the
dishes, label them, and place in an incubator or a warm spot in the room for
48hours. Then have learner pairs observe and compare the growth on each of
the dishes.
•• Ask learners to present their findings to the class. Help learners to develop
writing skills especially scientific articles for example “viruses in the biosphere”.
•• Viruses can be used in the production of vaccines that could eradicate specific
diseases such as measles and polio: genetic engineers can correct genetic
defects by using viruses to carry desirable genes from one cell to another.
•• Harmful aspects: viruses are pathogens and resistant to antibiotics. Viral
diseases that affect humans are described in the students’ book.
19.8 Answers for end of unit assessment 19
The main types of media are:

•• Cultural media
•• Minimal media
•• Selective media
•• Differential media
•• Transport media
•• Indicator media
•• Enriched media

Teachers’ Guide 333

2) Pure culture is a culture containing a growth of a single kind of microorganism
free from other organisms’ e.g. a single species of bacteria.

3) Gram-positive bacteria have a single cell wall layer absorb only the violet primary
stain while Gram-positive bacteria have a thin layer of peptidoglycans which the
red stain that the bacteria appear red.

4) Methods of preventing bacterial growth in food are: sterilization, use of disinfectants,

food storage and food processing.

5) Optimum temperature promotes bacterial growth, raising the temperature higher

may reduce the growth of bacteria and very low temperatures inhibit bacterial
growth.

6) It would not be a good idea because vaccinations prevent infections rather than
attacking and destroying bacteria. The best way would be treating the infection with
strong antibiotics.

7) Bacteria are essential to maintaining life on earth. Some are important producers,
decomposers, nitrogen fixers and others are useful to humans in various ways.

8) Gram –positive bacteria have only one cell membrane, while Gram-negative bacteria
have second outer layer of lipids and carbohydrates. Therefore, Gram-negative
bacteria might more difficult to kill.

9)An experiment to investigate how temperature affects reproduction and growth of

bacteria. The experiment is conducted as follows:

Materials required

•• Glass-marking pencil
•• 3 sterile agar plates
•• Sterile cotton swabs
•• Bacterial culture.
•• Transparent tape.
•• Hand lens.
Procedure:

•• Put on your plastic gloves, use glass- making pencil to label the edges of the
agar plates, “3℃”,”20℃” and “37℃”.
•• Dip a sterile cotton swab in the bacterial culture and wipe it back and forth in
zigzag pattern over the entire surface of the agar on one plate.
•• Cover the plate and seal it with transparent tape. Caution: do not open the

334 Teachers’ Guide

 plates once they have been exposed to air.
•• Repeat step 3 with each plate, using a new sterile swab for each plate.
•• Place the plate labeled 3℃” in a refrigerator. Leave the plate labeled 20℃in a
place designated by the teacher; place the plate labeled 37℃ in an incubator.
Store each plate upside down.
•• Draw a data table to represent the information as follows:
•• Data table of results
Temperature No. of colonies after 24hrs No. of colonies after 48hrs

3℃

20℃

37℃

After 24hours, examine each plate with a hand lens. Bacterial colonies look like small
white or white dots on agar surface, on the table above, record the number of bacterial
colonies on each agar plate. Then return each plate in its former location.

•• After a second period of 24hrs, record in your data table in (a column of 48hrs)
the number of bacterial colonies on each agar plate.
•• Return the agar plates to teacher for safe disposal.
10) Answers for:

a) Aseptic technique is using sterilized equipment and solutions and preventing their
contamination while in use. Sterilization is the removal or destruction of all living
organisms, including spores (inactive structures that enable some bacteria, algae,
fungi and plants to survive through unfavorable periods). Bacterial and fungal
spores are abundant in most environments including laboratories.

b) In simple staining, all the bacteria and structures in general stain the same colour. In
positive staining, cells structures take in the stain e.g. methylene blue while in negative
staining the cells repel the stain and it is taken by the background e.g. Indian ink.

•• Differential staining on the other hand, multiple staining reactions are used
that take advantage of the fact that particular types of microorganisms or
specified structures of microorganism display varied staining reactions that are
readily distinguishable by different colours. The purpose of staining bacteria is
to see, for example, how thick of a layer of peptidoglycans possessed by their
cell wall.
•• Growing viruses: The culture of viruses is made more difficult than the culture
of bacteria or fungi because viruses can only grow and multiply inside living
cells. This can be done by infecting whole organisms such as plants or animals

Teachers’ Guide 335

 but, where possible, cell, tissue cultures are now used. Viruses cannot be
grown in standard microbiological broths or on agar plates; instead they have
to be cultured inside suitable host cells.
11) Microorganisms are particularly suitable for industrial processes for the following
reasons (students should do this question as a research activity and present their
findings after)

•• They have simple nutritional requirements.

•• Their growth conditions can be controlled very precisely in fermenters (large
vessels in which microorganisms are grown).
•• They have fast growth rate.
•• Their reactions can take place at lower temperatures than conventional
industrial procedures hence lower energy costs.
•• They produce higher yields and have higher specificity than conventional
processes
•• With microorganisms, a wide range of chemicals can be used and produced
•• Some complex chemicals such as hormones and antibiotics can be
manufactured which are difficult to produce by other methods and specific
isomers can be produced.
•• The genetics of microorganisms are relatively simple and techniques for
genetic manipulation are continually advancing.
19.9 Additional activities19.

19.1 Remedial activities

1) What are four main types of microorganisms?

2) Why do we culture microorganisms in the lab?

3) Why are bacteria used in yoghurt making?

4) Identify four macro and micronutrients.

Answers for Remedial Activities

a) Microorganisms include the following types: bacteria, viruses, protists such

as protozoa and some fungi like yeasts.

b) For study purpose.

c) They multiply so fast and change milk to yoghurt.

d) Macronutrients include; these are required by microorganisms in

336 Teachers’ Guide

 relatively large amounts. Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen nitrogen, sulfurs
and phosphorous are components of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and
nucleic acids.

19.9.2 Consolidation activities

Most fungi have evolved the ability to produce spores through both sexual and asexual
reproduction. How is this advantageous?

Why are microorganisms a serious problem, to agriculture in tropical regions of the

world than they are in temperate regions?

Consolidation answers

1) With both methods of reproduction, fungi increase their chance of reproducing

in different environmental conditions. Asexual reproduction is adaptive to more
constant, favorable conditions, whereas sexual reproduction is adaptive to those
that are harsh and unstable.

2) Tropical regions are warmer, and have more moisture which is one of the
favorable conditions for growth of microorganisms.

19.9.3 Extension activities

1) The passage below describes how a student grows a culture of microorganisms

on an agar plate. Petri-dishes and culture medium containing agar, carbohydrate,
protein and mineral ions are heated to 120℃ for 15 minutes. The culture medium
is poured into the Petri dishes and left to set. An inoculating wire loop is passed
through a flame until red hot, allowed to cool and then dipped into a container of
microorganisms. The loop is then streaked across the medium in the Petri dish.
The Petri dish is sealed with adhesive tape and incubated at a temperature not
exceeding 25℃. Use the passage to answer the questions that follow:

In each case, give one reason why the following procedures were carried out.

a) Carbohydrate was used in the culture medium.

b) The culture medium and Petri dishes were heated to 120℃ for 15minutes

3) The inoculating wire loop was cooled before being used to transfer microorganisms.

d) The Petri dish was sealed with adhesive tape.

e) The temperature at which the microorganisms are grown was not allowed to
exceed 25℃.

2) Suggest measures you can use to prevent food spoilage by microorganism.

Teachers’ Guide 337

3) An experiment was conducted to determine the effectiveness of different antibiotics
against a certain strain of bacteria. Four disks each soaked in different antibiotic were
placed in Petri dish where the bacteria were growing. The results are summarized
below.

Effects of antibiotics

Antibiotic Observation after one week

A Growth retarded for 6mm diameter
B Growth not retarded
C Growth not retarded
D Growth retarded for 2mm diameter

Which antibiotics were the least effective at retarding the growth of the bacteria?
Explain your answer using data from the experiment.

From the experiment above which antibiotics might be most effective treatments for
an infection caused by this strain of bacteria? Explain your answer using data from the
experiment.

Answers for extension activities

1) Answers

c) To provide the necessary energy.

d) To sterilize the medium

e) To prevent the destruction of bacteria

f) To prevent microorganisms in air from contaminating the culture

g) This greatly reduces chances of pathogens growing which might be harmful

to humans.

2) In order to prevent food spoilage by bacteria at home, we can treat food in the
following ways;

•• Cooking- the heat denatures enzymes and other proteins. This kills bacteria.
•• Pasteurising- this involves heating to 72 degrees celcius for 15seconds and
then cooling.
•• Drying, salting and coating in sugar – these methods dehydrate any bacteria
as water leaves them by osmosis.
•• Smoking- the food develops a hardened, dry outer surface and smoke contains
antibacterial chemicals.

338 Teachers’ Guide

 •• Pickling – this uses an acid pH to kill bacteria by denaturing their enzymes
other proteins.
•• Cooling and freezing- these do not kill bacteria but retard enzyme activity so
their metabolism, growth and reproduction are very slow.
3) Antibiotic B and C were least effective. The growth of the bacteria was not
retarded at all.

Antibiotic A and D would be good treatments because both retarded the growth of the
bacteria.

Teachers’ Guide 339

UNIT 20: BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATION

20
20.1 Key Unit Competence
Explain the biotechnology involved in the production of ethanol, biogas and bread
making

20.2 Prerequisite
The learners learnt about culturing microorganisms such as Bacteria in senior four,
units nineteen. This will help students to develop competences (knowledge, skills and
attitudes) that will help them to use technology in job creation.

20.3 Cross-cutting issues to be addressed

This unit will address different cross-cutting issues particularly standardization
culture, inclusive education, and gender education. The standardization culture will
be addressed when students will appreciate the conception of food and beverages in
relation to positive or good results of the activities. Emphasize should be made so that
students should always check the date of manufactured and expiration of chemicals/
substances, beverages and even the food material.

For addressing inclusive education, while students will be conducting learning activities
and experiments, instructional information should be given clearly and students with
visual or physical impairment will be involved in learning activities and experiments.
They can sometimes use their sense organs for identifying the results and final products
such as breads, and other beverages in learning activities and experiments. Also,
when forming groups for learning activities, when carrying out practical activities,
and when cleaning materials that have been used during practical activities: students
with disability should be considered and helped regarding their specific cases: hearing
impairment, vision impairment, students without arms and legs; you the teacher and
other students should help them to achieve the competences as required in all teaching-
learning activities.

For addressing issue of gender, both boys and girls should share equally responsibilities in
different learning activities and arranging materials and proper hygiene in experiments.

Teachers’ Guide 341

Financial education. This cross-cutting issue should be integrated in the sub-headings
which require observing specimens under microscope. When guiding students on how
to manipulate the microscope, you should give a caution of handling them carefully as
they are very expensive, and that the country spends a lot of money to buy them.

20.4 Guidance on the introductory activity

Introduce this unit by challenging students through asking different questions like:

1) What is the role of microorganisms in biotechnology and genetic

engineering?

2) Can you think on your own understanding on how bread, juice and beer are
made?

3) Why do bacteria become resistant to antibiotics?

4) Make discuss on the biogas production.

Ask them to brainstorm on the above questions so that they can come up with good
results and give room to students so that they may share their thoughts. Use students’
ideas and then introduce a whole unit.

20.5 List of lessons

# Lesson title Learning objectives Number

of
periods
1 Role of bacteria in State that bacteria are useful in 2
Biotechnology and biotechnology and genetic engineering due
genetic engineering. to their rapid reproduction rate and their
ability to make complex molecules.
Discuss why bacteria are useful in
biotechnology and genetic engineering.
Focus on: lack of ethical concerns over
their manipulation and growth, genetic
code shared with all other organisms, and
presence of plasmids.
Show concern for the role of bacteria in
genetic engineering.

342 Teachers’ Guide

2 Immobilization of Investigate and describe the use of pectinase 2
enzymes. Focused on: in fruit juice production and lactase to
use of pectinase in produce lactose-free milk.
fruit juice production,
lactase to produce
lactose-free milk, and
biological washing
powders that
contain enzymes and
biosensors.
3 Application of enzyme Describe the role of anaerobic respiration in 2
technology. yeast during bread-making.
Compare leavened and unleavened bread.
Appreciate the role of anaerobic respiration
in the production of ethanol and in yeast
during bread-making.
4 Fermentation and Explain how fermenters are used in the 2
fermenters and production of penicillin.
production of penicillin Describe the role of the fungus Penicillin in
the production of the antibiotic penicillin.
Interpret and explain graphs showing how
the pH and the concentration of penicillin in
a culture changes over time when the pH is
controlled and not controlled.

5 Antibiotics: Antibiotic Defend the role played by antibiotics in 2

resistance and treatment of bacterial diseases.
implications of
antibiotic use
6 Biogas production Describe the three stages of biogas 2
production and the role of bioreactors in
economically poor rural communities
Apply the knowledge of bioreactors, using
cow dung, agricultural waste and domestic
waste to prepare and produce biogas.
Appreciate the role of biogas production in
reducing the environmental degradation.
7 Assessment: Learners can explain clearly the 2
biotechnology involved in the production of
ethanol, cheese, yogurt, antibiotics, biogas
and bread making

Teachers’ Guide 343

 Lesson 1: Role of bacteria in Biotechnology and genetic engineering.
a) Prerequisites

The learners learnt about culturing microorganisms such as Bacteria in senior four,
units nineteen. This will help students to develop competences (knowledge, skills and
attitudes) taught in this lesson.

b) Teaching resources

•• Online resources, CDs, simulations, diagrams, charts, micrographs and

illustrations and text books
c) Learning activity 20.1

Facilitate learners to do activity 20.1 and develop competencies in this lesson by doing
the following:

•• Ask learners to brainstorm on the role of bacteria in biotechnology and genetic

engineering.
•• Supervise the work how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity to
work in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to make discussion in group.
•• Ask learners to write the summary of the group discussions,
•• Use students’ products and further questions if need for summarizing and
concluding the lesson.
•• Through questions, guide learners to come up with a summary, write it
progressively on the chalkboard or flipchart and ask learners to note it in their
notebooks.
•• Finally, assess the lesson through questions and then invite students to
attempt self- assessment 20.1.
Answers to the activity 20.1

Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson one) in student book.

Answer for self-assessment 20.1

1) The biotechnology is the use of biological processes, organisms, or systems to

manufacture products intended to improve the quality of human life.

2) Genetic engineering is the use of genetic knowledge to artificially manipulate

genes. It is one of the fields of biotechnology.

3) Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson one) in student book.

344 Teachers’ Guide

 Lesson 2: Immobilization of enzymes.
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Do introduction by asking students to discuss on role of pectinase on fruit juice

production and lactase to produce lactose-free milk and write reports.

b) Teaching resources

Online resources, CDs, simulations, diagrams, charts, micrographs, illustrations,

cultured microorganisms.

c) Learning activity 20.2

Facilitate learners to do activity 20.2 and develop competencies in this lesson by doing
the following:

•• Ask learners to brainstorm the action of enzymes with reference to pectinase

in fruit juice production and lactase to produce lactose-free milk in the activity
20.2
•• Supervise the work how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity to
work in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to make discussion in group.
•• Ask learners to write the summary of the group discussions,
•• Use students’ products and further questions if need for summarizing and
concluding the lesson.
•• Through questions, guide learners to come up with a summary, write it
progressively on the chalkboard or flipchart and ask learners to note it in their
notebooks.
•• Finally, assess the lesson through questions and then invite students to
attempt self- assessment 20.2.
Answers to the activity 20.2

Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson two) in student book.

Teachers’ Guide 345

Answers for self-assessment 20.2

1) Advantages/Disadvantages of Immobilizing Enzymes

Advantages Getting Started Disadvantages

Enzymes are not present with Immobilization requires additional time,

products so purifications/ downstream equipment and materials so is more
processing costs are low. expensive to set up.

Enzymes are immediately available for Immobilized enzymes may be less active as
reuse. Allows for continuous processes they cannot mix freely with the substrate.

Immobilized enzymes are more stable Any contamination is costly to deal with
because immobilizing matrix protects because the whole system would need to
enzyme molecules. be stopped.

2) Use of pectinase in fruit juice production:

•• The pectin content of the fruit is increased, making the nutritional value of the
juice higher.
•• The pectin content of the fruit is reduced, making the energy content of the
juice lower.
•• The pectin content of the fruit is reduced, making the juice easier to extract.
•• The pectin content of the fruit is increased, giving the juice a thicker texture.
3) The role of lactase in making lactose-free milk:

•• The enzyme lactase breaks down the sugar lactose, which is found in milk, into
the sugars glucose and galactose.
•• Immobilized lactase can be used to produce lactose-free milk: normal milk is
poured down a column containing the immobilized lactase enzymes, which
break down the lactose.
4) Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson two) in student book.

Lesson 3: Application of enzyme technology.

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Through question of revision on the application of enzyme technology, do you think

on the application of enzyme technology? Build on learners’ ideas and then go to the
activity 20.3 given in student textbook.

346 Teachers’ Guide

b) Teaching resources

Online resources, CDs, simulations, diagrams, charts, micrographs, illustrations,

cultured microorganisms.

c) Learning activity 20.3

Help students to develop competencies that are related to this lesson you need to
facilitate learners to do activity 20.3 by doing the following:

•• Ask learners to brainstorm on the application of enzyme technology.

•• Supervise the work how it is conducted and give the learners’ opportunity to
work in their respective groups.
•• Ask learners to make discussion in group.
•• Ask learners to write the summary of the group discussions,
•• Use students’ products and further questions if need for summarizing and
concluding the lesson.
•• Through questions, guide learners to come up with a summary, write it
progressively on the chalkboard or flipchart and ask learners to note it in their
notebooks.
•• Finally, assess the lesson through questions and then invite students to
attempt self- assessment 20.3
Answers for activity 20.3

Summarized report on materials and procedures on bread making

Ingredients

•• 450g (3 cups) plain bread flour

•• 1 tablespoon (12g/2 sachets) dried yeast
•• 2 teaspoons caster sugar
•• 1/2 teaspoon salt
•• 250ml (1 cup) warm milk
•• 2 tablespoons melted butter
•• Water
•• Timer
Procedures

Procedures are summarized in the following four stages:

Step 1: Combine flour, yeast and sugar in a large bowl. Stir in salt. Make a well in the

Teachers’ Guide 347

centre. Add milk and butter.

Step 2: Use a wooden spoon to stir the mixture until well combined, then use your
hands to bring the dough together in the bowl. Turn onto a lightly floured surface and
knead for 10 minutes or until the dough is smooth and elastic.

Step 3: Brush a large bowl with olive oil to grease. Place the dough in the bowl and
cover with a damp tea towel. Set aside in a warm, draught-free place to prove for 45
minutes-1 hour or until the dough has almost doubled in size.

Step 4: Punch down the centre of the dough with your fist. Turn into a lightly floured
surface. Knead for 2 minutes or until the dough is elastic and has returned to its original
size. Continue following your recipe.

Answers for self-assessment 20.3

1) Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson three) in student book.
2) Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson three) in student book.
3) Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson three) in student book.

Lesson 4: Fermentation, fermenters and production of penicillin

a) Prerequisites

Students have competences on immobilization of enzymes, and use of enzymes in food

industry.

b) Teaching resources

Use charts, online resources, CDs, diagrams, micrographs, and test books, computer
animations, projector, Manila paper with diagrams for improvisation

c) Learning activity 20.4

Help students to develop competencies that are related to this lesson you need to
facilitate learners to do activity 20.4 by doing the following:

•• Help students to form groups, and provide learning-materials to be used in

the activity.
•• Request students in their groups for working on the activity 20.4from the
students’ text books,
•• Monitor how the students are progressing towards the competences to be
developed. Boost those who are still behind (but without communicating to
them the knowledge).
•• Move around the class, listening to students as they discuss and looking at
their answers.

348 Teachers’ Guide

 •• Ask learners to write the summary of the group discussions,
•• Through questions, guide learners to come up with a summary, write it
progressively on the chalkboard or flipchart and ask learners to note it in their
notebooks.
•• Finally, assess the lesson through questions and then invite students to
attempt self-assessment 20.4.
Answers to the activity 20.4

Penicillin is produced commercially by growing the fungus Penicilliumchrysogenum in

large stirred fermenters. A solution of essential salts and a nitrogen source are put into
the fermenter together with an inoculum of the fungus. All procedures are performed
aseptically. The PH of the medium is regulated with ammonium salts at 6.5 to 7.0. Lactose
(a slowly hydrolysed disaccharide) is added to promote cell growth and reproduction
and minimize penicillin production. On completion of fermentation (usually 6-7 days) the
broth is separated from the fungal mycelium and penicillin extracted. This penicillin can
then be modified by chemical procedures to yield a variety of semisynthetic penicillins.

Answers for the self-assessment 20.4

1) A fermenter also known as a bioreactor is an apparatus that maintains optimal

conditions for culture and growth of microorganisms to be used in large-scale
fermentation and in the commercial production of antibiotics.

2) Downstream processing is a type of industrial production of penicillin that refers as

the extraction and purification of a biotechnological product from fermentation or
at the end of culture process. Usually the contents of fermenter are first separated
into liquid component and a solid component which contain the cells. This is usually
done by filtration or centrifugation, while upstream processing is a type of industrial
production of penicillin that encompasses any technology that leads to the synthesis
of a product and includes the exploration, development and production.

3) Penicillin is an antibiotic produced commercially by growing the fungus

Penicilliumchrysogenum that fight against infections and pathogens.

4) In laboratory, it is relatively easy to grow microbes on a small scale in petri dishes,

test tubes and flasks, given a suitable nutrient medium, and good environmental
conditions, while, producing chemicals like penicillin antibiotic from microbes on an
industrial scale becomes more complicated as a big number of organisms have to be
grown for the venture to be commercially viable.

5) The continuous culture is described as an open system, because nutrients are added
and cells harvested at a constant rate, so that the volume of suspension is also kept
constant. This means that fermenters does not have to be emptied, cleaned and
refilled very often. The production is almost continuous.

Teachers’ Guide 349

6) Batch culture or batch fermentation is described as closed system, because cells
are grown in a fixes volume of liquid medium in closed vessels. The conditions are
set up and not changed from outside once fermentation starts; for example: no
microorganisms, nutrients, or fluid are added or removed from the culture during
the incubation period. That is why the process is described as a closed system.

7) Expected answer is in students’ text books, unit 20, in lesson 4.

8) Continuous cultures are very expensive because they need very high equipment to
maintain constant conditions, and highly skilled staff to operate the equipment.

9) Expected answer is in students’ text books, unit 20, in lesson 4.

Lesson 5 Antibiotics: Antibiotic resistance and implications of

antibiotic use.

a) Prerequisites

Students have competences on Fermentation, fermenters and production of penicillin

as an antibiotic. Ask questions on how penicillin is produced.

b) Teaching resources

Use charts, online resources, CDs, diagrams, micrographs, and test books, computer
animations, projector, Manila paper with diagrams for improvisation.

c) Learning activity 20.5

•• Help students to develop competencies that are related to this lesson you
need to facilitate learners to do activity 20.5 by doing the following:
•• Help students to form groups, and provide learning-materials to be used in
the activity.
•• Request students in their groups for working on the activity 20.5 from the
students’ text books,
•• Monitor how the students are progressing towards the competences to be
developed. Boost those who are still behind (but without communicating to
them the knowledge).
•• Move around the class, listening to students as they discuss and looking at
their answers.
•• Ask learners to write the summary of the group discussions,
•• Allow students to present their findings to the whole class.
•• Through questions, guide learners to come up with a summary, write it
progressively on the chalkboard or flipchart and ask learners to note it in their
notebooks.

350 Teachers’ Guide

 •• Finally, assess the lesson through questions and then invite students to
attempt self-assessment 20.5
Answers for activity 20.5

Expected answer for activity 20.5 is in the students’ text book, unit 20, lesson 5.

Answers for the self-assessment 20.5

1) Antibiotic resistance occurs when an antibiotic has lost its ability to effectively
control or kill bacterial growth; in other words, the bacteria are “resistant” and
continue to multiply in the presence of therapeutic levels of an antibiotic.

2) Bacteria may become resistant into two ways: by genetic mutation or by acquiring
resistance from another bacterium.

3) Antibiotic resistance traits can be lost, but this reverse process occurs more
slowly. If the selective pressure that is applied by the presence of an antibiotic
is removed, the bacterial population can potentially revert to a population of
bacteria that responds to antibiotics

4) Excessive use of antibiotic continues to generate unwanted side effects; the

overuse of antibiotics continues to have severe health consequences around the
world.

5) Genetically, antibiotic resistance spreads through bacteria populations both

“vertically,” when new generations inherit antibiotic resistance genes, and
“horizontally,” when bacteria share or exchange sections of genetic material
with other bacteria. People can pass the resistant bacteria to others; forexample,
by coughing or contact with unwashed hands.

Lesson 6: Biogas production

a) Prerequisites

Students have competences on Fermentation, fermenters and production of penicillin

as an antibiotic. Ask questions on how penicillin is produced.

b) Teaching resources

Use charts, online resources, CDs, diagrams, micrographs, and test books, computer
animations, projector, Manila paper with diagrams for improvisation.

c) Learning activity 20.6

Help students to develop competencies that are related to this lesson you need to
facilitate learners to do activity 20.6 by doing the following:

Teachers’ Guide 351

 •• Conduct students to visit a nearest biogas plants in your region: describe the
stages of biogas production and its significance in your area.
•• Ordering students to follow explanations from the agent of the biogas plant
about the processes of biogas production.
•• Monitor how the students are progressing towards the competences to be
developed.).
•• Ask learners to write the summary of what the agent has said.
•• Allow students to present what they heard from the agent to the whole class.
•• Through questions, guide learners to come up with a summary, write it
progressively on the chalkboard or flipchart and ask learners to note it in their
notebooks.
•• Finally, assess the lesson through questions and then invite students to
attempt self-assessment 20.6.
Answer for the activity 20.6

Expected answer for activity 20.6 is in the students’ text book, unit 20, lesson 6.

Answers to the self-assessment 20.6

1) Acetogenic reactions produce acetate, and Hydrogen and carbon dioxide.

2) The archaebacteria generate methane either:

•• By reducing the carbon dioxide: CO2 + 4H2 CH4 + H2O, or

•• By converting acetate: CH3COOH CH4 + CO2
20. 6 Summary of the unit
Biotechnology is a broad discipline in which biological processes, organisms, cells
or cellular components are exploited to develop new technologies.New tools and
products developed by biotechnologists are useful in research, agriculture, industry
and the clinic.There are some disadvantages: immobilization requires extra time,
equipment and work; there may be a reduction in reaction rates if enzymes cannot
mix freely with the substrate; and immobilized enzymes cannot be used if one of the
substrates is insoluble.There are several advantages of using immobilized enzymes as
the following: (i) reuse (ii) continuous use (iii) less labor intensive (iv) saving in capital
cost (v) minimum reaction time (vi) less chance of contamination in products, (vii) more
stability (viii) improved process control and (ix) high enzyme: substrate ratio.Enzymes
are applied in Brewing, medical, baking, cheese, yoghurt and in bread making.

Fermentation is anaerobic breakdown of organic compounds by living cells that

produces ethanol and carbon dioxide or lactate. Antibiotics are powerful medicines that
fight certain infections by either stopping bacteria from reproducing or by destroying
them.

352 Teachers’ Guide

Biogas typically refers to a mixture of different gases produced by the breakdown of
organic matter in the absence of oxygen. There are three stages of biogas production
which are the following: anaerobic fermentation by eubacteria including lactobacillus,
which converts the organic waste into a mixture of organic acids and alcohol, with
some Hydrogen, Carbon dioxide, and acetate, acetogenic reaction by bacteria such as
acetobacterium which, in addition to acetate, produce hydrogen and Carbon dioxide
from the organic acid and alcohol and methanogenic reactions by archaebacteria,
including Methanobacterium, Metanococcus, and Methanospirillum.

20.7 Additional information for the teacher

There are numerous sub-fields of biotechnology. They are:

1. Red biotechnology is biotechnology applied to medical processes. Some examples

are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of
genetic cures to cure diseases through genomic manipulation.

2. White biotechnology, also known as grey biotechnology, is biotechnology applied

to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce
a useful chemical. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than
traditional processes when used to produce industrial goods.

3. Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An

example is the designing of an organism to grow under specific environmental
conditions or in the presence (or absence) of certain agricultural chemicals.
One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally
friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the
engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby eliminating the need for
external application of pesticides. Whether or not green biotechnology products
such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable
debate.

4. The term blue biotechnology has also been used to describe the marine and
aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.

20.8 Answers of end of unit assessment

1) Answer is B

2) Answer is A

3) Answer is B

4) Answer is A

5) Fermentation is an anaerobic breakdown of organic compounds by living cells

(microorganisms) that produces ethanol and carbon dioxide or lactate (lactic acid).

Teachers’ Guide 353

6) The biogas can contribute to the economic development of Rwanda as:

•• It can be used as a fuel; it can be used for any heating purpose, such as cooking.
In the UK, for example, biogas is estimated to have the potential to replace
around 17% of vehicle fuel.
•• It can also be used in a gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into
electricity and heat.
•• Biogas can be compressed, the same way the natural gas is compressed to
compressed natural gas (CNG), and used to power motor vehicles.
7) There are five different techniques of immobilizing enzymes: (i) adsorption, (ii)
covalent bonding, (iii) entrapment, (iv) copolymerization or cross-linking, and (v)
encapsulation. (More explanations can be seen in the student’s book, unit 20, lesson
2, in senior 4).

8) Even if antibiotics play a major role in actual medicine, the excessive use of antibiotics
continues to generate unwanted side effects, and continues to have severe health
consequences around the world.

9) Breads made with yeast is normally allowed to rest for an hour so that it can rise and
double in size.

10) The main ingredients include: bread-flour, dry yeast (‘rapid rise’), levain (sourdough),
salt, water, sugar, and eggs.

11) The advantages of using immobilized enzymes are: (i) reuse (ii) continuous use (iii)
less labor intensive (iv) saving in capital cost (v) minimum reaction time (vi) less
chance of contamination in products, (vii) more stability (viii) improved process
control and (ix) high enzyme: substrate ratio.

12) The composition of biogas varies depending upon the origin of the anaerobic
digestion process. Landfill gas typically has methane concentrations around 50%.

Formula %

Methane CH4 50-75

Carbone dioxide CO2 25-50

Nitrogen N2 0-10
Hydrogen H2 0-1

Hydrogen sulphide H2S 0-3

Oxygen O2 0-0.5

354 Teachers’ Guide

13) The production of biogas involves three stages and three communities of
microorganisms namely

a) Anaerobic fermentation by eubacteria including lactobacillus, which converts the

organic waste into a mixture of organic acids and alcohol, with some Hydrogen, Carbon
dioxide, and acetate.

b) Acetogenic (acetate-producing) reaction by bacteria such as acetobacterium which,

in addition to acetate, produce hydrogen and Carbon dioxide from the organic acid and
alcohol.

c) Methanogenic (methane-producing) reactions by archaebacteria, including

Methanobacterium, Metanococcus, and Methanospirillum. The archaebacteria
generate methane either:

•• By reducing the carbon dioxide: CO2 + 4H2 CH4 + H2O, or

•• By converting acetate: CH3COOH CH4 + CO2.
20.9 Additional activity

20.9.1 Remedial Activities

1) What do you understand with biotechnology?

2)Why are enzymes added to washing powder?

3) Describe the role of the fungus Penicillium in the production of the antibiotic penicillin.

4) Explain why the biological washing-powder should not be used in boiling water.

Answers for remedial activities

1. Biotechnology is a controlled and deliberate manipulation of biological systems

(whether living cells or cell components) for the efficient manufacture or processing
of useful products.

2. The biological washing powders contain enzymes like protease and lipase to remove
protein stains and fat/grease from clothes. The enzymes break down proteins or fats
on the fabric, forming water-soluble substances that can be washed away.

3. Penicillin is produced commercially by growing the fungus Penicilliumchrysogenum

in large stirred fermenters.

4. Enzymes are denatured at high temperature, and will not wash properly.

Teachers’ Guide 355

20.9.2 Consolidation activities

1) State the advantages of using immobilized enzymes.

2) Silk is a material made from protein. Explain why the biological washing powder
should not be used to wash silk clothes.

3) Justify why specialized biologists should minimize the build-up of end-products

during scaling-up.

4) Explain why antibiotics affect bacteria and not viruses.

Answers of consolidated activities

1. The advantages of using immobilized enzymes are: (i) reuse (ii) continuous use (iii)
less labor intensive (iv) saving in capital cost (v) minimum reaction time (vi) less
chance of contamination in products, (vii) more stability (viii) improved process
control and (ix) high enzyme: substrate ratio.

2. There is protease in the biological washing powder. This would digest the protein in
the silk so the clothes would get spoiled.

3. Specialized biologists should minimize the build-up of end-products during scaling-

up production, because the build-up of end products acts as inhibitors which may
reduce production.

4. Penicillin as an antibiotic affects bacterium which are biotic and not viruses which
are abiotic.

20.9.3 Extended activities

1) Defend the role played by antibiotics in treatment of bacterial diseases.

2) Compare leavened and unleavened bread.

3) Draw a well labeled diagram of a fermenter.

4) Identify three communities of microorganisms that are involved in each stage of

biogas production.

Describe the differences in the concentration of penicillin in the culture when the pH is
controlled and when the pH is not controlled.

Answers for extended activities

1) Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson three) in student book.

2) Expected answers are under the unit 20 (lesson three) in student book.

356 Teachers’ Guide

 3) Expected answer is in students’ text books, unit 20, lesson 4

4) The three communities of microorganisms that are involved in each stage of

biogas production include:

•• Eubacteria including lactobacillus, which converts the organic waste into a

mixture of organic acids and alcohol, with some Hydrogen, Carbon dioxide,
and acetate.
•• Bacteria such as acetobacterium which, in addition to acetate, produce
hydrogen and Carbon dioxide from the organic acid and alcohol.
•• Archaebacteria including Methanobacterium, Metanococcus, and
Methanospirillum.

Teachers’ Guide 357

References

BrainardPh.D, J. (2015). CK-12 Biology Foundation textbook next generation.

Campbell and Reece (2008). Biology, 8th edition, Pearson international Edition, San
Francisco, USA.

Campbell, R. (1999). Biology. FithEdution. Pearson international Edition, San Francisco,

USA.

Edution, O. s. (2008). Dictionary of Biology. Oxford: Oxford University press.

Government, W. (2005). Guidance for teaching. England: Charles Darwin House.

Ibrahim, S. (2006). Solutions to examination paper UCE Biology paper 1and 2. Kampala:
PEAK Publisher Ltd.

Jones, M., Fosbery, R., Gregory, J., & Taylor, D. (2014). Cambridge International AS and
A Level Biology coursebook fourth Edution. United Kingdom: Cambridge University
Press.

Jones, M., Fosbery, R., Gregory, J., & Taylor, D. (2014). Cambridge International AS and
A Level Biology coursebook fourth Edution. United Kingdom: Cambridge University
Press.

Juliet, M., and Magondu.J., M. V. (2017). Biology for Rwanda. Kigali: Easter African
Educational publishers

Kent, M.(2000). Advanced biology. Anew mainstreamtext for the new specifications.
oxford universitypress, New york.

Kinyua S.W; and Mtungai M.N. (2013). Top Mark Revision Biology, Second Edition.
Nairobi: KLB

M.B.B Roberts, (1986). Biology for life.2nd edition, Thomas Nilsson and sons Ltd,
London UK

Mackean.D.G, and Hayward, D. (2014). cambridge IGSCE biology 3rd edition. London:
Hadder education

Mader, S. (2004). Biology.Eight Edition. New York: McGrawHill company

Mader, S. S., Baldwin, A., Roush, R., and Stephanie Songer, M. T. (2010). Biology 10Th
Edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill companies

Mary, J., and Forcebery, R. (2004). Cambridge International AS and A Level. United
Kingdom: CAMBRIDGE University press.

358 Teachers’ Guide

Mary, J., and Forcebery, R. (2004). Cambridge International AS and A Level. United
Kingdom: CAMBRIDGE University press.

Miller/Prentice Hall, L. (2006). Biology,Florida students’ and teachers’edition. Boston:

Pearson edition.

Neil, C. A., Jane B.Reece, L. A., Michael L.Cain, S. A., V.Minorsky, P., and B.Jackson, R.
(2009). Biology 8th edition. san fransisco: Pearson

Owaka, M., &Kavita, P. (n.d.). Revision Biology test it and fix it. Oxford: Oxford press.

Peter K; Frank S. (2008). OCR Biology. British: British Library

Roberts,M.B.B (1986). Biology for life.2nd edition, Thomas Nilsson and sons Ltd, London
UK

Rwanda Ministry of Natural resources. (2016). National biodiversity and action plan.
kigali.

Suift M., I. A. (2004). Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment. Nairobi: ELSEVIER.

Taylor, D. (2008). Biological science. Cambridge: Cambridge university press.

Toole,G, and Toole, S. (1999). Biology for aadvanced level 4th edition. United kingdom:
Nelson thornes

https://study.com/academy/practice/quiz-worksheet-louis-pasteur-germ-thiory-of-
disease.html

https://study.com/academy/practice/quiz-worksheet-louis-pasteur-germ-thiory-of-
disease.html

Teachers’ Guide 359