Federico Villarreal National University

Education Faculty
Secondary Education School
Language and Literature Specialty

Course: General Linguistics

Topic: Linguistics and its foundations. The language and its
properties.

August December

Objectives: Explains the relationship of the nature of language as an object of study

of
linguistic science using an information organizer.
 linguistics

Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. A study is

called scientific when it is based on the observation of facts and
refrains from proposing a selection among these facts in the name
of certain aesthetic or moral principles. Scientific is, therefore,
opposed to prescriptive.
In the case of linguistics, it is particularly important to insist on the
scientific and non-prescriptive nature of its study.
 Branches of linguistics

Synchronous linguistics
• In the linguistic field, it is a horizontal or descriptive study, which
considers the state of a language at a given time, without taking
into account the temporal factor.
Diachronic linguistics
• In the linguistic field, it studies the relationships between
successive terms that replace each other over time.
 Disciplines of linguistics
The disciplines of linguistics are the following:

Phonetics:
Study the sound and the particularities of a language.
Phonology:
Study the sound system of the language in general.
Semantics:
Study the meaning of the words.
Morphology:
Study the formation and structure of words.
Syntax:
Study the word, but from a functional point of view.
 The linguistic sign

The linguist Ferdinand de Saussure studied the problem of the

linguistic sign. For him the sign is a psychic entity composed of
two elements: Signifier and meaning.
The signifier or acoustic image is the psychic imprint that the
stimulus of a sign produces in the mind. The meaning is the
concept that we form after the stimulus of a signifier.
 The linguistic context

• In language it normally happens that a word has multiple meanings. If

the reader checks any dictionary, he will notice this. To select the
appropriate meaning, words need to be placed in a context, that is,
placed among other words.
• In a broad sense, context is the frame of reference with respect to which
signs acquire a particular meaning. There are several kinds of contexts:
The semantic context, the situational context, the physical context, the
cultural context.
The language
• It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols through which members of a
society communicate and interact with each other. It is, in short, the
most efficient communication system that human beings have, since it is
the main vehicle through which both meaning and thought are
expressed.
• This activity that we do in our daily lives is a faculty of the human being
that makes us unique since it is universal because the entire human
species has it and at the same time it is exclusive because no other
species has a comparable communication system.
 Language properties
They were established by being C. Hockett and it is a series of characteristics that all
languages have, that is, design characteristics that make languages the way they are
and function in a certain way.
We have 13 characteristics that are common to all languages:
□ vocal-auditory canal □ productivity
□ radiated transmission and directional reception □ specialization
□ evanescence (or impermanence) □ displacement
□ cultural transmission □ exchange of roles
□ discreet character □ total feedback
□ semanticity
□ arbitrariness (or conventional character)
□ double joint
 Arbitrariness (or conventional character)

There is no relationship or natural connection between the mental representation of a

sign and its acoustic or graphic image. In this way we can affirm that the signals used
by human languages to communicate are categorized into symbols.

Double joint
Within each language there is a limited number of basic units without meaning—
phonemes—that can be joined together through infinite combinations, giving rise to
larger units with meaning. Consequently, the first articulation occurs in the phonemes,
and the second articulation in the possible combinations that these produce.

Displacement:
With language we are able to refer to distant concepts and events in the space-time
planes, consequently, we can communicate about elements that are not present either
temporally or spatially.

Role exchange:
Users of a language can be either senders or receivers of linguistic signs. Thus, in the
same user these roles are reversible and interchangeable.

Total feedback:
Each sender is in turn a receiver of his own emission. Consequently, the sender
controls what it emits at all times.
Federico Villarreal National University
Education Faculty
Secondary Education School
Language and Literature Specialty

Course: General Linguistics

Topic: Background of Structuralism

August December

Objectives: Explains the relationship of the nature of language as an object of study of

linguistic science using an information organizer.
 Structuralism

The linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in his book “Course in General Linguistics” (1916)
provides considerable contributions to the theory of structuralism. The structuralist
perspective considers that it is necessary to build “logical simulations” that will allow
us to achieve the facts that social life has imbued with significance.
In the 1940s and 1950s, French philosophy turned toward existentialism, mainly
through Sartre. Phenomenology, the return to Hegel and the philosophy of science
also emerge from the hand of Gastón Bachelard.
However, something changed in the 1960s when Sartre turned to Marxism, in that
context structuralism appeared.

Background

• The linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in his book “Course in General Linguistics”

 (1916) provides considerable contributions to the theory of structuralism. The
structuralist perspective considers that it is necessary to build “logical simulations”
that will allow us to achieve the facts that social life has imbued with significance.
• In the 1940s and 1950s, French philosophy turned toward existentialism, mainly
through Sartre. Phenomenology, the return to Hegel and the philosophy of science
also emerge from the hand of Gastón Bachelard.
• However, something changed in the 1960s when Sartre turned to Marxism, in that
context structuralism appeared.

Linguistic Structuralism

• It had its origin in the theories of Saussure. This ism influenced both linguistics and
other language sciences such as psychology, sociology and anthropology, and
biological sciences such as neurology and were influenced by mathematics and
other natural sciences.
• These influences became evident from some contributions that Piaget made, for
example, when he stated that a structure is made up of elements that are
subordinated to laws, in turn, these laws characterize the system and give the whole
overall properties different from the of the elements

General characteristics

• Structuralism considers language as a system, that is, a set of supportive elements

that have different relationships. Starting from Saussure's teachings, structuralists
radically adopt his contribution to language as a system of signs. In the same way
they study language from synchrony, that is, language as a present object.
• They carry out studies from a descriptive approach, analyzing the structures and
their relationships.
• They use an inductive method, they build theories from an analysis of the corpus as
such, without taking into account the influence of the medium or the context.
Structuralists adopt immanent criteria, that is, adhered to the natural essence of
 language.

Contributions of Structuralism

• Prague Linguistic Circle or Prague School

Its main representatives were Trubetzkoy and Jacobson. It was also known under the
name of functionalism. Linguists, within this school, analyzed the corpus or text based
on the function that language, communication, and each of the elements that are part
of the system fulfill. Phonology that studies phonemes or distinctive units is
complemented by phonetics that studies sounds, that is, the acoustic material in which
phonemes are made.
Within these two disciplines, phonemes are represented in the middle of two slashes //
and sounds are represented in square parentheses []
 Contributions of Structuralism
• Copenhagen Linguistic Circle
A school led by Hjemslev who established the idea of glosse matica, together with
Bröndal, Urdall, Togety. Glose matica refers to a structural analysis of languages
taken as sets of elements and relationships, considering language as form and not
substance.
• American structuralism
Structural or descriptive linguistics was developed by Bloomfield, Harris, Hocket.
They were influenced by empiricism where experience is the source of linguistic
knowledge or speech products. They use a descriptive method that is based on
recorded facts and not on utopian possibilities. Some of its principles are based on
behaviorism where the sign is explained as a response to an intermediate stimulus.
Federico Villarreal National University
Education Faculty
Secondary Education School
Language and Literature Specialty

Course: General Linguistics

Topic: European and American structuralism

August December

Objective: Explains the relationship of the nature of language as an object of study of

linguistic science using an information organizer.
 Introduction

• For Structuralism, the concept of “structure” and its methods do not come
directly from the Gestalt school, with which it had already collaborated for a
long time, but its fundamental basis is found in Saussure and his work
“Course in general linguistics”, since structuralism obtains methods of
analysis from linguistics.

• Saussure's work contributes to the creation of the so-called modern linguistics

at the beginning of the 20th century, initially applied in the social sciences and
later in literature.
 History of Structuralism

• It began about 3000 years ago when curiosity about language began and this began in
ancient India with the development of grammatical analysis and the Greeks continued it as
the art of knowing how to speak and write to analyze texts of a diverse nature.

• After the Romans invaded Greece, they adapted it based on the analysis of the Latin
language since it was supposedly of a similar structure.

• The Greco-Latin tradition was captured in the work of Prician and thus Europeans tried to
impose Pristian's description of Latin on other languages.
 European Structuralism

• The linguistic structuralism movement dates back to the beginning of the

20th century and constitutes the beginnings of modern linguistics. Its
initiator was Ferdinand de Saussure with his work Course in General
Linguistics (1916).

• Structuralism arises as a reaction against the comparativist linguistic

investigations of comparative grammar, against the diachronic
investigations of historical grammar and against the positivist investigations
of the neogrammarians.
 Criticism of structuralism

• The great mistake of structuralism was not giving way to explanation or prediction:
the structuralists failed to propose explanatory hypotheses. Its insufficiency was
brought to light by the American Noam Chomsky.
• During the Saussurean era, it was believed that language acquisition blindly
occurred through learning and association. With Chomsky, these ideas were
discarded. He would propose the existence of an innate brain device that would
allow language to be learned naturally.

American Structuralism

• One is “Hocus-pocus” and the other is “God's truth”. The first assumes that the researcher
 is the one who imposes a certain order and that that order is the structure. The second
assumes that the language already has a structure and the researcher discovers it.
Research methods correspond to these two positions: if the method is inductive, it
corresponds to “God's truth”; If, on the other hand, it is deductive, “Hocus-pocus”
corresponds. The North American structuralist approach is called descriptivism .
• It is based on a corpus of data that is nothing more than speech or emission. The point of
view is synchronic and the object of the grammar is the functions. The study of meaning is
excluded, since the aspects of meaning depend on the occurrences of linguistic forms,
their textual combinations and their interrelationships in the structure of the language.

Leonard Bloomfield

Bloomfield starts, to explain his linguistics, from two positions.

• Mentalism: that is, linguistic facts must be interpreted and understood with
reference to psychic phenomena.
• The mechanism: which refers to machine learning. Follow the behaviorist
current.
• He has a particular interest in grammatical structure and proposes a description
of the levels of language.
• The phonetic structure and the grammatical structure

Comparison of European and American structuralism

• European Structuralism:
■ It develops independently of the North American.
■ It is more heterogeneous, they have been more concerned with finding a
solid doctrinal basis for their research.
■ There are very different nations, cultures and languages.
• American Structuralism:
■ It has achieved a more formalistic and mechanistic mechanism in the study
of language.
■ The objective of the American linguists was more limited and modest.
■ He advanced further in morphology and syntax.
Federico Villarreal National University
Education Faculty
Secondary Education School
Language and Literature Specialty

Course: General Linguistics

Topic: Linguistic diversity. The languages of Peru.

August December

Objective: Explains the relationship of the nature of language as an object of study of

linguistic science using an information organizer.
 Definition

Linguistic diversity refers to a measure of the number of languages in a country or geographic

area (related to geography). Currently, there is great variability in linguistic diversity according
to geographic regions. In general, areas that have long formed a political unit or in which
migrations, trade or cultural influences have existed are less diverse from a linguistic point of
view. One of the riches of Peru is the existence of many languages and cultures, current in its
environment and capable of contributing to the development of the country as a whole.
Regarding the selection of official languages, the Peruvian State recognizes Spanish,
Quechua, Aymara and the other native languages of the Peruvian Amazon, protected by
article 48 of the political constitution. Peru is a multilingual and multicultural country. Not only
is Spanish spoken, in the Andean and Amazonian areas the so-called Amerindian languages
are also spoken (languages that existed before the arrival of the peninsular conquerors).
Law No. 29735 that attempts to regulate the use, preservation,
development,
recovery, promotion and dissemination of the native languages of Peru

All native languages are the expression of a collective identity and a different way of conceiving and
describing reality, therefore, they enjoy the necessary conditions for their maintenance and
development in all their functions. (Article 1)

The state implements effective measures that prevent discrimination against people due to the use of
native languages. (Article 17)

The fact that an original language will be official, in a district, province or region, means that the state
administration makes it its own and progressively implements it in all spheres of public action, giving it
the same legal value and the same prerogatives as Spanish as in the official native language. (Article
10)

Languages are the foundation of oral tradition and cultural identity. The native languages constitute the
intangible cultural heritage of the native peoples of Peru. All native languages have equal rights. (Article
12)

History
According to author Peter Landerman, after the arrival of the Spanish, the Jesuits and
other priests were in charge of translating a series of fragments of the Christian
religion into some 150 indigenous languages of the Peruvian Amazon. Some records
prepared by colonial chroniclers have been found in which it is established that more
than 300 languages were spoken in Peru, there are even statements that estimate the
use of 700 indigenous languages. This is a reflection of the linguistic richness that
characterizes this Latin American country. However, after the Spanish conquest and
during the viceroyalty, indigenous communities began to disappear due to
miscegenation, epidemics and forced labor. Of course, this population decline
influenced the loss of a large number of the region's own languages. Discrimination
also played a fundamental role in the disappearance of indigenous groups and their
languages.
History

This was due to the fact that there was an anti-indigenous current defended by the
mixed-race and white population who wanted to separate themselves from their
aboriginal branches to be more like the European inhabitants. This trend was also
backed by the support of the Peruvian government, since it was responsible for
promoting the use of Spanish and forcing the abandonment of other dialects. The
objective was to unify the nation under the same language and strengthen a
homogeneous patriotic identity. As a consequence of the above, more than half of the
indigenous dialects were lost and only 150 languages survived. Despite this, efforts
are currently being made to protect and safeguard the vestiges of these ancestral
languages. For example, there is a Peruvian constitutional article that praises the
existence of Quechua, Aymara and other indigenous linguistic dialects.
Characteristics

a) Peru is one of the countries with the greatest philological diversity in the world given that it
has a set of ethnic groups and indigenous communities that protect the use of different
linguistic families. This protection has allowed several of the original linguistic traditions to
remain alive.

b) According to one of the maps presented by the National Institute for the Development of
Andean, Amazonian and Afro-Peruvian Peoples (INDEPA), Peru is one of the few Latin
American countries that still retains a significant number of ethnolinguistic groups.
Consequently, Peru is one of the nations with the greatest cultural and linguistic plurality.

c) The linguistic diversity of Peru is largely due to the geographical heterogeneity of its
territories, since there are different communities living in the jungle, the mountains and the
coast, and each of these uses its own language.

Characteristics

d) The linguistic diversity of the Peruvian territories is also characterized by its cultural
richness because many legends, myths and traditions remain current through oral
stories that originated from these indigenous languages. Through indigenous
languages it is still possible to know the worldview of these ancestral communities.

e) The different languages spoken in Peru have four million speakers, which
highlights the multilingual and pluricultural character of this Latin American country.

f) Currently, Peruvian linguistic diversity is considered cultural heritage not only of this
country, but of the entire South American region.
 Native languages in force in Peru
1) Achuar
2) Aymara
3) Amahuaca
4) Arabela
5) Ashaninka
6) Awajun
7) bora
8) Capanahua
9) Cashinahua
10) Cauki
11) Chamicuro
12) That Eja
13) Harakbut
14) Iñapari
15) Iquitu
16) Isconahua
17) Jaqaru
18) Kakatalbo
19) Kakinte (Caquinte)
20) Kandozi chapra
21) Kukama-Kukamiria
22) Madija (Culina)
23) Maijuna
24) Matsigenka
25) Matses
26) Munich
27) Murui-muinani
28) Nanti
29) Nomatsigenga
30) Ocaine
31) Omagua
32) Quechua
33) Resígaro
34) Redwood
35) Sharanahua
36) Shawi
37) Shipibo-Konibo
38) Shiwilu
39) Taushiro
40) Urarine
41) Wampis
42) And water
43) Yaminahua
44) Yanesha
45) Yine
46) Yora (Nahua)
Federico Villarreal National University
Education Faculty
Secondary Education School
Language and Literature Specialty
Course: General Linguistics
Topic: Phonetics. Definition, division and units.
Articulatory phonetics and sound production.

August December

Objective: Identify the units of analysis of the field of phonetics and

phonology through the
corpus analysis.
 Definition

Phonetics:

Science of speech sounds, which deals with the acoustic and

physiological aspects of speech sounds. It studies the phonic
elements of a language from the point of view of its reproduction, its
acoustic constitution and its perception.

Division
a) Articulatory phonetics
 It is one that studies the sounds of a language from a physiological point of view;
That is, it describes which oral organs are involved in its production, in what position
they are located and how these positions vary the different paths that the air can
follow when it leaves the mouth, nose, or throat, so that different sounds are
produced.

It does not deal with all the activities involved in the production of a sound, but rather
selects only those that have to do with the place and form of articulation. Phonetic
symbols and their articulatory definitions are the shorthand descriptions of such
activities.

Division
b) Experimental phonetics
Experimental phonetics studies the acoustic and physical properties of speech
sounds, gathering and quantifying data on the emission and production of sound
waves that make up articulated sound. It uses instruments such as the spectrograph,
the nasometer, the glottograph, the palatograph, which show either the sound waves
of speech coming from the mouth or the nose or the larynx, already decomposed, or
the different areas of the palate where the tongue has touched. In experimental
studies, we start from the speech of several informants and use statistical means to
establish general trends in the nature of the sounds.

Division
c) Acoustic phonetics

It is the study of phonetics from the point of view of sound waves. It deals with the
scientific measurement of sound waves that are created in the air when we speak.
Just as we attribute articulatory features to phonemes, we can attribute acoustic
features to sounds: vocalic/non-vocalic and consonantal/non-consonantal,
compact/diffuse voiced/voiceless, nasal/oral, intercept/continuous, strident/dull,
serious/acute.

These measurements are reflected in spectrograms, which reflect the different

formants into which sounds are decomposed.

Division
d) Auditory phonetics

Auditory phonetics studies sound from the point of view of the receiver, that is, it
studies the mechanisms of sound perception.

Auditory phonetics, also called perceptual phonetics, deals with the perception of
speech sounds through the ear. Consider phonetics from the listener's point of view.

It studies the way the ear reacts to sound waves (hearing) as well as the interpretation
of such waves (perception).

Articulatory phonetics and sound production

• Respiratory organs
Provides airflow for inspiration and expiration. It is made up of two parts: respiratory
tract and lungs. The airways are made up of the mouth, nasal passages, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles.
• Larynx
It is the organ where the voice is produced, it contains the vocal cords. It is the
structure that ends the trachea.

• Supraglottic cavities
They are used as resonators and sound producers. The soft palate is mobile and
opens and closes access to the nasal passages.
Federico Villarreal National University
Education Faculty
Secondary Education School
Language and Literature Specialty

Course: General Linguistics

Topic: Phonology. Definition and units.

August December

Objective: Identify the units of analysis of the field of phonetics and phonology through the
corpus analysis.
 Phonology

Phonology is the study of the classification of sounds in a language, so

that the sounds of each group are perceived by speakers as a single
basic element of the system, called phoneme, which has a distinctive
character in relation to the sounds of another group. other groups. Each
of the sounds that corresponds to a phoneme is called an allophone.
Phonology is very closely linked to spelling, since the latter is based, in
most Latin script languages, on phonology, not on phonetics.

Phonology
Phonology is very closely linked to spelling, since the latter is based, in most Latin script
languages, on phonology, not on phonetics.
Thus, for example in Spanish the sounds [d] and [ð] correspond to the phoneme /d/, that
is, they are two allophones of /d/, and are written with a single sign (the letter d). On the
other hand, in English [d] and [ð] are different phonemes, written differently (d and th,
respectively).

Thus, for example in Spanish the sounds [d] and [ð] correspond to the phoneme /d/, that
is, they are two allophones of /d/, and are written with a single sign (the letter d). On the
other hand, in English [d] and [ð] are different phonemes, written differently (d and th,
respectively).

Characteristics
The union that establishes the etymological origin of the concept phonology is that of the
Greek terms phonos which means "sound"; logos which can be translated as "study" and
the suffix ia which is synonymous with "quality or action".
Phonology is accepted as a branch of linguistics whose exponents have phonic elements
as their object of study, taking into account their distinctive and functional value. Just as
phonetics contemplates the analysis of the acoustic and physiological profile of sounds,
phonology is responsible for interpreting the way in which sounds arise at an abstract or
mental level.
Phonology is the branch of linguistics that studies the phonic systems of languages,
compared to the physical articulation of language (Phonetics). Among the great variety of
sounds that a speaker can make, it is possible to recognize those that represent the
"same" sound, although the ways of pronouncing it are different from an acoustic point of
view; At the same time, sounds that indicate a difference in meaning can be distinguished.

Phoneme

The basic units with which phonology operates are phonemes. It is the
abstract element that represents a class of sounds. It is considered a
segment that distinguishes meanings and is mostly represented
between / /.
 Unlike sounds, which have a physical, material reality, phonemes are ideal
entities, abstract categories, that exist psychologically in the minds of
speakers. By convention, phonemes are represented between slashes
(graphemes are represented between antilambdas or diples).

Differences between speech sound, phono and

allophone

Sound (of speech):

Concrete acoustic (sound) manifestation of a segmental element. It is sometimes
used as a synonym for "phone." Represented between [ ].
Phone:
Specific acoustic (sound) manifestation of a phoneme. Segment that does not
distinguish meanings. It is sometimes used as a synonym for "speech (speech)
sound." Represented between [ ].
Allophone:
Variant of a phoneme conditioned by context. Segment that does not distinguish
meanings. Represented between [ ].
Phonetic representation and phonological
representation

Two levels of representation are established: phonetic representation

and phonological representation.
phonetic representation
Level of representation of speech sounds. Concrete representation.
Reflects variation.
Phonological representation
 Level of representation of phonemes. abstract representation. It
reflects invariance (systematicity) and elements that are distinctive.
The phonological rules
The relationship between phonetic representation and phonological representation is established
through phonological rules. Rules that are part of the phonological competence of speakers.
Phonological representation:
houses /ˈkasa/+/s/, papers /paˈpel/+/s/, Monday /ˈlunes/+/s/
Phonetic representation:
houses [ˈkasas]
papers
monday [ˈmonday]
To form the plural, the plural morpheme is added, which manifests itself phonologically as /s/:
/ˈkasa/+/s/ → [ˈkasas]
If the last vowel is stressed, the vowel /e/ is inserted between the two final consonants when they
belong to two different morphemes: /paˈpel/+/s/ → [paˈpeles]
In word-final position, one of the two identical consonants is elided: /ˈlunes/+/s/ → [ˈlunes]
Federico Villarreal National University
Education Faculty
Secondary Education School
Language and Literature Specialty

Course: General Linguistics

Topic: The syllable. Definition, constituents and types.

August December

Objective: Identify the units of analysis of the field of phonetics and phonology through the
corpus analysis.
 Definition

The syllable:

• It is each phoneme or set of phonemes that are pronounced

together in a single voice emission when we say a word,
therefore it is the smallest unit of the expressed word.
 syllable constituents

□ Attack or start:
It is the initial element that is followed by the rhyme.

The rhyme consists of two elements: Sun

□ Core or chasm:
• It is the central element of the syllable. vvv
Coda Peak Attack
□ Coda: Yo
It is the final consonant. Rhyme
Classification according to the number of syllables

□ Monosyllables: These are words made up of a single syllable. Example: pan -

soy - sol

□ Polysyllables : They can be

Bisyllables: Words made up of two syllables.
Example: dog – picture – me/sa
Classification according to the number of syllables

Trisyllables : words made up of three syllables. Example:

ven/ta/na – co/le/gio
Tetrasyllables : Made up of four syllables. Example: ca/rre/te/ra –
tran/qui/li/dad Pentasyllables : These are words that have five
syllables.
Example: ma/te/má/ti/cas
 Classification by accent

□ Tonic: Syllables that are pronounced with greater intensity

because the main stress falls on it.
□ Unstressed: Unaccented syllables, pronounced with less
intensity.
Bi – ci – cle -ta ▼ ▼ ▼ ' SA SA ST SA
 stressed syllables
□ Acute: That whose stressed syllable corresponds to the last syllable.
□ Example: ca – pi – tan
□ Grave or flat: One whose stressed syllable corresponds to the penultimate
syllable.
Example: ca – re – ta
□ Esdrújulas: The one whose stressed syllable corresponds to the
penultimate syllable.
Example: có – mi – co
□ Sobreesdrújula: The one whose stressed syllable corresponds to the
second to last whistle.
Example: á – gil – men – te
Federico Villarreal National University
Education Faculty
Secondary Education School
Language and Literature Specialty

Course: General Linguistics

Topic: The accent. Phonological nature, stressed words and
unemphasized.

August December

Objective: Identify the units of analysis of the field of phonetics and phonology through the
corpus analysis.
 General remarks

The accent is defined as the strength or greater intensity with which a syllable stands out within a word;
That is, accent is a procedure that occurs at the phonic level. There are two kinds of accent: the
prosodic accent (tonic or intensity), which is found in all words, and the orthographic accent (tilde),
which is the accent represented in writing (´).

The meaning of a word can vary, depending on the location of the accent on it; for example: continue
(first person singular of the present indicative of the verb continue) or continued (third person singular
of the past indicative of the verb continue).

The syllable that has the prosodic accent is known as the stressed syllable. This is distinguished by the
use of the graphic accent or tilde (´), in accordance with the accentuation rules. This accent is placed
on the vowel of the stressed syllable in the word. On the other hand, an unstressed syllable is defined
as the one with the lowest intensity. In Spanish, every syllable, at least, has one vowel.
 General accentuation rules

Words are classified according to the place occupied by the stressed syllable. There are four categories
of words: acute, plain, esdrújulas and sobresdrújulas.

1. Acute words: These are those that have the force of pronunciation in the last syllable. These
have an accent when they end in a vowel or in the consonant n or s .
Examples:
- heart, Paris, mocked, ruby (acute with accent)
- intensity, clock, wall, happy (acute without accent)
There are, however, a series of exceptions in the accentuation process of acute words.
- When the acute word ends in s and is preceded by another consonant, it does not have an
orthographic accent; for example: robots, tic-tacs.
- Acute notes ending in y do not have an accent either; for example: viceroy, convoy.
 General accentuation rules

2. Plain or serious words: They have the prosodic accent on the penultimate syllable. They
have an accent when they end in a consonant other than n or s .
Examples:
- prison, Héctor, pencil, tree (flats with accent)
- house, table, mirror, soul (plains without accent)
There are a number of caveats in the process of stressing plain words:
- Unlike the acute ones, the plain one that ends in s and is preceded by another consonant is accented.
Examples: forceps, biceps, comics, triceps.
- Also plain words that end in y must have an accent. Examples: pong, hockey.

3. Esdrújulas words: They have the stressed syllable in the penultimate syllable. They are always
accentuated orthographically.
Examples: Saturday, Wednesday, virgins, summaries, jug.
 General accentuation rules

4. Overwrought words:
They have the accent on some syllable before the penultimate one. Like esdrújulas, they always have
an accent on the stressed syllable. Almost always, these are verbal forms to which unstressed
pronouns such as la , las , lo , los , le , les , me , nos , os and se are added through the process of
enclysis.
Examples:
- show them to me : show me them
- you buy them : buy them
- deliver it to him : deliver it to him
- inventing it
- write them
- save melas
- baby telo
- receive selo
 The diphthongs
A diphthong is defined as two vowels that are pronounced in the same syllable or air emission. A
diphthong is formed by joining two weak vowels (i, u) or a strong vowel (a, e, o) with a weak one, with
the pronunciation strength in the strong vowel, for example: caudal, soft, bridge, quota and noise.
The h between vowels does not prevent the formation of a diphthong, for example: ahumar, incense,
ahijado and prohibit.
Diphthongs are governed by general rules of accentuation; For example: bonsai and amais, are acute
and have an accent because they end in a vowel and in s respectively. On the other hand, carey is not
accented because it ends in y . When a diphthong is composed of a strong and a weak vowel, it must
carry the orthographic accent on the strong vowel (a, e, o); for example: goodbye, later, also, ate and
Wednesday. In case the diphthong is composed of two weak vowels, the accent is placed over the
second vowel; for example: take care, benjuí and interviú, I built, I concluded and I included.
It is important to note that the combination ui within a word is considered a permanent diphthong in the
writing process, even when it is pronounced as a hiatus. This combination is not stressed in plain words
ending in a vowel.
Examples: destroyed, instituted, built, fled.
 The tripthongs
It defines the set of three vowels that are pronounced in a single syllable. The tripthong is formed by
placing a strong vowel between two weak vowels. The orthographic accent always falls on the strong
vowel, for example: you muffle and despise.

The hiatus
The combination of two vowels that do not constitute a diphthong is known as a hiatus because:
- There are two equal strong vowels together, for example: alcohol and Saavedra.
- There are two different strong vowels together, for example: poet, hero, coalition, gnaw, mahogany,
alibi and fall.
- There are followed by a strong vowel and a weak vowel with the strength of pronunciation. In this
case, the weak vowel will be stressed, regardless of the classification of the words, for example: howl,
barb, fall, duet gather and day.
To accentuate the first two types of hiatus, the general rules of accentuation are followed.
- The h sandwiched between two vowels does not prevent the formation of a hiatus. Nor does it
prevent the hiatus with an interspersed h from having an accent if the weak vowel carries the force of
pronunciation, for example: vahído, atenco, búho, rehúso, prohibit, transporte and ahúman.
Federico Villarreal National University
Education Faculty
Secondary Education School
Language and Literature Specialty

Course: General Linguistics

Topic: Morphology: definition, classes of morphemes.

August December

Objective: Examine words and sentences to recognize the units of

analysis of the level
morphological and syntactic through linguistic corpus.
 The morphology
Morphology comprises the part of grammar that deals with classifying and explaining
the functioning and meaning of variations in form in words within the structure of the
language. The object of study and the initial point of analysis is: the monema, that is,
the most elementary significant form.

Morphology serves three specific functions: it categorizes words according to their

function (noun, adjective, verb, adverb, etc.); studies the variations of its forms, that is,
its inflections; and explains the processes involved in the derivation and composition
of words. Morphology begins by studying the smallest forms of words, to observe how
they operate, how they relate, how they change and evolve. In addition, it also studies
the types of words, as well as the different uses and functions we make of them.
 The monema

It is the minimum unit carried with meaning, but not necessarily with semantic
meaning. Monemes, being minimal units, cannot be decomposed into other smaller
linguistic signs endowed with lexical or grammatical meaning. It constitutes a
linguistic sign because it presents a meaning and signifier.

Monemme classes
□Lexemes: Those monemes that provide semantic content, that is, they are the base
and lexica of the word.

□Morphemes: which are responsible for providing grammatical content, that is,
they complete the meaning of the word.
 Morpheme classes
□ Independent morphemes :
They are those that can exist and function, by themselves, as a word form, but they
lack a lexeme, which is why they have no lexical meaning. They are, in particular,
determiners, prepositions and conjunctions.

□ Dependent morpheme :
They are those that necessarily have to be linked to a lexeme to form a word so that
these morphemes cannot be used independently.
It's divided in:
□ flexible morpheme
□ Morpheme
derivative
 derivative morpheme
Derivative dependent morphemes are known as affixes. And, according to their
position with respect to the lexeme, they are divided into: prefixes, suffixes, interfixes
and circumfixes.
It's divided in:
□ The prefixes are placed before the lexeme to form a new word (redo, amoral). The
prefix does not change the grammatical category of the word. On the other hand,
the prefix usually provides new meanings when coupled to the lexeme. Finally, in a
word there can be more than one prefix (decompose).
□ The suffixes are placed in a position postponed to the lexeme of the word. Unlike
prefixes, they can change the grammatical category of the word; for example,
“history” (noun) → “historical” (adjective). They usually have more than one
meaning. They can even change the gender of the lexeme to which it is attached.
 derivative morpheme

□ Interfixes are not found, as their name indicates, neither at the beginning nor at
the end of words, but in the middle. They can appear between the lexeme and the
suffix and, more rarely, between a prefix and the root. They have two fundamental
characteristics that are always met: they act as a link between two particles (prefix
and lexeme, or lexeme and suffix) and they are meaningless.

□ Circumfixes are double morphemes that surround the lexeme simultaneously.

We cannot speak of prefix plus suffix because, in reality, the word does not exist
only with a prefix or only with a suffix.
 Inflectional morpheme:
Inflectional or grammatical morphemes do not modify the meaning of the root, but
rather provide grammatical notions (gender, number, tense, mood, aspect).
Nominal inflectional morphemes
They are the gender and number morphemes of nouns and adjectives. The
grammatical gender morpheme indicates whether the word is masculine or feminine,
for example, “─o” and “─a” in “gato” and “gata”. The number morpheme indicates
whether a word is singular or plural, so the “─s” in “cats” indicates that it is a plural.
Verbal inflectional morphemes:
In verbs, the notions of person (first, second or third), number (singular or plural),
time (present, past or future), mood (indicative, subjunctive or imperative) and aspect
(perfective or imperfective) are distinguished. Often, the same verbal morpheme can
carry more than one different grammatical content.
 Word formation process

Derivation : refers to one of the processes of forming new words. This process has a general
criterion: the union of a base or lexeme and a derivative morpheme. It must be taken into account
that different words come from the same primitive word. Thus, all words that come from a primitive
are known as derived words. In this way, with the primitive word sun, I can form a series of derived
words, such as solazo, insolación, solar, sunny, etc.

Composition : it is the morphological process by which two or more lexically based words form a
lexical product called a compound word, for example, prefix, emphasis, electrocardiogram, kick,
tumbalata, clipboard.

Parasynthesis: combines derivation and composition. Words formed by PREFIX + LEXEMA +

SUFFIX are parasynthetic, provided that, if one of them is omitted, the resulting words are not
acceptable .
Federico Villarreal National University
Education Faculty
Secondary Education School
Language and Literature Specialty

Course: General Linguistics

Topic: Flexion and derivation

August December

Objective: Examine words and sentences to recognize the units of

analysis of the level
morphological and syntactic through linguistic corpus.
 Flexion and derivation

Inflection is distinguished from derivation in that in the latter case the morphemes do
not add a simply grammatical value, but the affixes or derivational suffixes entail
referential semantic changes and not purely grammatical ones.
The semantic-grammatical difference between inflection and derivation entails an
almost universal restriction on the order of inflectional and derivational morphemes:
derivational affixes are closer to the stem than inflectional morphemes when both are
present.
To form words there are two different processes, inflection and derivation. In the first
case a new word is not created, while in the second a new term is produced. In this
way, in derivation a base or lexeme is joined with a derivational morpheme.
 Flexio
n
Inflection is the alteration that words experience through constituent morphemes according to
the grammatical or categorical meaning to express their different functions within the sentence
and their relationships of dependence or agreement with other words or sentence elements.
In traditional grammar, inflection is often given different names depending on how it applies to
different kinds of words:
• Verb inflection is often called conjugation.
• Nominal inflection is often called declension, and in Indo-European languages it is
commonly applied to nouns, pronouns, and adjectives.

When morphemes are added directly to the stem, radical inflection occurs and when they are
added to the stem, thematic inflection occurs. Any phonological segment added to indicate a
certain accident of inflection is called an ending.
 Nominal bending

In inflected languages, the noun is composed of a lexeme or root and possibly

other constituent or grammatical morphemes of gender, number or grammatical
case. Thus a name has one form or another in terms of its gender, number and
sometimes case. The set of forms of a root between which there are no semantic
differences but only grammatical differences, all these variants form the so-called
declension.
On the other hand, the name can also receive derivational morphemes or free
morphemes or clitics like the article, without lexical meaning. These other
morphemes are not considered part of the inflection.
 verbal inflection

The verb is made up of a lexeme and constituent or grammatical morphemes called

endings that indicate tense, mood, aspect, voice, number and person. These
variations constitute the so-called conjugation. It can also receive affixal derivational
morphemes or affixes.

Invariable words
The term "invariant word" refers to any chain of morphemes that does not admit
inflection of the previous types and therefore does not present variation due to
inflection, its form being invariable.

In Spanish, which is an inflectional language, only prepositions, interjections and a

few other categories are invariable words. In Chinese, for example, which is an
isolating language, the class of invariable words is broader.
 Derivation

Derivation is one of the word formation procedures, and allows languages to designate concepts
semantically related to others in a certain sense considered primitive, by adding affixes (e.g. knife
slash). Derivation allows the lexicon to designate numerous meanings from a much smaller
number of roots or lexemes. In many languages, derivation is the main source of new words,
although there are also languages without derivation, mainly isolating languages, which tend to
use composition more.

Derivation frequently involves a change of grammatical category (for example, the verb materialize
derives from the adjective material, which in turn derives from the noun matter), while in inflection
the grammatical category is always maintained (for example, inflectional forms singing, singing,
singing are always verbal; the forms nurse, nurses are always nouns).
 Derivative morphemes

In inflectional languages it is common to distinguish two types of affixes: the so-

called derivational affixes and the so-called inflectional affixes. Derivative
morphemes imply a more specific meaning than the semantic field given by the root,
thus derived words are obtained from the semantic field of objects and activities
related to paper: papelero, papelería, papelajo, etc. On the other hand, inflectional
morphemes do not specify semantic relationships, but rather indicate morphological
categories. Thus, for the grammatical number, most languages distinguish two
singular/plural values, many languages distinguish in the grammatical gender at
least the masculine/feminine or animate/inanimate value, and as for the case in
nominative-accusative languages with case marks explicit are the
nominative/accusative values, etc.).
 Derived words
The set of lexical terms formed from the same lexeme through derivational affixes
form a semantic field, called the semantic field of words derived from the root or
lexeme. Sometimes within a semantic field of derived words a word is said to be a
derived word of another if the second can be formed from derivational affixes (and
perhaps by deleting some inflectional affix).

For example:
cant-ar > cant-a (deletion of inflectional affix) > cant-a-nte (addition of derivational
suffix)

However, sometimes from a family of words derived from the same root it is difficult to
point out one of them as primitive, since there are several simple words without a
clear derivational affix, for example sing and song.
Federico Villarreal National University
Education Faculty
Secondary Education School
Language and Literature Specialty

Course: General Linguistics

Topic: Syntax: object of study, basic concepts.

August December

Objective: Examine words and sentences to recognize the units of

analysis of the level
morphological and syntactic through linguistic corpus.
 Syntax

Syntax is the part of grammar that studies the rules and principles that
govern the combinatorics of syntactic constituents and the formation of units
superior to them, such as phrases and grammatical sentences. Syntax,
therefore, studies the ways in which words are combined, as well as the
syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships between them.
In summary, syntax is the “part of grammar that studies the way in which
words and the groups they form are combined to express meanings, as well
as the relationships established between all these units.”
 Unit and Function

If Syntax studies words or groups of words that develop a common function, we

must differentiate unit of function. Linguistic units are the elements that have their
own features that give them unity and that allow them to be differentiated from
other units: phonemes and sounds (at the phonic level); morphemes and words (in
morphological); phrases, phrases and sentences (in the syntactic); texts (in the
text); semes and sememes (in the semantic). Function is the role a unit plays in a
grammatical structure. The function of an element depends on the relationships it
establishes with the whole of which it is a part.

For example , in The boy eats bread, the unit “boy” (noun) plays the role of CORE
of the NP “the boy”, and that entire unit (SN) plays the role of SUJ of the sentence.
 The sentence
Basic unit of the syntactic level. Group of words related to each other (they
form a unit) with their own and autonomous function within the higher unit of
which they are part (the sentence).

Structure
Its general structure (except that of the S. Prep.) is made up of at least one
nucleus, or main unit that can form a phrase by itself, and around which
elements that determine or modify that nucleus are grouped.

Phrase Classes
Nominal, adjectival, adverbial, prepositional, verbal phrase.
 Structural syntax

Syntax, for Leonard Bloomfield, was "the study of free forms composed
entirely of free forms." Central to this theory of syntax were the notions of form
classes and constituent structure. (These notions were also relevant, although
less central, in the theory of morphology).

Bloomfield defined form classes rather loosely, in terms of some

"recognizable phonetic or grammatical feature common and shared by all
members."
 Structural syntax

He gave as examples the kinds of form that consist of “personal substantive

expressions” of the English language (defined as “forms that, when expressed with
a final exclamatory tone, constitute requests (calls) for the presence or attention of
a person.” : for example "John", "Boy", "Mr. Smith"); the form classes consisting of
"infinitive expressions" (defined as "forms that, when expressed with a final
exclamatory tone, have the meaning of a command: for example, "run", "jump",
"come on"); the classes of the form of “nominative noun expressions” (for example:
"John", "the boys") and so on. It should be clear from these examples that form
classes are similar, although not identical, to traditional parts of speech and that the
same form can belong to more than one form class.
Immediate constituents
Within sentences, words form hierarchical groupings called syntactic constituents.
Obviously not any set of words forms a constituent, but only those groupings that perform a
recognizable syntactic function. In general, constituents are made up of smaller constituents
(except terminal constituents, which generally coincide with words, affixes or adpositions).
Constituency tests help identify what the constituents of a sentence are.

The above can be clarified with some examples. Thus, in the phrase poor Pablo it is a
construction analysable in, or composed of, the constituents poor and Pablo. Since there is
no intermediate unit of which poor and Pablo were constituents and which is itself a
constituent of the construction poor Pablo, the forms poor and Pablo can be described not
only as constituents but also as immediate constituents of poor Pablo.

Syntax trees
Given a complex sentence or construction, it can be divided into syntactic
constituents, each of which in turn could be divisible or analyzable into other
constituents. The set of syntactic constituents admitted with the binary relation
of inclusion (or "being part of") is a partially ordered set. A syntactic tree is a
representation of the hierarchical relationships between syntactic constituents.
More formally, a syntax tree is a graph that represents this partial order
relationship.
When in a construction a constituent X is part of an immediate constituent of
another larger constituent Y, the corresponding syntax tree will have a line
between the node representing

Non-structural relationships
In addition to the relations of constitution in the syntactic study of languages,
there are other relations not necessarily characterized by the relation of
partial order given by constitution. Among these relations are the relations of
grammatical agreement by which two elements that are generally not
adjacent and that are part of different phrases must agree (present a special
mark that indicates that a certain linguistic category present in the two
elements has the same "value"). Likewise, the rules of co-occurrence of
pronouns and anaphors and their antecedents can only be expressed in a
simple way in terms of the relationship of direction. Both the rection and
linkage relationships are associated with the c-command relationship.
Non-structural relationships

Among non-structural relationships, there are remote syntactic

dependencies. These relationships require more complex mechanisms or
restrictions of grammaticality than the simple adjacency or constitution of
syntactic elements.
Among them we can mention:

□ grammatical agreement
□ the reaction and the linkage
□ the theory of the abstract case
□ those of a displaced element with its syntactic trace.
Federico Villarreal National University
Education Faculty
Secondary Education School
Language and Literature Specialty

Course: General Linguistics

Topic: Generative Grammar

August December

Objective: Examine words and sentences to recognize the units of

analysis of the level
morphological and syntactic through linguistic corpus.
 What is generative grammar?

It refers to a set of theoretical frameworks for the study of the syntax of languages.
A generative grammar provides a set of rules or principles that correctly predict the
combinations that appear in grammatically correct sentences for a given language.

The basic ideas of the models included in this current have their origin in the
standard theory formulated by Noam Chomsky. The common core of all generative
models would be to try to design a formal device that allows describing, analyzing
and specifying the sentences of a natural language in a simple, exhaustive and
general way.
 Generative grammar

It is characterized by being a school opposed to Bloomfield's American

structuralism. Here the syntagmatic relationships are shown, that is, the
grammatical functions such as agreement and function of the words. On the other
hand, through generativism Chomsky tries to demonstrate why behaviorism is
wrong.

Syntax studies the ways in which words are combined, as well as syntagmatic
relationships, that is, grammatical functions such as agreement and function of
words within a sentence and paradigmatic, that is, the relationship of meaning that
exists between the signs of the same category that can appear in the same context
 Syntagmatic relationship

It is the construction of sentences, when the speech occurs. A phrase is equivalent to

a phrase where the parts are united around a nucleus that can be nominal or verbal.
Syntagmatic relationships are characterized by the agreement of the subject with the
verb or the noun with the adjective and the article with the noun. They are also
characterized by their grammatical functions when we talk about subject, links,
predicate, modifiers, complements, determiners and auxiliaries.
Example:
Good friends meet in bad times. Good friends = Noun Phrase
They know each other = Verb phrase
In bad times = Circumstantial phrase of time
 Paradigmatic relationship:

They are associations of a grammatical category with another of the same rank, by
which it can be replaced. These relationships occur in the mind, outside of speech.
We see that everything agrees: gender, number and verb, noun and verb. In this
relationship we can differentiate the major and minor word classes. The major ones
are nouns (Argentina), adjectives (extensa), verbs (tiene) and adverbs (mucho) and
the minor ones are articles (the), prepositions (ante) and conjunctions (and).
Furthermore, they are characterized by having a linear order.

Example:
The girls rest.
Some girls rest.
Some waitresses rest.
 Principles of generative grammar

Chomsky raises the concepts of linguistic competence and

linguistic performance:

Linguistic competence: intuitive knowledge that each native

and normal speaker – listener has of their language.
Linguistic performance: includes the individual use of the
language.
 Principles of generative grammar

Chomsky in the sentence distinguishes two structures: deep

structure and surface structure.

Deep structure: the presence of three prepositions is evident.

Surface structure: they are presented in a single sentence.
Federico Villarreal National University
Education Faculty
Secondary Education School
Language and Literature Specialty

Course: General Linguistics

Topic: Semantics. Objectives, units of analysis.

August December

Objective: Reflect on the meaning of language from semantics and

pragmatics to
explain linguistic interpretation.
 Definition

• Semantics is a part of linguistics that deals with the study of

meaning (monemes, words, sentences). Semantics is the
study of the meanings of words and sentences. Since
linguistic description is an attempt to reflect the speaker's
knowledge, the semanticist has the goal of describing
semantic knowledge. (Saeed, 1989).
• Semantics is the science that studies the meaning of linguistic
signs, of words, that is, their significant contents. A word can be
analyzed:

V In its elements or sounds that compose it = Phonology

(phonemes and graphemes).
V In the way they are combined = Morphology (lexeme and
morpheme).
V In the function or behavior = Syntax (phrases).
•In the significant value = Semantics (semantheme).
 Field of study
Semantics

• The purpose of semantics is to decompose meaning into

smaller units, called semes or semantic features. Semes
are the minimum units into which you can segment the
meaning of words.
• The analysis of the semes allows us to differentiate
between words of similar meaning and words of opposite
meaning.
• In other words, semantics is the science of linguistic meaning.
Therefore, the contents handled by this discipline can be various and
different, and even incompatible with each other. We can say that
linguists have understood three types of research by semantics:
a. The study of changes in meaning.
b. The study of meaning, that is, how it is meant and what is the
process of meaning, of giving meaning; and the laws that govern it.
c. The study of meaning understood as a plane or aspect of linguistic
signs. (UNERMB, 2008, page 05).
 Aim

• The goal of semantics is the study of the evolution of the

meanings of words. At first, semantics was part of the
diachronic studies of language.
• Later, language came to be understood as a system of
linguistic signs, which is made up of subsystems whose
elements oppose and relate to each other. (Wikiteka, 2009).
 Semantic Triangle

• The semantic triangle is a graphic attempt to explain the

mechanism by which the extralinguistic world is
incorporated into language, or vice versa.
• Analytical or referential semantics attempts to capture the
essence of meaning by resolving it into its main
components. (Ullmann, 1951).
 Semantic Triangle

• At the end of the 19th century, the linguist Ferdinand de Saussure

proposed his Semantic Triangle. This scheme proposed the union of
three elements within the linguistic sign (word) in such a way that
knowing one could generate the others. Currently this model has
been expanded, discussed and revised.
• However, it is a good reference to begin to understand the bases of
words as linguistic signs and therefore their use when carrying out a
translation. (Saussure, 1983, p. 20).
Federico Villarreal National University

Education Faculty
Secondary Education School
Language and Literature Specialty

Course: General Linguistics

Topic: Lexical and compositional semantics

August December

Objective: Reflect on the meaning of language from semantics and

pragmatics to
Federico Villarreal National University

explain linguistic interpretation.

Federico Villarreal National University
Education Faculty
Secondary Education School
Language and Literature Specialty

Course: General Linguistics

Topic: Pragmatics. Objectives and approaches.

August December

Objective: Reflect on the meaning of language from semantics and

pragmatics to
explain linguistic interpretation.
 What is pragmatics?

It is a discipline that studies language in relation to the context

where the idea is developed, that is, sentences produce a semantic
meaning but their meaning and interpretation depends on the
content and the linguistic context since the same sentence can have
several meanings in different contexts. .
In pragmatic analysis, several variables are studied such as the
situation, the socio-cultural context, the people, the sender, among
others.
 Features of pragmatics

□ Pragmatics understands the act of communicating as a social action.

□ Pragmatics not only studies what is communicated, but also what is
not communicated: implicit communication.

□ Communicative action involves putting the social image of the

participants in said action at stake.

□ Pragmatics studies the framework in which communicative activity

takes place: conversation.
 Objectives of pragmatics

□ The objective of pragmatics is to try to establish precisely

what factors systematically determine the way our
communicative exchanges function. Pragmatics takes as its
object of study the total set of statements in a language;
However, it is not an exclusive object, but it also shares it
with the grammar.
Objectives of pragmatics

□ Knowing how to maintain a topic, follow the thread, know

 when it ends or changes the topic.
□ Train registry changes. Change from one situation to
another.
□ Know how to use the formulas that regulate expression,
such as starting, ending or signaling changes.
□ Use syntactic forms to convey pragmatic information.
□ Use of nuances depending on the content or the
interlocutors.
Cooperation principle

Grice's principle of cooperation, which, in the style of game theory, studies

how participants in an interaction use certain tacit principles that facilitate the
inference and interpretation of what is said. It can be defined, therefore, as a
general principle that guides the interlocutors in the conversation.

Example:
A boy asks a girl her name in a nightclub and she answers: "I have a
boyfriend." It is understood then that the girl wants the boy to leave her
alone and it is to be hoped that the boy will cooperate and leave her alone.

Speech act theory

The theory of speech acts states that linguistic statements that

not only mean but also function as actions, that is, when engaging
in dialogue, giving an opinion or carrying out any type of
participation, whether oral or written, and that express the
speaker's intentionality will depend on the context or
communicative situation .
Relevance theory

It explains how speakers make deductions and inferences

from what is said in a conversation or linguistic interaction to
create a linguistic context in which to properly interpret the
following statements.
 Argumentation theory

The theory of argumentation conceives the nature of language as

essentially persuasive, that is, aimed at leading the receiver towards the
point of view from which the sender presents the information in his
speech.
In the theory of argumentation, every statement has an argumentative
capacity, that is, due to its meaning it favors a series of conclusions and
hinders others. Therefore, statements are analyzed as arguments that
support a certain conclusion.
Federico Villarreal National University
Education Faculty
Secondary Education School
Language and Literature Specialty

Course: General Linguistics

Topic: Cognitive and social pragmatics

August December

Objective: Reflect on the meaning of language from semantics and

pragmatics to
explain linguistic interpretation.
 Social and cognitive pragmatics

Pragmatics for its study encompasses language in its functioning,

that is, it takes into account all the factors that surround the
linguistic object in its production.

It takes into account how they are produced, how they are
transmitted, what motivation they have and how the meanings are
interpreted, which implies taking into account both individual and
cognitive factors as well as diastratic, diaphasic and diatopic
factors.
 Social and cognitive pragmatics

Then, the cognitive-philosophical aspect that focuses on the expression of

meaning, the transmission of information and the cognitive part of the use of
language is analyzed, and another position that highlights the more
anthropological aspect, that is, the need to take into consideration both the
users of the language and the environment and the social and cultural
conditions in which the message is produced.

It offers a socio-cognitive perspective that studies how individual and cultural

factors are intertwined in communication, focusing on social interaction across
cultural lines and the way language is used in these interactions.