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 HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY
The history of photography has roots in remote antiquity with the discovery of the principle of the
camera obscura and the observation that some substances are visibly altered by exposure to light.
 Thomas Wedgewood 1820 – made the first reliably documented although unsuccessful attempt.
 Nicéphore Niépce - succeeded, but several days of exposure in the camera were required.
 Daguerreotype process- developed by Niépce's associate Louis Daguerre. It is the first publicly
announced photographic process, commercially introduced in 1839, date as the birth year of
practical photography.
 (1839)Sir John Herschel - developed the first glass negative as opposed to metal. He coined
the term Photography deriving from the Greek “fos"(phos) meaning light and "grafo"(grapho)
– to write.
 Henry Fox Talbot – Introduced the paper-based calotype negative and salt print processes

Camera Obscura (13-14 centuries)

The instrument that people used for processing pictures was called the Camera Obscura (which is Latin
for the Dark Room).
Camera Obscura is essentially a dark, closed space in the shape of a box with a hole on one side of it.
The hole has to be small enough in proportion to the box to make the camera obscura work properly.
The way it works is that due, to optical laws, the light coming through a tiny hole transforms and creates
an image on the surface that it meets, i.e. the wall of the box.

Camera Lucida: A History

In 1807, Sir William Hyde Wollaston patented the camera lucida and brought life-drawing to a whole
new level. : A prism on an adjustable stand. When an artist looks down through the prism, they see the
world in front of them, plus their hand on the page, combined in perfect superimposition. In short, a
camera lucida allows you to trace what you see. And it does so in full daylight; there’s no need for a
dark shroud or enclosure, as with a camera obscura. And that is the magic of the camera lucida: it’s
portable, easy to use, and—with a little practice—you just copy the world onto your page with a
confident hand.

Definition of important terms

Photography- the word photography was derived from the Greek word phos meaning “light” and
graphia meaning “write”. It is an art or science which deals with the reproduction of images through the
action of light, upon sensitized materials, with the aid of a camera and its accessories, and the chemical
processes involved therein.
Police Photography- is an art or science which deals with the study of the principles of photography,
the preparation of photographic evidence, and its application to police work
Forensic Photography- is the art or science of photographically documenting a crime scene and
evidence for laboratory examination and analysis for purposes of court trial.
Photograph- A mechanical and chemical result of photography.
Digital photography - uses an array of electronic photo detectors to capture the image focused by the
lens, as opposed to an exposure on photographic film.
Depth of Field – The distance between the nearest and the farthest object in apparent sharp focus
when the lens is focused at a given point.
Hyper Focal Distance – The nearest distance at which the lens is focused at a particular F# to
give maximum depth of field.
Depth of Focus – The Maximum permissible distance within which the film maybe placed without
exceeding the circle of confusion in order to produced the image sharp. The distance that a camera
lens can be moved closer to or further from the film, without the resulting image being blurred
Focal Length - The distance measured from the center of the lens to the film plane when the lens is
set or focused in infinity position.
Parallax–the difference between what you see in the viewfinder and what the camera photographs.
The apparent displacement of an observed object due to a change in the position of the observer.
Focus – the estimation or calculation of object distance from the camera and formed a sharp images
Sensitized material – materials which affected once exposed to light.
Shutter – a contraption placed in the path of the light which asses through the lens
Exposure – is the product of illumination and time (over/under)
Camera Obscura – the earliest known form of camera
Simple camera – a camera that has few or no adjustment to be made by the picture taker.
Over exposure – a condition in which too much light reaches the film, resulting in a light print or
slide lacking the details.
Under exposure – a condition in which too little light reaches on the film, a very dark slide or print.

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Circle of confusion – is an optical spot caused by a cone of light rays from the lens NOT coming to
a perfect focus when imaging a point source.

Kinds of Photography and its application

1. Photomicrography – The art of photographing minute objects when magnified by means of a
microscope and enlarged from 10 times and up. It is used usually in question documents and
Firearm Identification.
2. Photomacrography – Type of photography that directly enlarged on the negative and
magnified from one to nine times. (Camera with Macro Lens)
3. Microphotography – The process of reducing big objects or things of minute objects.
4. Crime Scene Photography – Deals with the photographing the scene of the crime or details
of perpetuated crime.
5. Surveillance Photography – Deals with photographing individuals without his knowledge, such as
the same in clandestine photography.
6. Infrared Photography– deals with the photographing of objects visible, divisible, and invisible even
with haze.
7. Ultra-Violet Photography– deals with the photographing objects or markings which are invisible
using reflected or fluorescent.
8. X-Ray Photography– deals with photographing hidden objects or things.
9. Traffic Accident Photography– deals with the photographing of traffic incidents or occurrence
especially in a vehicular accident.
10. Investigative Photography– deals with the study of the concept of photography, its application to
law enforcement or investigation process and the preparation of photographic evidence for court
presentation.
11. Mug-shot Photography–Deals with the study of photographing individual’s for identification
purposes.
12. Thermo photography–A kind of photo where we use laser beam radiation using laser beam film.
13. Aerial photography–A kind of photography applied for photomapping. Taking a photograph above
the subject.
14. Underwater photography– photographing things under water.
15. Fingerprint Photography– Deals with the application of macro-photography so as to produces an
enlargement of finger print for comparison purposes.
16. Firearm Identification photography–Deals with the photographing of firearm shells and bullets. It
is also where photomicrography is applied.
17. Question Document photography-process of photographing document for purposes of
examination and as a substitute for duplicate copy when original is lost and the purpose of duplicate
photograph is to establish the contents of the lost original document.
18. Arson and Questionable Fire photography– photographing of wilful and malicious burning of
property, usually a building or dwelling unit.

Important Personalities in the Field of Photography

Aristotle
 A famous Greek philosopher who invented the first pinhole camera that was later known as camera
obscura (Italian work for darkroom chamber) which literally translated to Darkened fox. He was the
one who succeeded in recording the principle that the light entering through a small hole produces
an inverted image or figure.

Alhazen (965-1039)
 An Arabian scholar who found out that light entering a small hole on the wall or shuttered window of
a darkened room cast an upside down picture of the scene outside onto the opposite wall. He used
this in observing the solar eclipse by entering a dark room with a pinhole opening to avoid harming
the eye. He was considered as the one who invented the camera.

Jean Baptiste Forta

 An artist and a scientist who, in his Pseudo Science Magic, had made use of the Camera Obscura
and replaced the hole with a lens which made the image brighter and sharper. He was the first
person who introduced the lens.

Johann Henrich Schulze

 A German scientist (Anatomist) discovered the silver Nitrate when he exposed it to light turns to
purple. He got interested in his finding and, that fair later, he discovered that the evening action was

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 not due to the heat but light. He finally concluded that silver nitrate is sensitive to light and capable
of producing images.

Thomas Wedge wood (1802)

 He discovered that silver chloride is more sensitive than silver nitrate and thus, more capable of
recording and producing images.

Joseph Nicephore Niepce of France (1816)

 He experimented with combining photosensitive materials with lithography to facilitate his endeavor
in printmaking. In 1822, he claimed some success, achieving what he called “POINTS DE VUE”
Smart images made by the Camera Obscura with more than eight hours of exposure. He took the
world’s very first photograph called “Heliography”

Louise Jacques Mande Daguerre (1838-1839)

 A Parisian painter and theater designer who continued the efforts of Niepce to perfect the
photographic process. He invented the principle for the silver plate photograph and using the
Daguerre type that produces one kind of picture on metal which was presented by French Scientific
Academy. He invented the Daguerreo type in Paris.

Mathew B. Brady
 When the American Civil war broke out, he was able to preserve the scene with the use of a
camera.

William Henry Fox Talbot (1839)

 He is the Father of modern Photography. He invented the Calotype, which produces a negative
picture on a paper, the lights on the image were recorded as darks, the darks as lights. He
presented it before the royal family in England.

John W. Herschel
 He coined the word photography. He then suggested negative and positive in the following years.
He pointed out images with a solution of Hyposulfite of Soda (hypo or sodium thiosulfate) which had
been discovered in 1819.

Frederick Scott Archer

 He pioneered the wet Collodion process which took place of the collotype known as colodian type
process.

Daniel Barbaro
 He introduced the use of lenses in the camera.

Sir Isaac Newton (1666)

 An English Philosopher, Mathematician, and Physicist who discovered and proved that the
strongest light is white light. He defended his theory by allowing a white light (sunlight) to pass
through a prism thus refracting and reflecting the light into its component parts.

Maxill (1863)
 He discovered the different effects with this application, when colored photography was discovered.

Maddox (1884)
 He successfully introduced the plate with gelatin. The roll film came and new brands of cameras
with different lenses and mechanisms were placed in the market.

George Eastman (1889)

 He introduced the use of roll film made of celluloid materials for use by portable camera.

Wilhelm Roengent (1895)

 He discovered X-ray Photography which later became the basis of RADIOGRAPH used by the
doctors in measuring the heartbeat and to see the other structure of the body.

Edwin H. Land (1947)

 Introduced “polaroid” the one step photography.

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Steve Sasson (1975)
 An American Electrical Engineer who invented the digital camera.

Important dates in Photography

1826- Nicephore takes the first permanent photograph, a landscape that required eight hours of
exposure.
1835- William Fox Talbot produces early permanent photographs through his own process.
1839- Louis Daguerre patents the daguerreotype.
1840- William Fox Talbot invented the positive/ negative process widely used in modern photography.
1871- The gelatin emulsion is invented by Richard Maddox.
1887- Celluloid film base introduced.
1898- Kodak introduced their Folding Pocket Kodak
1901- Kodak introduced the 120 film
1947- Edwin H. Land introduced the first polaroid instant image camera.
1957- First Asahi Pentax SLR introduced.
1959-AGFA introduces the first fully automatic camera, the Optima
1990- Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital cameras.
1994- The first digital cameras for the consumer-level market that worked with a home computer via a
serial cable were the Apple Quicktake 100 camera.

What are the Principles of Photography?

1. A photograph is the mechanical and chemical result of photography.
2. To produce a photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized materials.
3. Lights reflected or radiated by a subject must reach the sensitized materials while all other lights
must be excluded.
4. The exclusion of all unwanted and unnecessary lights is achieved by placing the sensitized material
inside a camera.
5. The amount of light on the sensitized material after exposure is not immediately visible to the eyes.
6. To make the formed image visible, it must undergo the development process.
7. The visual effect that results from the chemical processing is dependent on the quantity and quality
of the exposing light.
8. More light will yield an opaque or black shade on the sensitized material after development.
9. Too little light will produce a transparent or white shade.
10. The varying shade of gray will finally form the complete image.

SIGNIFICANCE OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

Forensic science holds the branch of Forensic photography which encompasses documenting both
suspected and convicted criminals, and also the crime scenes, victims, and other evidence needed to
make a conviction. Although photography was widely acknowledged as the most accurate way to
depict and document people and objects, it was not until key developments in the late 19th century that
it came to be widely accepted as a forensic means of identification. Forensic photography resulted from
the modernization of criminal justice systems and the power of photographic realism.

IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Small objects but of great importance in a crime committed may escape in the first phase of
examination by the investigator but maybe seen and recorded on the photograph.
2. Used as an aid by investigator to describe in court some of the details of the crime scene they have
investigated several months ago, the small details and exact locations of objects.
3. To assist the investigators in using photographic equipment and techniques in their effort to solve
crimes.

Objectives of Police Photography

1. To produce a pictorial record of everything pertaining to the crime.
2. To help in keeping the police officer’s memory accurately as possible as to where they find things.
3. To help on securing and obtaining confession, disposition and information relating to the case.

Uses of Photography in Police Work

General Application of Photography in Police Work

1. Identification purposes
a. Prisoners, person subject of investigation

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 b. Unidentified cadavers (victims of crimes, traffic accidents, explosions, calamities etc.) c.
Missing persons
d. Lost of stolen properties
e. Identification of civilian (clearance for employment like PNP, NBI, VISA, Passport)
2. Recording and preserving evidences
a. Crime scene
b. Traffic accident
c. Object of evidences
d. Evidential traces (fingerprint, footprint, and tool marks)
3. Discovering and proving of evidences not readily seen by the naked eye
a. Contrast control by lighting, use of filters, use of different films and papers.
b. Magnification or enlargement of tiny objects by the application of photomicrography and
photomacrography.
c. Use of invisible radiation like x-rays, ultraviolet rays and infra-red rays
4. Recording action of offender
a. Surveillance
b. Entrapment
c. Extra-judicial confession
d. Re-enactment of a crime
5. For court exhibits
a. Individual photographs
b. Slide projections
c. Comparison charts
d. Motion picture or video coverage/presentation
6. For crime prevention
a. Visual presentation for lectures on traffic education, drug prevention seminars,
informational services, and others.
7. Public information
a. Photograph for press release, posters of wanted criminals, crime alerts, etc.
8. Police training
a. Prepared training films or video presentation of personnel indoctrination, police tactics,
investigative techniques, traffic control, civil disturbances controls, riots or prison
disorders, documentaries for pre-and post-briefings on police operations, etc.

LIGHT

Light- is a form of radiant electromagnetic energy which travel in wave motion. Actually, there are other
theories that explains the behavior of light but for one purpose, the wave theory is the only one
considered. This form of energy travels at speed of about 186,000miles per second in air, but they differ
in wavelength and frequency.

WAVELENGHT –Wavelength is the distance from crest (highest point) to the wave of the next
succeeding crest.
FREQUENCY - Frequency is the number of waves passing in a given point in one second.

Four Photographic Rays

1. X-ray–radiation- having a wavelength between 0 1to30 nanometer or milli-microns. They are
produced by passing an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube.
2. Ultra-violet rays –radiation having a wavelength from 30 to 400 milli-microns. It is used to
photograph fingerprints on multi-colored background, documents that are altered chemically or
over writings and detection of secret writings.
3. Visible light rays or White light– rays having a wavelength of 400 to700 milli-microns
4. Infra-red rays- radiation having a wavelength of 700 to 1000 milli-microns. It is used in taking
photographs of obliterated writing, burnt or dirty documents or blackout photography.

The different energies in the electromagnetic spectrum:

 Cosmic rays
 Gamma Rays
 X-rays
 Ultraviolet rays
 Visible light
 Infrared rays

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  Heat rays
 Hertzian rays and alternating Current oscillations.

Effects of Light when it Hits an Object

When a light wave hits an object, what happens to it depends on the energy of the light wave, the
natural frequency at which electrons vibrate in the material and the strength with which the atoms in
the material hold on to their electrons. Based on these three factors, four different things can happen
when light hits an object:
● The waves can be reflected or scattered off the object.
● The waves can be absorbed by the object.
● The waves can be refracted through the object.
● The waves can pass through the object with no effect.

GENERAL TYPES OF LIGHT

1. Visible Light- Light with a wavelength of 400-700 nm

- Visible light waves are the only electromagnetic waves we can see. We see these waves as the
colors of the rainbow. Each color has a different wavelength. Red has the longest wavelength and
violet has the shortest wavelength. When all the waves are seen together, they make white light.
2. Invisible Light- Lights with shorter of longer wavelength
- When white light shines through a prism or through water vapor like this rainbow, the white light is
broken apart into the colors of the visible light spectrum.

White Light
 When all the wavelengths between 400-700 nm are presented to the eye in nearly equal quantity,
we get the sensation or perception of colorless or white light. If a narrow beam of white light is
allowed to pass a prism it will bend the light of a shorter wavelength more than those with longer
wavelength thus speeding them out into the visible spectrum. These are the colors of the rainbow.
Note: White light is the sum total of all colors of the rainbow while Black is the absence of all
colors. If we will divide the wavelength of visible light in to three, we will produce:
● Blue
● Green
● Red (Primary Colors)

Secondary colors of light

 Yellow
 Magenta
 Cyan

Kinds Of Object As To How They Behave To Light:

1. Transparent Object - Allows sufficient visible light to pass through them that the object on the
other side may be clearly seen.
2. Translucent Object - Allows light to pass, however diffuse it sufficiently that objects on the
other side may not be clearly distinguished.
3. Opaque Object - So greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the object on the other side is very
difficult if not impossible. Opaque materials are materials in which light could NOT pass through.

Properties of Light
1. Reflection- It is the deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits a surface. Regular happens
when light hits a flat, smooth and shiny surface. Irregular of diffused Occurs when light hits a rough or
uneven but glossy object.
2. Refraction - the bending of light when passing from one medium to another.
3. Diffraction- The bending of light when it hits a sharp edge opaque object.
4. Rectilinear - The nature of light that normally travels in straight line.
5. Interference- Color can be produce by interference of light waves in thin film like in soap bubbles or
a film of oil floating in water. The light reflected from the top surface of such a film undergoes a reversal
or phase but light reflected from the bottom of the surface does not undergo this type of change.
6. Absorption- The nature of light to be absorbed in the process of dark surface.
7. Filtration The character of light to be altered from its colorless into visible state.

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8. Polarization -The process by which the vibration of light are confined to a definite plane, and the
speed of light can be measured.
9. Fluorescence- These happen when molecules of the fluorescent material absorb energy at one
wavelength and radiate it at another wavelength.

What are sources of light?

1. Natural - Coming from nature like the sun, moon, stars, other heavenly bodies, lightning,
etc… The intensity of the sunlight falling on open space varies depending on the weather
condition, time of the day, or even time of the year. For more accurate exposure in daylight,
only one characteristic is considered – the kind of shadow casted by an object in open
space.
a. Bright Sunlight - A lighting condition where objects in open space cast a deep and
uniform or distinct shadow.
b. Hazy Sunlight - Objects in open space cast a transparent shadow.
c. Dull Sunlight - Objects in open space cast no shadow.
d. Cloudy Bright - Objects in an open space cast no shadow but objects at far distance are
clearly visible.
e. Cloudy dull - Objects in an open space cast no shadow and visibility of distant objects are
already limited.
2. Artificial - Light sources of this category are man-made and are divided into the
continuous radiation and short duration.
a. Continuous Radiation - Those that can give continuous illumination.
b. Short Illumination (flash unit) - It gives a brief flash of light produced by a burning
metallic wire (flash bulb) or an electrical discharge through a gas-filled tube (electronic
flash).

Forensic light sources

1. Ultra violet lamp
 It comes in a variety of shapes, sizes and power. Some units are portable battery operated
and are easily carried and can meet the rugged and rigorous demand for field work.
2. Laser
 Light amplification through stimulated emission of radiation. By illumination certain items
with LASER, they would fluoresce or could be made to stand out in sharp contrast with their
background. This was especially significant in locating dried biological stains.
3. Alternative Light Source (ASL)
 Far more inexpensive alternative to Forensic Laser. It uses a variety of band pass filters to
provide a high intensity beam of a non-coherent light.
4. Forensic Light Sources (FLS)
 Applied to a wide variety of relatively inexpensive light sources which use filtered white light.

CAMERA AND ITS ACCESSORIES

A camera is basically nothing more than a light tight box with a pinhole or a lens, shutter at one
end and a holder of sensitized material at the other. While there are various kinds of camera from the
simplest construction (Box-type) to the most complicated, all operate on the same principles. The
exposure of the sensitized material to light is controlled by the lens and its aperture, and the shutter
through its speed in opening and closing the lens to light.
EARLY FORMS OF CAMERA
1. Pinhole Camera – a camera of simple design and construction usually home-made consisting
of a box having a small aperture functioning as lens at one end, the image being projected on the
film at the other end. FOCUSING SYSTEM FOR PINHOLE/ A PHINHOLE PHOTOGRAPH
2. Box Camera – a simple camera is little more than a pinhole camera. It has a lens and shutter. In the
box camera, the pinhole is replaced by the lens to enable the photographer gather more light to be
recorded.
3. Camera obscura (Lat. dark chamber) was an optical device used in drawing, and one of the
ancestral threads leading to the invention of photography.

Main Kinds of Camera

1. View Camera

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  The biggest and the most sophisticated among the different types of camera. A version of
press cameras; they have removable lenses, can be focused by moving either the front or
the rear of the camera, and are equipped with long bellows. The back can be moved or
swung both vertical and horizontal axes and its lens board raised, lowered or tipped. This
flexibility enables the photographer to control the image formed by the lens. Practically
useless for Candid or action photography. Useful and effective in the reproduction of small
objects.
2. Reflex Camera
a. Single Lens Reflex (SLR) Camera
 The term “Single lens” means that only one is used for both viewing the scene and
taking photographs of it, thereby preventing parallax. It has a detachable lens and is
mostly used in police photography.
Parallax - The difference between what is seen through the viewfinder and what is
exactly recorded on the film.
b. Twin Lens Reflex Camera
 Employs 2 separate lenses – one for viewing and one for focusing, and the second is
usually mounted under the first, transmitting the light to the focal plane recording. The
camera has permanently fixed lenses and an automatic parallax adjustment. Its two
lenses focus in unison so that the top screen shows the image sharpness and framing
as recorded on the film in the lower section.
3. Polaroid Still
 This camera is restricted in its uses but ideal in instant photograph when there is no
requirement for enlargements.
4. Digital Camera- A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that encodes digital images
and videos digitally and stores them for later reproduction. Most cameras sold today are
digital, and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from PDAs and
mobile phones (called camera phones) to vehicles.

Essential Parts of a Camera

1. Body or Light Tight Box – suggest an enclosure devoid or light. An enclosure, which would prevent
light from exposing the sensitized material inside the camera. This does not necessarily mean that the
box or enclosure to always light tight at all the time because if it does, then no light could reach the
sensitized material during exposure. It means that before and after the extraneous light, which is not
necessary to form the final images.
2. Lens – the function of the lens is to focus the light coming from the subject. It is chiefly responsible
for the sharpness of the image formed through which light passes during the exposure.
3. Shutter – is used to allow light to enter through the lens and reach the film for a pre-
determined interval of time, which light is again blocked off from the film.
4. Holder of sensitized material – located at the opposite side of the lens. Its function is to hold firmly
the sensitized material in its placed during exposure to prevent the formation of a multiple or blurred
image of the subject.
5. View-finder – it is a means of determining the field of view of the camera or the extent of
the coverage of the lens.

Camera Parts and Accessories

Camera- A light tight box with a lens on one side and film holder at the other.
Lens Opening – to control the amount of light the lens lets into the camera, a mechanism called the
diaphragm is placed behind the camera lens.
Diaphragm - is a thin opaque structure with an opening (aperture) at its center. The role of the
diaphragm is to stop the passage of light, except for the light passing through the aperture
Aperture - is a hole or an opening through which light travels.
Shutter – a device that controls the length of time the light enters the camera.
Film Advance Mechanism – is a motor which advances the exposed film automatically. A lever that
advances the exposed film manually.
View Finder – is viewing the scene you wish to photograph.
Flash Unit – we used a flash unit with a simple camera when bright sunlight is not available for taking
a good picture.
Lens - Responsible in forming the image of the subject

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Holder or Sensitized Material – Located at the opposite side of the lens. Its function is to hold
firmly the sensitized material in its place during exposure to prevent the formation of a multiple or
blurred images of the subject.
Accessories:
Tripod – is a three legged device which may be adjusted to any reasonable desired extension. It is
used to hold the camera when the shutter speed is low as 1/125 of a second to prevent vibration.
Light Meter – is a device used in reading the intensity of light that strike the object or subject.
Extension Tube – a device use in photographing a minute objects. It is attach to the lens board of
the camera and the lens is attached to it when close- up photographing is necessary.
Camera Grip – a device used to hold firmly the camera so as to prevent the vibration or movement of
the camera during the exposure period. It is attach to the body of the camera.
Range Finder – is an optical device utilized for focusing the camera and calculation of distance
from the camera to the subject.
Cable Release – this is attach to the shutter release button to prevent accidental movement of the
camera during the exposure period especially when longer exposure is made.
Lens Hood – a device used to eliminate some reflection of lights which might destroy the image
cast by the objects, especially, when the light is coming from the top or side portions of the camera.
It is usually mounted in front of the lens barrel.
Filter – is a colored transparent glass placed in front or behind the camera lens, used to transmit light
of some colors and hold back light of other colors, and to achieve correct rendition of color in black and
white, and creates special effects by over correction.

Major Types of Camera:

View Finder Type – the smaller and the simplest type of camera, its view finder framed the objects
that will be recorded on the film.
Single Lens Reflex Type – The best way to determine the entire coverage of the camera is to look
directly behind the lens of the camera. On this manner, the objects can be framed properly and
recorded on the film.
Twin Lens Reflex Type – Basically, the twin lens reflex camera has two lenses, one for the viewing
and focusing of the objects, and the other is the taking lens.
View or Press Camera Type – the biggest and the most sophisticated among the different types of
camera. This type of camera is practically useless for candid or action photograph. However this type of
camera is very useful in law enforcement photography especially in the reproduction of document and
photomicrography.

Digital camera
1975 – Kodak digital camera prototype
- Created in 1975 by Steve Sasson, an engineer at Kodak, the first ever digital camera was a
fairly rudimentary affair compared to what we use today.

1994 Apple Quick Take 100

- The first digital cameras for the consumer-level market that worked with a home computer via a
serial cable were the Apple QuickTake100 camera.
What are Other Types of Camera (According to Film use/s)
1. Press Camera - A camera loaded with a sheet of film. They are traditional folding bellows designs
with a lens standard in an extendable baseboard.
2. Underwater Camera - Designed for underwater photography.
3. Wide View angle Camera - A camera with a wide angle lens that produces a rectangular image that
is designed for landscape photography and architectural photography.
4. Panoramic Camera - Used for landscaping photography. It is easy to use by encompassing a 120®,
180®, or 360® view of one exposure.
5. Still Video Camera - Images can be stored in video tapes equipment with a floppy disc, a disc that
can hold about 50 images or more.

LENS
The basic function of a camera lens is to "gather" light rays from a subject, form and focus those rays
into an image, and project this image onto film inside the camera. Optical glass can bend or change the
direction of light rays that pass through it. When a piece of glass is shaped with concave or convex
surfaces, light rays may be directed up, down, or straight, depending on the configuration of the lenses.

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 A system of one or more pieces of glass bounded by spherical surfaces, the center of which is at a
common axis, termed the lens axis.
 A mechanism or system which converges or diverges light passing through it to form an image.

Two Main Types According to Shape:

a. Convergent/Positive/Convex Lens
- It is always thicker at the center and thinner at the sides. Light passing through it are
bended toward each other on the other side of lens meeting at a point. It produce a real
image on the opposite side of the lens or where light is coming from.
b. Divergent/Negative/Concave Lens
- It is always thinner at the center and thicker at the sides. Light passing through it are bended
away from each other as if coming from a point. It produce a virtual image on the same side of
the lens or where light is coming from.

LENS CHARACTERISTICS
1. Focal length – is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film plane when
the lens is set or focused at infinity position. As according to focal length, lenses may be classified
as:
a. Wide-angle lens – a lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative material.
b. Normal lens – a lens with a focal length of approximately equal or more but not more
than twice the diagonal of its negative material.
c. Long or Telephoto lens – a lens with a focal length of more than twice the diagonal of its
negative material.
2. Relative aperture – the light gathering power of the lens is expressed in the F-number system. It is
otherwise called the relative aperture. By increasing or decreasing the F-number numerically, it is
possible to:
a. control has the amount of light passing through the lens
b. control the depth of field
c. control the degree of sharpness due to the lens defects.
 Depth of field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent
sharp focus when the lens is set or focused at a particular distance.
 Hyper focal distance – is the nearest distance at which a lens is focused with a given particular
diaphragm opening which will give the maximum depth of field.
3. Focusing – is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image a lens of a camera
except those fixed focused requires focusing. A lens may be focused by any of the following.
a. Focusing scale or scale bed – a scale is usually found at the lens barrel indicating pre-settled
distance in feet or in meters. To focus the lens of the camera, the distance of the object to be
photographed is measured, estimated, or calculated and the pointer or maker on the lens barrel
is adjusted to the corresponding number on the scale.
b. Range-finders – is a mechanism that measures the angle of the convergence of light
coming from a subject as seen from two apertures. There are two types of range-finders:
1. Split-image through the rangefinder, the image of a straight line in the object appears to be
cut into halves and separated from each other when the lens is not in focus. When the images
of the lines are aligned, the lens is in focus.
2. Co-incident image – through the eyepiece, a single image is seen double when the subject is
out of focus. Make the image coincide and the lens is in focus.

DEFECTS OF LENSES
1. Astigmatism - The inability of the lens to bring to focus both vertical and horizontal lines on
the same plane. Astigmatism is caused by axial rays (not parallel to the lens axis). It will
appear that lines of equal density (darkness) are less dense horizontally or vertically.
Astigmatism is improved by stopping down the lens (smaller lens opening, larger F number).
2. Coma - Coma causes parallel oblique rays passing through a lens to be imaged (focused) not as a
point, but as a comet shaped (oval) image. Coma can be improved by stopping down the lens.
3. Curvature of Field - The plane of sharpest focus becomes curved, not flat. It is caused by rays
from the outer limits of the subject plane coming to focus nearer to the lens than the axial rays. This
defect is not improved by stopping down the lens.
4. Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration - The inability of a lens to focus all colors (wavelengths) at the
same plane on the lens axis. This defect is not improved by stopping down the lens. This is
normally only noticeable in long telephoto lenses. It is reduced by the use of special glass elements,
referred to as ED, ID, LD or Fluorite.

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5. Lateral Chromatic Aberration - lateral displacement of color images at the focal plane. Caused by
different sizes of images by produced by different colors even though the image is all on the same
plane. Produces color fringing of red or blue. Not improved by stopping down.
6. Spherical Aberration - Inability of all rays to focus at the same point. Marginal rays (at the edge)
through the lens come to focus closer to the lens than do paraxial rays (rays parallel to the axis or
center).
7. Distortion - distortion causes the image of a straight line, at the edges of the field (CCD) to bow in
or out. Bowed in, pincushion, bowed out barrel distortions. Produced by variations of magnifications
over the field of the lens, particularly at the ends of its range (max wide angle, max telephoto). It
does not affect sharpness, only shape of the image. It is not improved by stopping down. Very
common in extreme wide angles and lenses with WA adapters.
8. Flare- Flare is non-image forming light. Reduces contrast and color saturation. Flare is caused by
very bright subject areas and produces internal reflections in the lens. Stacking of filters can
increase flare. Lens coatings by the Mfg. keeps flare to a minimum. The use of a suitable hood (not
the stock hood) can also aid in reducing flare (telephoto). It does not affect sharpness, only shape
of the image. It is not improved by stopping down. Very common in extreme wide angles and lenses
with WA adapters.

What are the main groups of camera lenses?

1. Simple Meniscus Lens
 This is usually found in simple box cameras that comprise a single piece of glass with one
side convex and the other side Concave. It is an uncorrected lens and therefore suffers from
inherent defects of lenses.
2. Rapid Rectilinear Lens
 This is a combination of two achromatic lenses with almost the same focal length. This is
corrected from some kind of lens defect but not to astigmatism defects.
3. Achromatic Lens
 A lens which is partly corrected for achromatic aberration.
4. Anastigmatic Lens
 Lens free from astigmatic and other types of lens defect. It has the ability to focus vertical or
horizontal lines at the same time.
5. Process Lens
 A saucer-corrected lens for astigmatism. It has a better color correction and has the ability
to produce the best definition of image in the photographs.
6. Fixed Focus Lens
 A lens used in all fixed focus cameras. Basically, it has short focal length and greater
depth of field.
What are the special types of lenses?
1. Macro Lenses
 The word “macro” is derived from Greek word which means “to enlarge”. In
photographic terms, a macro lens is designed with extended focusing capabilities to
shoot a few inches from the subject.
Two Main Types:
 One is meant to be used on a hand-held tripod mounted camera and ranges from 40mm to
about 90mm with the average about 25mm.
 Wide angle or a lens with focal length of 100mm or more and is designed with a close-up
bellows attachment of the camera. The longer lenses give a longer image and are most
suitable for static subjects and painstaking photography.
2. Zoom Lenses
 Allow quick adjustment to give a wide or narrow field of vision. It can be moved back
and forth while other elements stay in place which give the same effects as if the
camera itself was moving towards or away from the subject.

SHUTTER
A device that opens to uncover the film to make an exposure for an accurately timed intervals then
close automatically. The action of the shutter is expressed in the different shutter speeds which
corresponds to the length of time or duration of the opening to the closing of the shutter.
The different shutter speeds:

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B-for bulb or brief
1 Two general types of shutter
2
4 1. Central Shutters – one that is located near the lens (usually between the elements of
8 the lens). It is made of metal leaves and its action starts from the center toward the side
15 then closes back to the center.
30
60 2. Focal Plane Shutter – is located near the focal place or the sensitized material.
125 It is usually made of cloth curtain. Its action starts on one side and closes on the
250
opposite sides.
500
1000

EXPOSURE
Exposure is the action of recording radiant energy that produces a change on a material or substances
sensitive to such energy. In conventional photography materials, the action of exposing energy reduces
or breaks down the silver halide sufficiently to produce a latent (invisible) record of the pattern of light
intensity or in the case of printing material, a visible record. Exposure– is the product of illumination and
time. Exposure is computed by any of the following methods.

1. Use of light or exposure meter. The amount of light coming from a source or the amount of light
being reflected by the subject is measured by the light meter. Proper adjustment therefore becomes
simplified.
2. By taking into consideration exposure factors like; emulsion speed or film sensitivity, lightning
condition, kind of subject.

Example of Normal Exposure

Film Speed Lighting Condition

Bright sun Hazy sun Dull sun

ISO 100/21ͦ 1/125 f-11 f-8 f-5.6

ISO 200/24ͦ 1/250 f-11 f-8 f-5.6
1/125 f-11 f-11 f-8
ISO 400/27ͦ 1/500 f-11 f-f-8 f-5.6
1/250 f-f-16 f-11 f-8
1/125 f-22 f-16 f-11
Note: The higher the F-number, the smaller the aperture.

Flash Photography
Brief flash of light produced by burning metal wires (flash bulb) or an electric discharge through a gas
filled tube (electronic flash) is the most common supplemental light for still photography.

Types of Flash
1. Exposure with flash
a. Shutter speed- both electronic flash unit and flash bulb provides light in a relatively high
illumination level in a short period of time. Because it is important for the camera shutter to be open
for this brief period of time.
b. Lens opening- flash may be computed by the use of the “guide number” of a flash unit. A guide
number is usually dependent on the film speed and the light output. Electronic flash units guide
numbers are based on reflected light output of the unit based on the beam candlepower seconds
(BCPS) or effective candlepower seconds (ECPS). The guide numbers of the different film speeds
and the output of the electronic flash units is usually found on a reference table at the back of the
flash unit. Guide numbers are used to find the f-numbers at which the exposures should be make
on the following formula:
Guide number (GN) = f- number
Distance in feet

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 2. On- Camera flash- flash on camera or held close to the camera with a bracket provides a direct,
hard light. Because it puts the maximum level of light on the subjects, it creates a problem of the
“red eye” in a human subject, harsh shadow of subjects with a near background, and reflections
from shiny spots in the background.
3. Off-Camera flash- with this unit, the flash can be moved away from the camera at arm’s length or
more. When the flash unit is used in this manner, the photographer can improve the effectiveness
of the flash lighting like:
a. Multiple flash- more than one flash unit is used. One is concerned with the camera with a flash
cord while the other is attached to a “slave” unit.
b. Fill-in-flash- when you want to eliminate or add illumination to shadow areas or subject so detail
that otherwise will not appear clearly in the final picture.
c. Open flash- the shutter speed is set “B” and once the shutter is open, the flash is activated or
fired manually. Then the shutter is released or is closed.
d. Bounce flash- instead of the light going directly to the subject, it is bounced on light colored
ceilings or walls near the subject. This will give a softer effect on the subject, and also diminish
or reduce harsh shadow that will be casted by the subject.
4. Umbrella flash- a modified type of bounce flash by using an umbrella lined with silver, white, blue
or amber colored especially made for photography. The flash is mounted on the handle of the
umbrella aimed at its inside center. This inside center is then aimed toward the subject.
5. Ring flash- this is a round or circular flash unit usually placed around the outer end of the camera
lens. This is used for taking close-ups or macro photography especially in medical photography.
PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTERS
Used to modify the amount of light that reaches the film. These are discs of glass or negative
which when placed in front of the camera lens, stop or another color of light from passing through in
striking the film. These are usually used only for black and white photography and even then should not
be used for most in police photography. Usually made of glass or gelatin materials placed in front or
before the lens. These are used to change the composition of available light before allowing it to strike
the film. A transparent colored medium employed to regulate either the color or the intensity of light
used to expose the film.

Two types of filter used in photography

1. Optical filter- are made either of glass or acetate. Optical filters are used primarily to control
exposing energy (visible wavelength, ultraviolet, infrared rays) and the composition of working
illumination in areas where sensitized materials are handled.
2. Particle or solution filter- is used in special photographic procedures like in infrared luminescence.

What are the other types of filters?

1. Light Balancing filter
 A filter used to change the color quantity of the exposing light in order to secure proper
color balance for artificial light films.
2. Color Compensating Filter
 It is used to change the overall color balance of photographic results obtained with color
films and to compensate for deficiencies in the quality of exposing energy.
3. Neutral Density Film
 It is being used when the light is too bright to allow the use of desired f-number of shutter
speed with a particular film.
4. Polarizing Filter
 It is used to reduce or minimize reflection on subjects like water glass, and highly polished
surfaces.
5. Special 18 A Deep Purple Filters
 It is the correct filter for ultraviolet photography. These are often used in photography; its
short wavelength gives better definition of the fine details.
6. Polarizing Filter and Neutral Density Filter
 Use to cut down light transmission. They do not otherwise affect the color or tonal quality of
the scene. Polarized reflected light from a non-metallic surface such as water and reduced
reflection in the photograph. It is the only filter that can increase the blue saturation in the
sky in a color photograph.

Filter classification
1. Contrast

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 2. Correction
3. Haze
4. Sky
5. Polarizing Filter

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS AND PAPERS

SENSITIZED MATERIALS
Photographic Film
 Is a chemically reactive material that records a fixed or still image when exposed to light. It is a
cellulose tape or plate where silver salts are suspended capable of recording light. Its primary
function is to record the image that is focused upon it by the lens of the camera.
Photographic Papers
 A type of light sensitized material that produces a positive result or photographs after
development which is the final result of photography. A material suspended with an emulsion.

KINDS OF FILM
1. Ordinary/Panchromatic Film- It is sensitive to all colors especially to blue and violet. It is suitable for
general use in the preparation of black and white photographs.
Classes of Ordinary Film
 Process Panchromatic Film or Short Scale- Low in speed and high in contrast.
 Fine Grain Panchromatic Film of Long Scale- Permit short exposures under average lighting
conditions and has the advantage of fine grain structure.
 High Speed Panchromatic Film- It was originally intended for photographing and object or
subject under adverse lighting conditions.
2. Blue Sensitive Film-A film especially treated that makes it more sensitive too blue rays of light.
3. Orthochromatic /Kodalith Film- Sensitive to all colors except red. Good for fingerprint
photography or document (high contrast).
4. Mini copy Film- Film with limited enlargement capability.
5. Polaroid film- Contains chemicals for developing and fixation. A special type of sensitized material
that produces a photograph immediately after exposure.
6. Color Film -All film ending in “COLOR”.
a. Color Negatives – for prints, ends in word “COLOR”
b. Color Transparency – for slides, ends in the word “CHROME”.
7. Color Infrared Film - a special type of film which is sensitive to infra-red radiation. It is also sensitive
to violet and blue-green. It is useful in penetrating haze because of its longer wavelength. In
investigative photography, it is useful in laboratory analysis of questionable documents. In the discovery
of old or faded tattoos or areas where small objects are hidden under the skin.
8. X-rayFilm- A material which is sensitive to x-ray region of electromagnetic spectrum.

What are the general types of emulsions?

1. Monochromatic Film
 Because of its limited color sensitivity, has no use in regular photography. It is used
primarily for recopying.
2. Orthochromatic Films
 These are sensitive to ultraviolet, violet, blue, green and yellow portions of the
spectrum. They do not accurately reproduce the relative brightness of the subject of a
subject as seen by the naked eye. It is available in sheet film only and it is not used in
regular police photography.
3. Panchromatic films
 These are sensitive to all colors of the visual spectrum to assist in the selection of the
correct film for any kind of work. These are divided based on color sensitivity.

Characteristics of B & W Films

Emulsion- this is the most important layer; it contains the silver halide crystals that react when the film
is exposed to light, causing a latent (unseen) image.
1. Emulsion Speed
 The different indicators of emulsion speed are as follows:
a ASA (American Standard Association) Rating. This is expressed in arithmetical value.
b DIN (Deutche Industri Normen) Rating. This is expressed in logarithmic Value

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 c ISO (International Standards Organization) rating. This is expressed in the combined
arithmetical and logarithmic values.
The different emulsion speed ratings are:

ASA DIN ISO

12 12 12/12
25 15 25/15
50 18 50/18
100 21 100/21
200 24 200/24
400 27 400/27
800 30 800/30
*Slow films - These range from ASA 25 (or lower) to approximately ASA 80. Slow black-and-white
films, because of their fine grain structure, can be enlarged considerably without showing
graininess. However, a slow film has more inherent contrast than a fast film, and this can be a
handicap under some conditions. When the light level is adequate, a slow film is an assurance of
medium-high contrast, and a capacity for greatly enlarged negatives or slides.
*Medium-speed films - From about ASA 100 to 250, a film falls between slow and fast, has good
grain structure, medium inherent contrast, and is appropriate for many subjects and conditions.
There are color-negative and slide films, plus black-and-white-films, in this speed range.
*Fast films - From ASA 250 to 400 is the fast speed range, and in this range Kodak Tri-X is the favorite
of many professionals. Rated at ASA 400, Tri-X produces slightly less contrast in a given situation,
compared with slower films such as Plus-X and Panatomic-X. This means it is slightly easier to achieve
shadow detail in bright sunlight with Tri-X, though of course much depends on exposure and
development. In enlargements greater than about 8 x 10, graininess is more pronounced in fast
compared with slower films, but with proper exposure and development, grain should not be a problem.
In actual practice, I feel that if grain shows in a print, it belongs there because lighting conditions,
development, or degree of enlargement made it so.
*Superfast films - There are only a few superfast films in the ASA 1000 to3200 range, and these are
for special purposes. Superfast films are designed for use in very poor lighting conditions when you
can’t or don’t want to add artificial light, or they are used for obvious grain effects. Eastman Kodak says
in a booklet about films approximately what I said above, “grain is usually acceptable in the type of
pictures for which the film is designed.” In other words, if you need a fast or superfast film, or must
make huge enlargements that accentuate grain, it will appear appropriate to the photograph.

2. Spectral Sensitivity
 Color sensitivity
 The different classifications of films are according to spectral sensitivity are:
a. Blue Sensitive Film – Sensitive to ultra-violet rays and blue light only.
b. Orthochromatic Film - Sensitive to ultra-violet rays and blue light only.
c. Panchromatic film – sensitive to ultra-violet radiation to blue, green or all colors.
d. Infra-red Film – sensitive to ultra-violet rays, to blue, green red light and infra-red rays.
3. Granularity or Graininess
 This refers to the size of the metallic silver grains that are formed after the development of
an exposed film. The sizes of the metallic silver grains are dependent on the emulsion
speed of the film and the type of developing solution that is used in the processing. The
rule is: the lower the emulsion speed rating, the finer the grain and conversely, the higher
the emulsion speeds rating of the film, the bigger the grains. Likewise a film developer will
produce a finer grain than a paper developer when used for film processing.

Layers of black and white Film

1. Gelatin Anti-Halation Layer- this layer prevents light from passing back through the emulsion layer
once it has already passed through.
2. Anti-Curl Backing- this layer stabilizes the laminate to prevent it from curling.
3. Adhesion Layer -this layer is used to bond different layers together.
4. Film Base- this is a transparent layer that supports the image.
5. Emulsion- this is the most important layer; it contains the silver halide crystals that react when the
film is exposed to light, causing a latent (unseen) image.
6. Gelatin Protective Coating- also known as the anti-scratch layer. They serve as a support to the
emulsion.

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Color Films
A color film is a multi-layer emulsion coated on the same support or base. The top emulsion is sensitive
to blue light only. Since green and red light passes through it without effect, the blue light alone makes
the exposure. A yellow filter layer above the middle emulsion absorbs any unused blue light and
prevents it from reaching the two lower emulsion layers. The yellow color in the filter layer has no
permanent effect on the appearance of the film because it is destroyed during processing. The middle
emulsion is sensitive to green light but not to red light. Like emulsions, the middle layer is also sensitive
to blue light but the blue light cannot reach it. The exposure in this layer is therefore made by green
light alone. The bottom layer is sensitive to red light, but its sensitivity to green light is so low as to be
negligible. Hence, the exposure in this layer is made by red light alone. These three emulsion layers
are coated on a film base which has an anti-halation backing.

Important Terms in the Study of Films

Emulsion- A thin layer of light-sensitive material, usually silver halide; emulsion is coated on a
transparent base for film, and on a paper base for printing papers.
Silver halides- Tiny crystals or grains of silver which darken when exposed to a sufficient amount of
light. Shades of gray are produced in the emulsion according to its sensitivity, the size of the halide
crystals, the thickness of the layer, and the amount of light that affects it.
Anti-Halation backing- A dye coating on the back of the film base which helps prevent light rays from
reflecting back through the emulsion.
Halation- Dispersal of intense light rays around bright areas of an image, the effect of which is to
decrease image sharpness
Grain- Individual, microscopically small particles of silver which give film its sensitivity to light and
ability to form an image. Larger particles of silver, sensitized by light first, are characteristic of “fast”
films.
Graininess- A fine, granular texture that appears in a negative, print, or slide resulting from the
clumping of silver grains during development of the film. Graininess is also influenced by film speed,
negative density, and degree of enlargement.
Latent image- The invisible image left by the action of light on photographic film or paper. When
processed, the latent image becomes a visible image, either as a negative, or as a positive black-
and-white print or color transparency.
Film speed- A number, usually an ASA rating or an exposure index (EI) rating, that indicates the
relative light sensitivity of a specific film. The higher the number, the more sensitive or “faster” the film.
Fog- The darkening of a negative or print, or lightening of a slide caused by: (1) exposure to light
leaking into film containers or any light other than the image-forming light that comes through the lens,
(2) overdevelopment, (3) aging or outdated film or paper, or (4) storage of film or paper in a hot humid
place.
Contrast- It is the degree of difference between the darkest tone and the lightest tone in a negative,
print, or slide. The darkest tone may be black, and the lightest may be pure white, depending on the
subject, lighting, exposure, and development.
Density- In a negative or slide density relates to the amount of developed silver (or dye) in any area,
and is a measure of the “light-stopping power” of that area.
Transmission- The amount of light that gets through a given negative or slide area divided by the
total amount of light that hits that area is referred to as transmission. Thus a transmission of 85
percent means that 85 percent of the light hitting any specific part of a negative or transparency gets
through it.
Opacity- This term turns transmission upside-down, and refers to the total amount of light that hits a
given area divided by the amount of light that gets through that area. Opacity relates directly to
density; the words actually describe the same thing, but are written in different ways or math formulas.
Gamma- The relative contrast in a negative due to development is described as gamma. It is easy to
become tangled in terminology that describes the quality of a negative.
Latitude- Latitude is the ability of a film to compensate – within somewhat narrow limits – for mistakes
of exposure and/or development.
Film Latitude- Film latitude refers to the ability of a film to compensate for exposure errors – to be
improperly exposed and still provide an acceptable negative or slide.
Slide films- These are much less stable than negative materials, and should be stored in a refrigerator
almost until the time they are to be used.

Photographic Paper

The result of photography in its final form is the photograph. The materials necessary to
produce a photograph (POSITIVE PRINT) are a sensitized paper. Printing paper invented by Louis
Désiré Blanquart Evrard in 1850.

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 A photographic paper is made of a layer of a photosensitive substrate: the photographic
emulsion that is coated on a piece of paper. Once exposed to light it needs to be chemically developed
and desensitized to light in order to render the image and make it permanent. Photos consist of at least
two components:
1. Paper. This can include thin sheets of plain paper, like that used to create office
documents, or thick, multi-layered papers.
2. Image-forming Materials. These are the colorants that make up the picture. Image
forming materials include dyes, pigments, and silver compound.

Characteristics of Photographic Paper

1. Emulsion Speed
a. Chloride Paper - Has a slow speed and is suited for contact printing.
b. Bromide Paper - Has fast speed and is recommended projection for printing or enlarging.
c. Chloro-Bromide Paper - A multi-speed and could be used in both contact printing and
enlarging.
In most photographic papers, the contrast range or grade are indicated by numbers-
number 0-5.
 Numbers 0 to 1 are used in over-exposed or low contrast negatives.
 Number 2 are used in normal exposed or normal contrast negatives.
 Numbers 3 to 5 are used in under-exposed or high contrast negatives.

Physical Characteristics
a. Surfaces of photographic papers vary in surface texture or degrees gloss or sheen. They are
the glossy and smooth, semi-matte or silk and the matte or rough surface.
b. Base weight or thickness. Under this category, we have the light weight, single weight, and
the double weight.
c. Color may be “cold” or white with a very slight blue cast, and the “warm'' or “cream” where the
white has a slight yellow-brown line.

Photographic Papers for Color Printing

These are essentially similar to the film used in the camera except that the emulsion layers are
coated on a paper base and contain couplers which are colorless. Colored couplers are not used
because the print would then be unsuitable for direct viewing.

Printing a negative in complementary colors on a non-reversal print reverses both the tone scale
and the color of the negative. Thus, the final result is a positive reproduction within the accuracy
limits of the photographic processes of the tones and colors of the original subject.

What are the Types of Black and White Photographic Emulsions?

1. Silver Chloride [AgCl] Emulsions. They are very slow (low sensitivity to light) and mainly used
for contact printing works with long exposure times. Their sensitivity is limited to UV light and
violet.
2. Silver Bromide [AgBr] Emulsions. They are very fast (very sensitive to light). Their sensitivity
widens almost up to green light. Their tonal range is shorter and cannot rival the one offered by
Silver Chloride emulsions. They print with a neutral to cold cast.
3. Chlorobromide Emulsions. They are sensitive enough to allow working under the enlarger which
requires relatively short exposure times.
4. Silver Chlorobromide. Used in modern photo paper that have sensitivity to light that may go
from violet, blue up to cyan, but not necessarily up to green and most definitely not up to red light.

What are the Types of Photographic Paper that can be used in Law Enforcement?
1. Glossy Paper. Amongst all the different types of photo paper, glossy paper is the only one that
tends to reflect light in a way that the photo becomes unclear.
2. Matte. They produce greater contrast largely because the colour black shows up well in them. You
should use matte photo paper if you foresee reflection and fingerprints being a problem.
3. Canvas. The only flaw of canvas paper is that it is textured. This means that in certain types of
lighting and angles, bumps can become evident on the surface.
4. Pearl or Lustre. Pearl or lustre as these photo papers are often known as semi glossy photo
papers except for the fact that they have a textured feel. Pearl photo papers are high quality
products that combine the qualities of matte and satin photo papers.

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 5. Metallic. If compared to different types of photo paper, metallic photo papers can be said to
produce the glossy look albeit with a metallic tinge to them. These photo papers often give
chrome like appearance and can provide high quality sharpness and clarity to the image being
printed.

CHEMICAL PROCESSING AND PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING

Chemical Processing
After the exposure of the film to light in the picture taking or the photographic paper during printing, the
next step would generally be chemical processing. In black and white processing, the steps are
development, stop-bath, and fixation. In color processing, the steps are color development, stop fix and
stabilizer.

Stages of Chemical Processing

1. Development- is the process by which an invisible latent image in an emulsion is made visible.
In black and white emulsion, the image is composed of grains of black metallic silver. In a color
emulsions, the developed silver is replaced with cyan, yellow, and magenta dye. In the
development, a developing agent chemically breaks down or reduce exposed silver hallide
crystals to form grains of metallic silver. This process of reaction is the same in both black and
white films and photographic papers.
2. Stop-bath- it halts the developer action in appropriate moment. It also prevents the
contamination of the developer and fixer from each other.
3. Fixation- a fixer makes the developed image permanent when it is followed by a through
washing. In this processing stage, the unexposed underdeveloped silver halides crystals are
dissolved and removed from the emulsion of the photographic material.

Darkroom – A light tight room used for developing film making contact print and enlargement. A room
protected from rays of light harmful to sensitized materials, plates and papers.
A Darkroom is used to process photographic film, to make prints and to carry out other associated
tasks. It is a room that can be made completely dark to allow the processing of the light-sensitive
photographic materials, including film and photographic paper.
Two distinct sides:
1. Dry Side – Enlarger side and materials that must be kept away from water.
2. Wet Side – Processing area, chemical, stock solutions, trays and other materials.

Chemical Processes:
- Developing process of film – the latent image becomes permanent and visible in a
reverse way thus producing a negative.
- Developing process of photo paper – the permanent and visible image produces positive
print, image or photographs.

Two Factors to be considered in developing process:

1. Density – is the degree of darkness of the image developed – too dark or to light.
2. Contrast – is the difference of tone from another.

Factors that affect chemical development of the sensitized material:

1. Concentration or strength of the working solution – used mixture procedure by
manufacturers.
2. Temperature of chemical involved in the development process
3. Time of development
4. Agitation of the sensitized material during development.

Chemical Processing:
1. Development–processes of reduction, exposed silver halides are reduced in to metallic silver.
2. Stop-bath– it is an intermediate bath between development and fixer –To
prevent contamination of the chemical.
3. Fixation– the process of removing unexposed silver halides remaining in the emulsion after the
first stage of development of the latent image.
4. Washing– use of running water.
5. The application “Wetting Agent”/Photo-flo/Foto-glo –to prevent water mark and easier to dry.
6. Drying.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF DEVELOPER

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 1. Reducers or developing agents – Elon, Hydroquinone
2. Preservative – sodium sulfite
3. Accelerator – sodium carbonate
4. Restrainer or fog preventer – potassium bromide

Chemical component of a fixer:

1. Dissolving Agent – Hypo or sodium thiosulphite
2. Preservative – Sodium sulphite
3. Neutralizer – boric and acetic acid
4. Hardener – Potassium alum.

Two systems of film developing:

1. Repeated use system – after each development the solution is poured in a container for
use again.
2. One shot system - after development the solution is poured into the sink.

Faults and Remedy on Negatives:

1. Intensification–under-exposed negative. The addition of minute part of another metal
usually chromium or mercury on the top of the metallic silver formed to strengthen contrast to
obtain good density. Under exposed negatives.
2. Reduction–over exposed negative. The reducing of density in the negative-overexposed negatives
potassium ferricyanide and sodium thiosulphate or Hypo of Framer’s Reducer.
3. Increasing or decreasing development time.
4. Use of development that increase or subdues contrast.

Film Processing Procedure

1. Tank Method of Film development
 Developing time about 5-6 minutes. Put in the stop-bath, agitate the tank some more and after
15-20 seconds drain out the stop bath. Next is to pour the fixing bath. Agitation should also be
done. And after 15-20 minutes drain the fixer from the tank. You may now wash the negative for
several changes of preference in running water for another 15 to 20 minutes. Water that
adheres on the surface of the negative can cause watermarks if allowed to dry without wiping.
Hang the negative to dry at a clean, but free place or better in a negative drier.

2. Tray Method of Film Development

 The developer is placed on a tray. In total darkness, remove the film from the cartridge then
hold the end of the film and immerse the film in the developer in the tray making, make sure that
the film is thoroughly dipped until the whole length of the film is evenly wet. Developing time of
4-5 minutes is done. Then transfer it to the stop-bath for 10-15 seconds. Thereafter, place the
film in the fixer for about 5 minutes then you can now open the white light.

What are the Types of Rinse Bath?

a. Water Rinse Bath helps retard the action of the developing agent and remove the excess
developer from the film, thus preventing contamination of the fixing bath. A water rinse is suitable
and enough for most negative, however, it dilutes the fixer. So, when it is used, it should be
followed by an acid bath. The same procedure applies when processing prints.
b. Acid Rinse Bath is sometimes referred to as Stop Bath, and is more effective than water rinse as
it instantly neutralizes the action of the developer and stops further development. It also neutralizes
the alkalinity of the developer and prolongs the life acetic acid in 32 oz. of water.
c. Hardening Rinse Bath is used only when it is impossible to control the temperature of the solutions,
particularly the wash water, or when development is done in the high temperature or under tropical
conditions. A typical hardening rinse bath contains the following: 32- oz. water; 1 oz. potassium
chrome alum; and 1 oz. sodium bisulfate. A solution containing potassium chrome alum is very
unsuitable and becomes exhausted quickly with or without use.

PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING

Printmaking Process:
1. Printmaking – the final stage in making photographs.
2. Enlarger – It is a machine used in making enlargement. Is a specialized transparency used to
produce prints from film or glass, or from film or glass negatives, or from transparencies.
3. Contact Printing – photograph is made through direct negative and paper contact.

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Factors to consider in selecting negative:
1. Sharpness
2. Density
3. Contrast
General Types of Photographic Printing
1. Contact Printing
 The procedure of exposing photographic print materials while it is pressed in contact with
the negative being reproduced. When the photograph is made through direct negative and
paper contact, this process is known as contact printing. This is the simplest and the most
economical method of photographic printing. In terms of print quality, it can surpass
enlargement in tonality because there is no scattering of image forming lights as these can
be projected beams of an enlarger. It usually looks sharper because there is no lens on the
printing system to add its aberrations in the print process and also because details that may
be slightly out of focus are not enlarged so the unsharpness is not apparent.
2. Projection Printing or Enlarging
 This is the type of printing where the image in a negative is optically or enlarged onto a print
material for exposure to produce a picture image. The main equipment used is the enlarger.

Enlarger Parts and Functions:

1. Enlarger Head – the main working part of enlarger contains: Light, condenser, lens, negative
holder, the lens itself.
2. Lamp – light that passes through the negative that exposed photo paper.
3. Condenser Lens – lens that spread the light coming from the lamp of the enlarger.
4. Negative carrier – hold the negative flat and level.
5. Lens Aperture – the opening of the lens that controls rays of light passing through it.
6. Lens – it is the one responsible in forming the image coming from the negative.
7. Focusing Mechanism – it moves the lens up and down to focus the projected image.
8. Enlarger Column – it is the holder of the enlarger head and commonly serves as a rail in
controlling the height of enlarger head.
9. Elevating Control Knob – control size of image by raising or lowering the enlarger head.
10. Base Board – the support of the entire unit of the enlarger.

Essential accessory of an enlarger:

a. Negative carrier
b. Easel or paper holder
c. Timer for consistent and repeatable exposure
● There are different sizes of enlargers. The size of the enlarger is dependent on the size of the
negative. There is the 8mm for micro films, the 35mm which is now the most common and
popular, and 120mm, or bigger negatives like 4”×5”.

Two General Types of Enlarger

1 Diffusion type
2 Condenser type

ENLARGING PROCEDURES FOR BLACK AND WHITE NEGATIVE

Process the test strips by immersing it in the developing solution for 1 to 1 ½ minutes. Slip the exposed
photographic paper into the developing solution to wet them evenly. Then transfer it to the stop-bath for
10-15 seconds then in the fixing bath for a minute or so. When the right exposure has been selected,
make a full print. Process it then evaluate the print for overall quality. Consider for possible cropping, for
local exposure control. Current fixing baths only require 10-15 minutes fixing time. Formerly it was 20-
30 minutes. Wash the prints in running water for another 20-30 minutes. Dry the prints.

Special Techniques
Cropping - Excluding or omitting some images on the negative from the final print. Local exposure
control is achieved by either burning or dodging.
Burning-in -Adding of exposure time on a specific area to bring out details.
Dodging -Holding the back of some lights to a specific area to make it lighter in density.

CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

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In modern scientific crime detection, photography is needed as an excellent aid of the investigator. The
investigator could not just rely on his memories and therefore need an artificial recorder for him to
remember all things and facts that he had investigated. Aside from the notes of the investigator, he
needs a camera because there are things which require accurate descriptions of subjects or objects
being investigated, hence photographs will serve the purpose.

The first application of photography in law enforcement was confined to the problems of personal
identification. The photographs of the criminal was taken and used to supplement the classification
made under the Bertillon system of personal identification.
Crime Scene - A place where the crime was perpetrated and physical evidence found there at.

Objectives of Crime Scene Photography

1. To produce a pictorial record of everything regarding the crime.
2. To help in keeping the police officer’s memory accurately as possible as to where he finds things.
3. To help in securing or obtaining confession, description and information to the case.

Importance of Crime Scene Photography

1. For identification of persons, documents, fingerprints, shoe prints, and splashes
of blood.
2. Preservation of evidence in court
3. Described better than words.
4. Proves statement.
5. Records things you may fail to notice
NOTE:
Upon arrival at the crime scene, photograph the whole area before anything is moved. Take shots
from different angles to show the whole area.

Five Legal Methods of Preserving the Crime Scene

1. Photography
2. Sketching
3. Notes taking or description
4. Manikin method- molding/casting
5. Preservation in the mind of the witness

Basic Importance of Crime Scene Photography

1. Refresh memory
2. Preserve time and event
3. Save money and effort
Importance of Photography in Law Enforcement
1. The utmost use of it is a record purpose. Photography will record the scene of the crime
permanently.
2. Photography can preserve all perishable evidence like contusion in the cases.

1. What are the Basic Requirements of a Photograph Admitted as Evidence in Court?

No matter how extensive the photographic efforts are the crime scene, photographs must stand the test
of legal admissibility. The general standards used to review the credibility of the photographs are:
1. Accurate representations
2. Free of distortion
3. Material and relevant
4. Unbiased

Rules in the Presentation of Photographic Evidence

 Consistency
 Clarity
 Scale

Photographing the Crime Scene

There must be a series of photographs of the crime scene to supply the maximum in formation and to
enable the viewer to understand how the crime was committed.

What are the kinds of photographs to be taken at the scene of the crime?
Over-all/ Over view Photographs

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Photographs of the Deceased
Photographs of Articles of Evidence
Special Techniques
Photograph of the environs
Photograph of the body after removal
Photographing the body after removal for identification of the victim

SOP’s in Crime Scene Photography

Obtain photographs of the crime scene nearly in the investigation preferably before anything has been
moved. Photograph from several angles so that proper dimension maybe shown. When dimensions are
important, use sort of scale (ruler) in the photography so that enlargement or reduction maybe
measured. Record on your note data concerning the photographs including directions and distances
from the principle objects in the scene. Sketches maybe helpful also. For special equipment call on the
laboratory.
Photography Procedures at the Crime Scene

1. General/Overview or long range view-Include photos leading up to the crime scene (ex. From
exterior to interior of a structure, and also include the entrance/exit(s). The purposes of the
overview photograph is to show the scene exactly as it was when you first saw it
2. Medium view or mid-range view-Shows relationships between evidence. Relationship of internal
structures.
3. Close-up view
4. Extreme close up

Guidelines in Taking Photographs at the Crime Scene

1. Establish Shot - This is an overall view from extreme to the other, it shows where we are,
a busy intersection, a far, a residential area, an airport, a factory, or even at the middle of
the jungle.
2. The Building - The next photograph should show the building in which the crime was
committed. This shows whether it is a private home, a factory, a small shop, a hotel, a
garage, usually two photographs will be needed of the front and back of the building.
3. The Entrance - This is usually the door, but maybe a window in a house breaking robbery.
If there is a gate and a door, take a photograph one for each entrance.
4. The Hallway - The camera now shows us what we would observe immediately after we
enter the building. It should show the location of the other rooms or doors through which
we must pass to get to the room in which the crime was committed.
5. The Room - This may be a bedroom, an office or a bathroom. The most difficult problem is
to include the entire scene sometime like in a building shot, two photographs from the
opposite corners will be enough. A wide lens is used. However, the investigator’s note
should also be carefully marked with the information.
6. Close Up - The number and types of close-up photographs will of course depend upon the
kind of crime. In general, close up should be made on:
a. Object Attacked - This may be a person, safe cash box or a display counter. The purpose of
these pictures is to show the amount and kind of damage, and the method of attack.
b. The Weapon or Tools Used - The photographer must be careful here to show a reference
point in every picture, it shows which are right, left, up and down, north and south, etc.
c. Significant Clues - These may be fingerprints, blood stains, foot prints, skid marks, tool
marks, broken glass, or any other physical evidence, fingerprint in particular case should be
photographed after dusting but before lifting.

Taking Photographs of Specific Crime Scene

1. Suicide by hanging -Strangulation is the most common type of suicide. But investigator must not
assume that the victim found hanging is due to suicide. Photograph the subject at a distant at four
views, showing the full body, and then move in close to show the knot, and the bruises marks. Note: do
not untie the knot, just cut it.
2. Suicide by Shooting -Photographs both entrance and exit wounds. In most case Exit wound is
larger than entrance wound. If possible, photograph close-up of the wound in color to show various
discoloration. Take note of the color of the body (discoloration). Usually, the hair surround the entrance
is singeing and the skin is burned to a reddish or grayish- brown. If it is fired from range of less than
eight inches, black residue maybe evident.

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3. Homicide Case -When photographing the scene, the Forensic photographer relates what he has
seen and defends before the court during trial. Through photograph he has to show the manner by
which the homicide occurred, views the room with all possible entrance and exit. He must to show
whether there are any evidence of struggle and try to show what happen prior to the crime scene.
Obvious evidence such as cigarette butts, blood stains or broken glass should not be overlooked. The
circumstances of death can be illustrated by various views of the body. Take close-up shots of the
wounds, bruises, weapon used and the place where it was taken.
4. Photographing Corpse -In photographing corpse on the scene, several pictures of the conditions at
the time of discovery including the environment of the corpse must be taken from various photographic
directions. Show the general condition of the corpse, if as being deformed as a whole. When
photographing the damage parts, consider the range of photographing to the damage part clearly; take
close-up shots on the several directions, if possible so as to clarify their relation.
5. Robbery Case - Photograph the general view of the crime scene. The point of entry begins with a
distant shot, and works into. Take close-up shots on the possible entry and exit to include the
pathways. Each room in house or a building which was disturbed should be photograph. Take some
shots of all furniture or articles which show as evidence of being ransack. Determine the possible point
of exit. Usually burglar may leave something at the crime scene especially when she is surprised by
someone, such as hat, gloves, and scarf or cigarette butts, etc...
6. Sex Offenses -The crime of rape may be taken as typical type of offense. There must be a written
permission from the victim, the photograph must be taken in the presence of their parents or guardian
or medico legal officer. The indication of the victim’s effort to resists bruises and blue marks and
evidence of the presence of either or both parties at the scene. To the VICTIM: Verify the head, neck
including marks and discoloration of the body and genital, the conditions of specifically affected parts,
and the presence of foreign hairs, fibers, and biological stains. Bite marks wounds should be
photographed at twelve to 24 hours intervals for the proceeding days. To the SUSPECT: the suspect’s
body may show evidence of struggle, such as scratches or bruises, foreign hairs that maybe discovered
by the physician. The garments of the suspects may reveal blood stains, semen, hair strands, etc.

7. Arson -The photographer should be the first man to arrive at the scene so that he will be able to
begin photographing the scene, before the fire trucks arrive he should have his photographic equipment
ready to start shooting immediately. Be sure to photograph as many speculators as you can. It is a
common knowledge that most or the arsonist get their kicks out of watching the fire and maybe in the
crowd. After the fire is extinguished, take interior views of the scene from diagonally opposite corners of
the buildings. Also get up a high ladder and take more photographs of the ruins of the fire to show the
entire extent of fire. To the immediate vicinity of the fire should also be photographed after the fire to
show the location of the building in relation to other building of the neighborhood
 Problems:
● The greatest scourge to the fire photographer is lens fogging, produced by contact with heat and
steam. The photographer must wait for the air to cool somewhat because attempting to photograph
indoor damages.
● Smoke also forms a barrier which light sometimes cannot penetrate.

8. Road/Trafficaccidents
a. Avoid unnecessary surroundings/objects that are not pertinent tothecase.
b. “See through driver’s eye”. Photography should be taken from the eye level of the driver. If there are
witnesses, photographs should be taken at their level from thespotwhere theyhave seentheincident.
c. Shots should be taken from our points of the compass and 25 feet from point of impact to show the
approach and terrain.
d. Take close-up shots of the damage area in two angles from adistanceof 8to10 feet.
e. Takes shots in order and properly noted at the photographer notes so it will guide him and the
investigatorhow theaccident occurred.

The following steps are taken to ensure proper photographic documentation.

1. Secure the scene
2. Evaluate conditions
3. Shoot the scene
4. Photograph the victims
[Link] the evidence
6. Evidence Markers-Photographsshouldbe takenbefore evidencemarkersareplaced, thenagainafter.
7. Re-shootfor newevidence- If investigatorsmarknewevidence, thewhole seriesof shotsshouldbe
repeated,including all evidence shots.

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 Photographs as Evidence
The principal requirements to admit a photograph (digital or film-based) into evidence are relevance
and authentication. Unless the photograph is admitted by the stipulation of both parties, the party
attempting to admit the photograph into evidence must be prepared to offer testimony that the
photograph is an accurate representation of the scene. This usually means someone must testify that
the photograph accurately portrays the scene as viewed by that witness.

What to be Photograph?

 All vehicles in their original position.

 All victims
 Debris is the best indication that the photographer can show off where the first impact was
occurred.
 License plate of vehicles. These should be clear on at least one photograph of each vehicle.
 All skid and tire marks, patches of oil or water.
 If the vehicle had gone off the road and has made any marks on the soil, these should be
photographed. They may give indication of the speed of the vehicle.
 A close mark made in asphalt roadway should be taken to indicate the texture of the road.
 Photograph the vicinity of the accident that does not include the accident itself for reference
point.
 In photographing a hit-and run case, a special care should be taken.

Digital Photographs

Digital photography- uses cameras containing arrays of electronic photo detectors to produce images
focused by a lens, as opposed to an exposure on photographic film. The captured images are digitized
and stored as a computer file ready for further digital processing, viewing, electronic publishing, or
digital printing.

What is digital photography?

Made up of hundreds of thousands or millions of tiny squares called picture elements (or pixels)
Computer/printer uses the pixels to display or print the picture.

Digital Advantages
Some of the disadvantages of digital photography and cameras include:
□ Digital photography usually requires computer skills to manage and edit image
□ Digital images easily lose detail in whites and blacks.
□ Some digital cameras are difficult to focus.
□ Digital images are less subtle than film images.
□ Digital cameras become obsolete much faster than film cameras.
□ The digital storage can be lost; backups are absolutely necessary.
□ Many digital cameras do a poorer job focusing in low light than film cameras.
□ Digital cameras are bigger consumers of batteries than film cameras. Digital photographers need to
keep extra batteries on hand to ensure the camera stays charged.

What Forensic Tools that can be used to Expose and to Detect Hidden Data in Digital
Photograph?
EXIF File
EXIF, short for Exchangeable Image File Format, is a code snippet containing identifying
information of your image saved to your device. Depending on where the image is uploaded, EXIF
file data can be retained or removed automatically. Forensics tools can perform a quick analysis of
an original image file.
Lots of image data can be manipulated, such as description, author, and “date modified”
information. Many photographers may do this to preserve the originality of their work or for a
webmaster to reduce site load, as EXIF file information may take up considerable storage space.

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