CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Conceptual Review

2.1.1 Overview of Climate Change in Nigeria

Nigeria’s climate has been changing, evident in: increases in temperature; variable rainfall; rise

in sea level and flooding; drought and desertification; land degradation; more frequent extreme

weather events; affected fresh water resources and loss of biodiversity (Elisha, 2017; Ebele and

Emodi, 2016).

The durations and intensities of rainfall have increased, producing large runoffs and flooding in

many places in Nigeria (Enete, 2014). Rainfall variation is projected to continue to increase.

Precipitation in southern areas is expected to rise and rising sea levels are expected to exacerbate

flooding and submersion of coastal lands (Akande, 2017; Ebele and Emodi, 2016). Temperature

has risen significantly since the 1980s. Climate projections for the coming decades reveal a

significant increase in temperature over all the ecological zones (Akande, 2017).

2.1.2 Effects of Climate Change

Socioeconomic effects

Climate change will have differential effects not only among different regions but among

different demographic groups. It will affect income groups, classes, occupation, age and gender

in varying ways (Amobi and Onyishi, 2015). There is a need for better mapping of these varying

effects. Particularly vulnerable communities include farmers and fishers (particularly those living
in more vulnerable areas), the elderly, women, children and poor people living in urban areas.

These individuals and groups may also have fewer resources to cope with the changes and low

adaptive capacity, which exacerbates their vulnerability to climate change (Madu, 2016).

Gender: Among all sectors of the economy, agriculture is highly vulnerable to the adverse

effects of climate change (Onwutuebe, 2019). It is a key source of livelihoods in Nigeria. These

negative effects have affected and will continue to affect women more because of the cultural

division of roles between men and women. A large percentage of women are poor farmers who

rely primarily on small-scale and rain-fed agricultural (Onwutuebe, 2019). Disruptions in

agricultural activities will undermine their livelihoods, which could increase the need for

dependency on men working in less vulnerable occupations (Onwutuebe, 2019).

In areas like Rivers State, Nigeria in Southeast Nigeria, for example, women farmers are more

vulnerable to the changes in climate than men as they supply most of the labour required on

farms, in addition to managing their own farms (Nnadi, 2019). Women also felt more impact of

food and water shortage, resulting from changes in rainfall in the area (Nnadi, 2019). Other

livelihoods engaged in by women are also vulnerable to climate change. The majority of food

and vegetable sellers in Nigeria like the fluted pumpkin are also women and fuel wood is used

extensively in food processing and in domestic activities that are dominated by women. Since

Rivers State is a tropical rain forest with much rainfall, erosion and extreme weather events can

undermine fluted pumpkin or other forms of farming and the ability to engage in such

livelihoods (Nnadi, 2019).

Geographic effects
The challenges associated with climate change are not the same across the country. Nigeria has a

tropical climate with two precipitation regimes: low precipitation in the North and high

precipitation in parts of the Southwest and Southeast. This can lead to aridity, drought and

desertification in the north; and flooding and erosion in the South (Akande, 2017; Nkechi, 2016).

Within Southern Nigeria, the South-south area such as in Rivers state (Niger Delta region) is the

most vulnerable, due to sea level rise, increased precipitation, coastal erosion and flooding –

which has resulted in the displacement of many settlements (Matemilola, 2019).

The pattern of vulnerability to climate change also corresponds to the dominance of climate-

sensitive agricultural activities (Madu, 2016). The Northern regions of Nigeria, which have

higher degrees of rurality, are more vulnerable to climate change (Madu, 2016).

Sectorial effects Over 70 percent of the country’s population is engaged in agriculture as their

primary occupation and means of livelihood (Onwutuebe, 2019). Agricultural produce in Nigeria

is mostly rain fed. Unpredictable rainfall variation makes it difficult for farmers to plan their

operations (Anabaraonye, 2019). Higher temperatures, lower rainfall, droughts, and

desertification reduces farmlands, lowers agricultural productivity and affects crop yields.

Increased rainfall intensity in the coastal region, sea level rise, flooding and erosion of farmland

will also lower agricultural production (Ogbuabor and Egwuchukwu, 2017).

Unpredictable rainfall variation, heat stress and drought can adversely affect food production and

result in food shortages (Abdulkadir et al., 2017; Ebele and Emodi, 2016; Enete, 2014). The high

vulnerability of states in the north to climate change poses a serious threat to food security

throughout the country. Drought conditions in parts of Northern Nigeria has also resulted in less

drinking water.
Erosion and excessive wind reduces the amount of forestry produce, such as wood and cane

(Ogbuabor and Egwuchukwu, 2017). Forests are under significant pressure not only from climate

change but also from increasing populations and greater demand for forest resources.

Climate change has serious implications for human health in Nigeria. Direct health effects stem

from extreme weather events such as heat waves. Indirect effects of climate change can arise

from malnutrition due to food shortages; the spread of infectious disease and food- and water-

borne illness (e.g. typhoid fever, cholera); increased air pollution; and from higher temperatures

correlated with increased cases of meningitis and also possible increase in the spoilage of fluted

pumpkin leaves (Abdulkadir, 2017).

Given the importance of the agricultural sector to livelihoods and the economy in Nigeria,

problems with crop yields and productivity can have an adverse effect on gross domestic product

(Anabaraonye, 2019; Solomon & Edet, 2018; Ogbuabor and Egwuchukwu, 2017). In addition,

extreme weather events, such as floods, can undermine economic growth through production and

infrastructure losses and the need for extraordinary spending.

Demographic effects

Climate change will affect income groups, classes, occupation, age and gender in varying ways

(Amobi and Onyishi, 2015). The high vulnerability of the agricultural sector to climate change

will continue to affect women disproportionately as a larger percentage of women are poor

farmers who rely on small-scale and rain-fed agricultural (Onwutuebe, 2019). Women are also

more dependent on natural resources as they are primarily responsible for gathering wood for

cooking and heating, collecting the household water supply, and ensuring food security for the

family Climate change effects also affect children. It interferes with schooling as many children
are absent during heavy rains, particularly in villages with poor transportation. Food scarcity, and

consequent hunger, can also undermine the ability of children to learn (Amanchukwu, 2015).

2.1.3 Climate Change in Fluted Pumpkin Farming in Rivers State

Climate change has an adverse impact on the Nigerian society and economy in many ways

including in the planting and harvesting or fluted pumpkin, alongside other critical aspects of

farming and food production, water resources, health, energy, human settlement and societal

relations (Amadi and Udo, 2015).

Fluted pumpkin is a common vegetable option for Nigerians. The food is usually consumed

alongside a range of food crops including rice, corn (maize), yam, cocoyam, beans, sorghum

(guinea corn), and soya beans (Shiru, 2018). Over 70 percent of the country’s population is

engaged in the consumption of the vegetable while a good number rely on it as their primary

occupation and means of livelihood (Onwutuebe, 2019 Nkechi, 2016).

Livelihood: Reduction in the production of the crop would have a significant impact on the

population’s livelihoods, food security, and the economy of the country (Onwutuebe, 2019;

Shiru, 2018). Agricultural produce in Nigeria is mostly rain fed. Unpredictable rainfall variation

makes it difficult for farmers to plan their operations and reduces the fluted pumpkin season and

length of growing days (Anabaraonye, 2019). The crop is sensitive to even tiny shifts in rainfall

and temperature because it is not a perennial crop. Experts have already linked higher

temperatures to increasing level of failures and declining crop yields for the fluted pumpkin.

Along the Southern coast, rising sea level is flooding farmland, rendering soils too salinized for

planting and eroding soils in the Southeast, again resulting in lower yields.
Productivity: Higher temperatures, lower rainfall, drought and desertification also reduces

farmlands, lowers agricultural productivity and affects crop yields, particularly when cultivated

under rain-fed conditions (Ogbuabor & Egwuchukwu, 2017). It also affects livestock

performance and this affects fluted pumpkin in a way as it would result to more scarcity of

manure for growth. (Avanlade 2017).

Increased rainfall intensity in the coastal region, sea level rise, flooding and erosion of farmland

will lead to lower fluted pumpkin production (Anabaraonye, 2019). Flooding of the River Niger,

for example, has washed away significant amounts of farmlands (Nkechi, 2016).

Aquatic space: Climate change affects the nature and characteristics of freshwater resources too.

The effects will vary between ecological zones, exacerbating existing problems with flooding

which can be a threat to fluted pumpkin growth especially those planted across coastal regions.

Severe storms will threaten fishing vessels and crew, affecting fish farmers on board (Ebele and

Emodi, 2016). The viability of the landed area is also threatened by increased salinity and

shrinking rivers and lakes (Ebele and Emodi, 2016).

Food supply: About 80 percent of Nigeria’s population depends on rain-fed agriculture as their

primary occupation especially in fluted pumpkin production due to its relative short growth

duration (Abdulkadir, 2017; Ebele and Emodi, 2016). Unpredictable rainfall variation, heat stress

stemming from climate change, can adversely affect the food production system and result in

food shortages (Abdulkadir, 2017). Poor responses to resource shortages could result in more

hunger and/or malnourishment (Elum, 2017).

Cover crops: Climate change also affects the forestry sector in Nigeria. Erosion and excessive

wind reduces the amount of cover crops that protect fluted pumpkin from erosion or harsh
environmental conditions, leading to low yield and consequently reducing income and increasing

the costs of livelihood (Ogbuabor and Egwuchukwu, 2017). Forests are under significant

pressure not only from climate change but also from increasing populations and greater demand

for forest resources. Native forests have already been lost and climate change is creating more

challenges, including difficulty in tree planting, death of trees and decline in species diversity.

Health: Indirect effects of climate change can arise from malnutrition due to food shortages or

vitamin deficiencies that can arise from poor consumption of pumpkin leaves alongside other

vegetables which can increase the spread of infectious disease and food- and water-borne illness;

and from increased air pollution (Abdulkadir, 2017). In addition to rising temperatures, rising sea

levels, floods and changes in rainfall pattern affect fresh water supply, which can predispose

people to infection and other health challenges (Nkechi, 2016).

In coastal eco-zones, windstorms and extreme rainfall, rising sea levels and floods can cause

injuries, drowning, death, severe physical and mental trauma, particularly for citizens who live

along major river deltas, on islands and in low-lying coastal areas (Abdulkadir, 2017;

Amanchukwu, 2015). Increased rainfall intensity, flooding, stagnated water and polluted ground

water further reduces yield and also increases outbreaks of water-borne diseases and other

diseases commonly experienced in Southern Nigeria (Osuafor and Nnorom, 2014). Heavy

rainfall events can also lead to contaminated drinking water from sewage, industrial and

chemical waste, which can be toxic for he growth of the fluted pumpkin.

Economy: It is estimated that, in the absence of adaptation, climate change could result in a loss

of between 2 to 11 percent of Nigeria’s GDP by 2020, rising to between 6 to 30 percent by the

year 2050. This large projected cost is the result of a wide range of climate change effects that

affect all sectors in Nigeria including in fluted pumpkin market (Ebele and Emodi, 2016).

Agriculture: The effects of climate change are greatly felt on Nigeria’s agricultural sector. This

in turn undermines the country’s economy through loss of gross domestic output, and reduction

in the income/consumption of the most vulnerable population (Solomon and Edet, 2018;

Ogbuabor and Egwuchukwu, 2017; Ebele and Emodi, 2016).

Forestry: Forest depletion adversely effects economic growth in the short-run (Ogbuabor and

Egwuchukwu, 2017). The cost of deforestation and losses in non-timber forest products in

Nigeria has been estimated at approximately 1.7 percent of gross domestic product in 2003

(Ogbuabor and Egwuchukwu, 2017; Abdulkadir, 2017).

Transportation: Much of Nigeria’s transportation infrastructure is inadequate and vulnerable to

the effects of climate change. Under-maintained road networks, for example, will be further

degraded by extreme weather and could make transportation of fluted pumpkin laves to the

market more difficult (Ebele and Emodi, 2016). Such negative effects on the transportation

system are likely to have negative effects on the market of the product.

2.1.4 Climate Change Mitigation

Renewable/clean energy: The energy sector is the most important sector for climate change

mitigation. It is important to control greenhouse gases by moving towards renewable energy

development. Despite movement in Nigeria toward the development of policy and legislation in

support of renewable energy, there are few existing renewable energy projects (Dioha & Emodi,

2018; Elum and Momodu, 2017). The vast majority of renewable energy consumption that do
exist are derived from hydropower (Achike et al., 2019; Dioha and Emodi, 2018; Elum and

Momodu, 2017; Yahaya and Nwabuogo, 2016). The development of solar energy is new to the

country, with growing interest from investors. The bioenergy industry could receive a boost from

a persistent increase in the production of sugarcane, maize and cassava (Elum et al., 2017). It is

necessary to develop innovative financing schemes that will reduce the cost of low carbon

technologies for consumers in addition to making it a profitable project for investors (Dioha and

Emodi, 2018).

Other sectors/lifestyle choices: There is a need to encourage sustainable lifestyle choices among

Nigerians. These include less meat consumption, phasing out of inefficient appliances, and

greater access to and use of public transportation. Public infrastructure and services for effective

waste reduction also need to be encouraged (Dioha and Emodi, 2018; Nkechi et al., 2016; Elias

and Omojola, 2015).

Tree planting/reforestation: Reforestation in Nigeria is only about 10 percent of the

deforestation rate (Elum and Momodu, 2017). There is an urgent need for a more aggressive tree

planting.

2.1.5 Climate Change Adaptation

Vulnerable groups can be more affected by climate change due to limited resources and low

adaptive capacity. Studies demonstrate that rural women in developing countries, for example,

are more vulnerable to climate change as they have low adaptive capacity.

Agricultural initiatives: The adoption of existing and new technologies for adapting to climate

change and variability is a high priority for many ecological regions in Nigeria. This includes

crop diversification, the adoption of drought-tolerant and early maturing varieties of crops; and
crop cover (Achike et al., 2019; Amadi and Udo, 2015; Federal Ministry of Environment, 2014).

Studies show that Nigerian farmers on their own and with the help of government and other

intervention agencies are already adapting to climate change using these and other

methods(Ifeanyi-obi and Nnadi, 2014). In addition, agricultural extension services are essential

to improving agricultural productivity by providing farmers with useful farming and weather

related information and skills training that can enhance their productivity (Oluwole et al., 2016;

Federal Ministry of Environment, 2014). The current irregularity of extension services in Nigeria

is a constraint to agricultural adaptation (Oluwole et al., 2016; Federal Ministry of Environment,

2014).

Insurance and other financial tools: Insurance provision has the potential to reduce the impact

of climate change on insurance policy holders. Nigerian insurers have not, however, paid

sufficient attention to the impact of climate change. The Nigerian government should support

private insurance firms through policies that would encourage public-private partnerships (Elum

and Simonyan, 2016). Efforts to scale up agricultural insurance also requires building the

capacity of farming communities to understand and effectively demand appropriate insurance

products (Hansen et al., 2017). Access to credit, such as through microfinance institutions, is also

essential to the ability of farmers to adapt to climate change (Abraham and Fonta, 2018; Abaje et

al., 2015).

Infrastructure: Irrigation facilities are increasingly important as rain fed agriculture becomes

more unreliable, yet they are extremely lacking in Nigeria (Federal Ministry of Environment,

2014). Good roads are also important for efficient distribution of necessary agricultural inputs to

rural farmers (Abaje, 2015). Urban areas should consider the effects of climate change in city
planning. Residential developments, for example, require the maintenance of adequate spaces to

allow for easy infiltration of surface runoffs during rainfall (Akeh and Mshelia, 2016).

2.1.5 Adaptive capacity and capacity development

Adaptive capacity is the ability of individuals and communities to adjust to climate change, to

moderate potential changes, to take advantage of opportunities or to cope with the consequences.

It depends on sufficient education, assets, information and income (Madu, 2016).

Skills and knowledge: In order to integrate climate change adaptation into every aspect of

national life, Nigerians must have awareness and knowledge – and access to knowledge – of

what climate change is, how it is impacting them and how they can adapt. They also need to be

equipped with specialised skills to enable individuals, communities and the country to address

climate change risks and implement adaptation. Information and knowledge sharing must be

made accessible to a wide range of people, particularly those most vulnerable (Anabaraonye,

2019).

Information and awareness: The level of public awareness on issues related to climate change

in Nigeria is considered to be low (BNRCC, 2011). Studies indicate that the Nigerian media has

not given sufficient attention to climate change issues (Ajaero and Anorue, 2018). The degree of

information available influences the level of awareness on climate change issues (Duru and

Emetumah, 2016). Access to specific weather information, early warning and forecast

technologies can also help farmers to develop and readjust coping or adaptation strategies

(Otitoju and Enete, 2016).

Agricultural extension services: Farmers need to have access to adaptive technology and

innovations. The greater contact farmers have with agricultural extension personnel and services,

the better their production, productivity, efficiency in use of resources and profitability (Otitoju

and Enete, 2016). Farmers with better access to information of the changing climate through

extension services also have a greater likelihood of adopting adaptation measures (Solomon and

Edet, 2018; Otitoju and Enete, 2016). Recognition of the need for agricultural extension services

has not, however, been matched with corresponding capacity for extension professionals. They

require training to act as educators and information/service providers (Dimelu et al., 2014).

Education and school curricula: Nigeria has yet to recognize and adopt education as an

effective counter-strategy (Amanchukwu, 2015). Nigerian children and youth are not yet

properly educated on these issues and thus do not have sufficient knowledge on how to deal with

situations caused by climate change (Duru and Emetumah, 2016; Amanchukwu, 2015). The

inclusion and integration of climate change in the Nigerian educational curricula and in

university courses is essential. Challenges include inadequate teacher qualifications and

infrastructure. Teacher training and adequate equipment needs to be provided. Alternative

methods of teaching and awareness-raising that can be effective include use of climate change

poems and interactive blogs (Amanchukwu, 2015).

Indigenous knowledge: There is a growing awareness of the importance of indigenous

knowledge and its value for environmental management and sustainable development. Various

adaptive practices in agriculture, for example, have a strong element of indigenous knowledge

(Federal Ministry of Environment, 2014). Indigenous knowledge must be documented, in order

to counter its gradual disappearance (Dimelu et al., 2014). It should also be incorporated into

agricultural education and extension curriculums, and into policy guidelines to address climate
change issues. This would allow for more comprehensive measures (Dimelu, 2014; Nkechi,

2016).

Institutional capacity: The efforts of the government and different agencies in Nigeria have

been inadequate (Ifeanyi-obi and Nnadi, 2014). Institutional capacity building will be necessary

for all institutional stakeholders engaged in climate change adaptation in Nigeria. The Special

Climate Change Unit in the Federal Ministry of Environment, for example, needs to be

strengthened. There is a need also for new institutions, such as Public-Private-Partnerships that

can take research findings into the field and help smallholder farmers adapt to a changing climate

(Avanlade et al., 2017).

2.1.6 Climate Change in Rivers State

The southern ecological zone in areas like Rivers State is largely known for high rainfall and an

irregular rainfall pattern, with Guinea savannah experiencing gradually increasing temperatures

(Ebele and Emodi, 2016). Large proportions of the population in Rivers rainforest zone and

other Southern region live in rural areas and engage in agricultural activities for their livelihood

(Nnadi, 2019; Avanlade, 2018). Fluted pumpkin cultivation is one of the dominant agricultural

products that farmers in Rivers State and also other Southern part of Nigeria are engaged in

(Otitoju and Enete, 2016). Farmers have to contend with variations in climate and the risk of

flooding (Nnadi, 2019; Avanlade, 2018).

Other South-south zones have high sensitivity due to the porosity of its soils. Even a short dry

period can have severe effects on soil moisture (Federal Ministry of Environment, 2014). In

terms of exposure, the Southeast is highly exposed while the Southwest is least exposed (Federal

Ministry of Environment, 2014). In terms of overall vulnerability, the Southwest and Southeast
are relatively less vulnerable than other parts of the country, with the South-south (Niger Delta

region, particularly in Rivers state) as the most vulnerable in the south.

Coastal region: Rising sea levels, attributable to climate change, and precipitation are expected

to be higher in coastal areas. Coastal areas have already experienced sea level increment of

almost one foot in the past five decades in Rivers, with forecasts indicating that the increment

could be as high as three feet within the next nine decades (Duru and Emetumah, 2016). This

will increase the frequency and intensity of flooding by incoming rivers and/or the sea; and lead

to widespread erosion and disarticulation of coastal wetlands (Abdulkadir, 2017; Akeh and

Mshelia, 2016). Hydrological modeling indicates that a 1.5-foot sea level rise would submerge

more than 11,000 square miles of coastal land.

Many studies have identified Rivers state in the Niger Delta region as highly vulnerable to

effects from climate change, stemming from sea level rise, increased precipitation, and intensive

industrial activities from oil exploration (Matemilola, 2019). Coastal erosion and flooding are the

most pervasive problems, which have caused the displacement of many settlements in some

regions of the Rivers (Matemilola, 2019). Heavy rain and/or prolonged rainfall will thus produce

significantly large volumes of surface water, which could overwhelm drainage systems and

exacerbate the risk of flooding (Akeh and Mshelia, 2016).

Other urban environments, such as Warri, are also at risk from the combination of climate

change effects and rapid urban expansion into floodwater storage zones. In recent years, the

frequency and magnitude of floodwater retention pools on urban streets has increased with

greater urban development into low-lying swamplands within the city (Odemerho, 2014).
Rural areas: The pattern of vulnerability stems primarily from the dominance of climate-

sensitive agricultural activities, poor infrastructural development and other socio-economic

conditions in rural areas of the country (Madu, 2016). The Northern regions of Nigeria, which

have higher degrees of rurality, are more vulnerable to climate change (Madu, 2016).

2.2 Empirical Review

The constraints faced by fluted pumpkin farmers in Nigeria is usually aa a result of the effects of

the climate change on the production and distribution. In this light, Onyeke (2022) studied on the

effects of climate Change on Fluted Pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis) Production in Itu District,

Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Random sampling and purposive sampling techniques were adopted

for the selection of respondents comprising 100 fluted pumpkin farmers; 10 from each of the 10

communities that make up Itu District. FGD was used to elicit data on effects of climate change

on fluted pumpkin production and climate change mitigation/adaptation measures. The study

found the farmers perceived low yield of fluted pumpkin, loss of soil fertility, erosion, and

declining family income as the major effects of climate change on fluted pumpkin production.

Combination of fluted pumpkin production with other income generating activities was also

found to be the most widely used mitigation/adaptation measure. The study recommended

government effort through agricultural extension services and agricultural development

programmes to mitigate/adapt climate change effects by adopting improved varieties of fluted

pumpkin seedlings, agricultural diversification, accurate and timely weather forecasting, use of

cover crops, and disseminating up-to-date climate change information. Formation of co-operative

societies among farmers to pool resources to fight the effects of climate change was also

encouraged.
The recommendation of the study implies that availability of extension services to fluted

pumpkin farmers is a limitation including a limitation to education access for full knowledge and

expertise in handling climate change problems especially in the Niger delta region.

Tajudeen et al. (2022), studied on the effects of Climate Change on Food Crop Production in

Lagos State. Analysis of weather data from 1998 to 2018 (the most recent available) reveals little

impact on cassava yield but a significant impact on maize yield. Furthermore, survey results

indicate that farmers in this area are currently implementing techniques to adapt to changes in

climate based on the type of crop grown. Agriculture in Lagos, Nigeria, is largely rain-fed and

climate change negatively effects crop productivity by decreasing crop yield and soil fertility,

limiting the availability of soil water, increasing soil erosion, and contributing to the spread of

pests. A decline in crop production due to climate change may be further exasperated by a lack

of access to farming technology that reduces over-reliance on the rain-fed farming system and

subsistence agriculture.

Hence this study indicates that there is a need for initiatives to motivate young and older farmers

through access to credits, irrigation facilities, and innovative climate change adaptive strategies

hence highlighting another notable limitations or constraints of the farmers.

Apata, (2022) worked on Effects of Global Climate Change on Nigerian Agriculture: An

Empirical Analysis. paper presents an empirical analysis of the effects of global warming on

Nigerian agriculture and estimation of the determinants of adaptation to climate change. Data

used for this study are from both secondary and primary sources. The set of secondary sources of

data helped to examine the coverage of the three scenarios (1971-1980; 1981-1990 and 1991-
2000). The primary data set consists of 900 respondents’ but only 850 cases were useful. This

study analyzed determinants of farm-level climate adaptation measures using a Multinomial

choice and stochastic-simulation model to investigate the effects of rapid climatic change on

grain production and the human population in Nigeria. The model calculates the production,

consumption and storage of grains under different climate scenarios over a 10-year scenery. In

most scenarios, either an optimistic baseline annual increase of agricultural output of 1.85% or a

more pessimistic appraisal of 0.75% was used. The rate of natural increase of the human

population exclusive of excess hunger-related deaths was set at 1.65% per year. Results indicated

that hunger-related deaths could increase if grain productions do not keep pace with population

growth in an unfavourable climatic environment. However, Climate change adaptations have

significant impact on farm productivity.

This study (Apata, 2022), though focused on climate change and how they affect cultivation, has

limitations because it focused on general agriculture with respect to climate change and made no

direct emphasis on fluted pumpkin or constraints to limitations of farmers engaged in the

product.

Kelechi et al. (2020), researched on The impact of climate change on food and human security in

Nigeria. The findings of the study were based on an in-depth analysis of both primary and

secondary sources of data. The secondary data were derived from existing published academic

works. The primary data was developed using qualitative data that were collected from January

to November, 2018 to 2019 in the different regions of Nigeria. For the South East, primary data

was collected from Abakaliki, Ebonyi State. In the South-South, primary data was collected from

Asaba, Delta State. In the South West, primary data was collected from Barutin, Kwara State. In

the North East, primary data was collected from Maiduguri, while in North West, data was
collected from Gusau, Zamfara State. In the North Central, data was collected from Markurdi,

Benue State. During the data collection, 48 semi-structured Key Informant Interviews (KIIs)

were carried out in the six selected research areas that represented their geo-political zones. Six

Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were carried out, one for each of these six selected cities. Each

of the Focus Group Discussions comprised between five and seven respondents. The idea of KIIs

and FGDs is to allow the respondents to freely express their ideas comprehensively. The findings

revealed that climate change has negatively affected food security in Nigeria. it has also led to

continuous armed confrontations over natural resources thereby undermining human security in

the country. The findings revealed that climate change has negatively affected food security in

Nigeria. it has also led to continuous armed confrontations over natural resources thereby

undermining human security in the country.

However, this study was not specific on the exact category of food endangered by food

insecurity hence resulting to a gap in the study. This gap was addressed in this present study.
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