BIOCHEM

3. Small intestine
- primary site for carbohydrate digestion
- pancreatic a-amylase breaks down
polysaccharide chains to disaccharide
FINALS
maltose (maltose lacks sweetness and
is not used as a sweetener, cereals)
4. Final step occurs on outer membranes
of intestinal mucosal cells
- disaccharides enzymes converts
CARBOHYDRATE
disaccharides to monosaccharides
METABOLISM > maltase - maltose to glucose
> sucrase - sucrose to glucose and
● complex chemical reaction that involves fructose
glucose and glycogen including aerobic > lactase - lactose to glucose and
oxidation and glycolysis. galactose
● aerobic oxidation: cell respiration needing - carbohydrate digestion products
an oxygen in many cells (product: CO2 & (glucose, galactose, and fructose) are
ATP) absorbed in bloodstream through
● glycolysis: glucose is broken down to intestinal wall
produce energy, takes place in cytoplasm - intestinal villi are rich in blood
and does not need oxygen (product: 2 capillaries into which the
molecules of pyruvate, ATP, NADH, water) monosaccharides are actively
transported
CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION *protein carries mediate the passage of
monosaccharides through cell
membranes
● DIGESTION 5. Galactose and fructose are converted to
- breaking down of food molecules by products of glucose metabolism in the
hydrolysis into simpler chemical units liver
to be used by cells in their metabolic
needs
GLYCOLYSIS
- hydrolysis: water is used to
breakdown or unbind bonds
● metabolic pathway by which glucose is
converted to 2 molecules of pyruvate (a C3
CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION PROCESS
molecule)
● pyruvate: converted into acetyl coA that
● a-amylase enters the Krebs cycle when there is
- enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis sufficient oxygen available
of starch into sugars : produced in the cytosol, it is
- present in saliva of humans and other oxidized in the mitochondria
animals ● produces ATP and NADH-reduced
1. Begins in mouth coenzymes
- salivary a-amylase catalyzes the ● occurs in 2 stages: six-carbon and
hydrolysis of a-glycosidic linkages in three-carbon stages
starch and glycogen to produce ● ten-step process in which glucose is
smaller polysaccharides and converted to pyruvate
disaccharide maltose
- small amount of carbohydrate
SIX-CARBON STAGE OF GLYCOLYSIS
digestion occurs in mouth because
food is swallowed quickly
2. Small amount of carbohydrate is ● ENERGY-CONSUMING STAGE
digested in stomach - 2 ATP molecules are converted to 2
- salivary a-amylase gets inactivated ADP molecules, and the energy
because of stomach acidity released is used to transform
- no carbohydrate-digesting enzymes monosaccharides into
are present monosaccharides
1. STEP 1 - FORMATION OF GLUCOSE
6-PHOSPHATE
 - phosphorylation of glucose: a - enzyme involved - triosephosphate
phosphate group from ATP is isomerase: glycolytic enzyme that
attached to the hydroxyl group on catalyzes the reaction to convert
carbon 6 of glucose dihydroxyacetone phosphate into
* reaction is catalyzed by hexokinase glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
- energy required is derived from ATP 6. STEP 6 - FORMATION OF 1,
hydrolysis 3-BISPHOSPHOGLYCERATE
2. STEP 2 - FORMATION OF FRUCTOSE - reaction catalyzed by glyceraldehyde
6-PHOSPHATE 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
- glucose 6-phosphate is isomerized to - a molecule of the reduced coenzyme
fructose 6-phosphate by NADH is a product of reaction
phosphoglucoisomerase: catalyzes - source of added phosphate is
the reversible isomerization of G6P inorganic phosphate (Pi)
and F6P - carboxylate ion and phosphate (Pi)
3. STEP 3 - FORMATION OF FRUCTOSE 1, are joined together to form the
6-BIPHOSPHATE bisphosphate product
- phosphorylation reaction: a 7. STEP 7 - FORMATION OF
reversible reaction; it means that a 3-PHOSPHOGLYCERATE
phosphate molecule can be added - diphosphate species is converted
and removed back to a monophosphate species
- energy derived from ATP hydrolysis - an ATP-producing step
- enzyme involved - * C1 high energy phosphate group of
phosphofructokinase: catalyzes the 1, 3-biphosphoglycerate is
phosphorylation of fructose transferred to ADP molecule to form
6-phosphate (F-6-P) to fructose ATP
1,6-bisphosphate (F-1,6-P2) using - enzyme involved -
ATP, and plays an important role as a phosphoglycerokinase: catalyzes
key regulatory enzyme of glycolysis the reversible conversion of
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to
THREE-CARBON STAGE OF GLYCOLYSIS 3-phosphoglycerate
- 2 ATP molecule are produced for
each original glucose molecule
● reaction intermediates are derivatives of 8. STEP 8 - FORMATION OF
glycerol and acetone 2-PHOSPHOGLYCERATE
- C3 intermediates of glycolysis are all - involves isomerization of
phosphorylated derivatives of 3-phosphoglycerate to
dihydroxyacetone, glyceraldehyde, 2-phosphoglycerate
glycerate, or pyruvate - phosphate group moved from C3 to
4. STEP 4 - FORMATION OF 2 TRIOSE C2
PHOSPHATES - enzyme involved -
- C6 biphosphate is split into 2 C3 phosphoglyceromutase
monophosphate species 9. STEP 9 - FORMATION OF
* two C3 species formed are PHOSPHOENOLPYRUVATE
dihydroxyacetone phosphate and - alcohol dehydration reaction - results
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate in another high-energy phosphate
- reaction catalyzed by aldolase: group containing compound
catalyzes the reversible reaction of - enzyme involved - enolase: enzyme
converting fructose 1,6-bisphosphate responsible for the reversible
into dihydroxyacetone phosphate conversion of 2-phosphoglycerate
(DHAP) and glyceraldehydes (2PG) and phosphoenolpyruvate
3-phosphate, a protein (called an (PEP) in glycolysis and
enzyme) that helps break down gluconeogenesis
certain sugars to produce energy 10. STEP 10 - FORMATION OF PYRUVATE
5. STEP 5 - FORMATION OF - high energy phosphate group is
GLYCERALDEHYDE 3-PHOSPHATE transferred from
- dihydroxyacetone phosphate is phosphoenolpyruvate to an ADP
isomerized to glyceraldehyde molecule to produce ATP and
3-phosphate pyruvate
 - enzyme involved - pyruvate kinase: • hexokinase is inhibited by glucose
enzyme that catalyzes the conversion 6-phosphate (feedback inhibition)
of phosphoenolpyruvate and ADP to
pyruvate and ATP in glycolysis and - Step 3: conversion of fructose
plays a role in regulating cell 6-phosphate to fructose
metabolism 1,6-bisphosphate by
- 2 ATP molecules are produced for phosphofructokinase
each original glucose molecule • high concentrations of ATP and citrate
- note - ATP molecules are involved in inhibit enzyme activity
steps 1, 3, 7, and 10 of glycolysis
GLYCOLYSIS - Step 10: conversion of
phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate by
pyruvate kinase
● ATP Production & Consumption
- there is net gain of 2 ATP molecules • enzyme is inhibited by high ATP
in glycolysis for every glucose concentrations
molecule processed • both pyruvate kinase (Step 10) and
- overall equation for glycolysis: phosphofructokinase (Step 3) are
glucose + 2 NAD + 2 ADP + 2Pi → 2 allosteric enzymes
pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ATP + 2H +
2H2O
FATES OF PYRUVATE
- step 1: glucose to glucose 6
phosphate ● PYRUVATE
- step 3: fructose 6 phosphate to - end product of glycolysis
fructose 1,6 bisphosphate - plays major role in cell metabolism
- step 7: 2 (1,3 bisphosphoglycerate to - master fuel of krebs cycle
3 phosphoglycerate) ● Oxidation to Acetyl CoA
- step 10: 2 (phosphoenolpyruvate to - under aerobic (oxygen-rich)
pyruvate) conditions, pyruvate is oxidized to
acetyl CoA by pyruvate
● Entry of Galactose & Fructose into dehydrogenase complex
Glycolysis - pyruvate formed through glycolysis
- both fructose & galactose are crosses the two mitochondrial
converted in the liver to intermediates membranes and enters the
that enter the glycolysis pathway mitochondrial matrix
- entry of fructose into glycolytic - Acetyl CoA molecules produced from
pathway involves phosphorylation by pyruvate enter the citric acid cycle
ATP to produce fructose 1-phosphate - most pyruvate formed during
- Fructose 1-phosphate is converted to: glycolysis is converted to acetyl Co
• Glyceraldehyde - should be ● Lactate Fermentation
phosphorylated before it enters - enzymatic anaerobic reduction of
into glycolysis pyruvate to lactate (occurs mainly in
• Dihydroxyacetone phosphate muscles)
- enters into glycolysis directly - purpose: conversion of NADH to
- entry of galactose in glycolytic NAD+ for increased rate of glycolysis
pathway begins with conversion to - lactate is converted back to pyruvate
glucose 1- phosphate, which is then when aerobic conditions are
converted to glucose 6-phosphate reestablished in the cell
- muscle fatigue associated with
REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS strenuous physical activity is
attributed to increased buildup of
lactate
● Control points of glycolysis - Steps 1, 3, ● Ethanol Fermentation
and 10 - enzymatic anaerobic conversion of
- Step 1: conversion of glucose to pyruvate to ethanol and carbon
glucose 6- phosphate by hexokinase dioxide
- simple organisms regenerate NAD+
through ethanol fermentation reaction
 • muscle: source of glucose for
• ethanol fermentation, involving yeast, glycolysis
causes bread and related products to • liver tissue: source of glucose required
rise as a result of CO2 bubbles being to maintain normal blood glucose levels
released during baking
• beer, wine, and other alcoholic drinks GLYCOGENESIS
are produced by ethanol fermentation of
the sugars in grain and fruit products ● GLYCOGENESIS
- three-step process in which glucose
• steps of conversion: 6-phosphate units are added to a
1. Decarboxylation reaction to growing glycogen molecule
produce acetaldehyde - metabolic pathway by which glycogen is
2. Acetaldehyde reduction to synthesized from glucose 6-phosphate
produce ethanol - formation of glycogen
- takes place when blood glucose levels
- overall ethanol fermentation are sufficiently high to allow excess
reaction: Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi 2 glucose to be stored in liver and muscle
ethanol + 2 CO2 + 2ATP + 2H2O cells
- involves:
• formation of glucose 1-phosphate
ATP PRODUCTION FROM THE • formation of UDP-glucose
COMPLETE OXIDATION OF GLUCOSE • glucose transfer to a glycogen chain
STEPS (1-3):
● NADH produced during Step 6 of
glycolysis cannot directly participate in 1. Formation of glucose 1-phosphate
the electron transport chain - starting material: glucose 6-phosphate
- mitochondria are impermeable to (from the first step of glycolysis)
NADH & NAD+ - enzyme phosphoglucomutase effects
- Glycerol 3-phosphate & the change from a 6-phosphate to a
dihydroxyacetone phosphate 1-phosphate
transport system shuttles electrons
from NADH, but not NADH itself, 2. Formation of UDP-glucose
across the outer membrane - high-energy compound UTP (uridine
triphosphate) activates glucose
● 30 ATP molecules are produced in 1-phosphate to form uridine diphosphate
skeletal muscle and nerve cells glucose (UDP-glucose)
- 26: oxidative phosphorylation
associated with ETC 3. Glucose transfer to a glycogen chain
- 2: oxidation of glucose to lactate - glucose unit of UDP-glucose is attached
- 2: oxidation of glucose to ethanol to the end of a glycogen chain and UDP
is produced
● Aerobic oxidation of glucose is 15 times - UDP + ATP = UTP & ADP
more efficient in ATP production as - adding 1 glucose unit to a glycogen
compared to anaerobic lactate and chain requires the investment of 2 ATP
ethanol processes molecules
GLYCOGENOLYSIS
● In heart and liver cells, 32 molecules are
produced instead of 30 per glucose
molecule ● GLYCOGENOLYSIS
- glycogen is converted to glucose
6-phosphate
GLYCOGEN SYNTHESIS & - metabolic pathway by which glucose
DEGRADATION
6- phosphate is produced from
glycogen
● GLYCOGEN - does not require UTP or UDP
- branched polymeric form of glucose molecules
- produced by the process of - locally produced glucose 6-phosphate
glycogenesis directly enters the glycolysis pathway
- storage form of carbohydrates in
humans and animals
 - low glucose levels stimulate ● gluconeogenesis uses lactate as a source
glycogenolysis in liver cells of pyruvate
- lactate is formed during strenuous
STEPS (1-2): exercise
• diffuses from muscle cells into the
1. Phosphorylation of a glucose unit bloodstream and is transported to the
- glycogen phosphorylase effects removal liver
of end glucose unit from glycogen ● enzyme lactate dehydrogenase converts
molecule as glucose 1-phosphate lactate to pyruvate in the liver
- pyruvate is then converted to glucose
2. Glucose 1-phosphate isomerization via gluconeogenesis
- phosphoglucomutase catalyzes • the glucose enters the bloodstream
isomerization process where phosphate and is transported to the muscles
group of glucose 1- phosphate is moved
to the carbon 6 position (reverse of the >>>> lysis:breakdown
first step of glycogenesis) genesis: making

GLUCONEOGENESIS
PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
● GLUCONEOGENESIS
- eleven-step process in which pyruvate is ● pathway in which glucose 6- phosphate is
converted to glucose used to produce NADPH (reduced form of
- metabolic pathway by which glucose is NADP+), ribose 5-phosphate (a pentose
synthesized from noncarbohydrate phosphate), and numerous other sugar
materials phosphates
• gluconeogenesis and glycolysis are ● helps meet cellular needs
not exact opposites
- 90% takes place in the liver 2 STAGES:
- conditions in which gluconeogenesis
occurs: ● Oxidative stage
- involves three steps through which
> replenish depleted liver glycogen glucose 6- phosphate is converted to
stores ribulose 5-phosphate and CO2
> convert lactate (produced by
strenuous exercise) back to glucose ● Non-oxidative stage
> maintain blood glucose level when - in the first step, ribulose 5-phosphate
glycogen stores have been depleted (a ketose) is isomerized to ribose
5-phosphate (an aldose)
- non-carbohydrate starting materials
for gluconeogenesis: HORMONAL CONTROL OF C.
METABOLISM
> pyruvate
> lactate (from muscles & red blood
● second major method for controlling
cells)
carbohydrate metabolism, besides enzyme
> glycerol (from triacylglycerol
inhibition by metabolism
hydrolysis)
● INSULIN
> certain amino acids (from dietary
- 51 amino-acid protein hormone,
protein hydrolysis or muscle protein
produced by beta cells of the pancreas
during starvation)
- promotes the utilization of glucose by
cells
- overall reaction:
- lower blood-glucose levels (involved in
2 Pyruvate + 4ATP + 2GTP + 2NADH + 2H2O
lipid metabolism)
glucose + 4ADP + 2GDP + 6Pi + 2NAD+
- release of insulin is triggered by high
blood glucose levels
CORI CYCLE

● GLUCAGON
 - polypeptide hormone (29 amino acids)
- produced in the pancreas by alpha cells
- released when blood-glucose levels are
low
- increase blood-glucose concentration
by speeding up the conversion of
glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis) in
the liver
- elicits the opposite effects of insulin

● EPINEPHRINE/ADRENALINE
- released by the adrenal glands in
response to anger, fear, or excitement
- similar fxn with glucagon (stimulate
glycogenolysis)
- primary target > muscle cells (promotes
energy generation for quick action)
- functions in lipid metabolism
BIOCHEM
cholesterol) and water-soluble
proteins to form chylomicrons
- chylomicrons = lipoproteins that
transport TAGs from intestinal cells,
FINALS
via lymphatic system, to bloodstream

● BLOODSTREAM
- TAGs are completely hydrolyzed by
lipase enzymes
LIPID METABOLISM
- F.A & glycerol are absorbed by cell &
are either broken down to acetyl CoA
● oxidation of fatty acids to either generate
for energy or repacked & stored as
energy or synthesize new lipids from
lipids
smaller constituent molecules

TRIACYLGLYCEROL STORAGE
LIPID DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION AND MOBILIZATION
- dietary lipids contain 98% of TAGs (fats &
oils) - most cells have limited capability of TAG
- salivary enzymes (water soluble) in mouth storage thus TAGs are stored in specialized
have no effects on lids (TAGS), which are cells in adipose tissue called adipocytes
water insoluble ● ADIPOSE TISSUE
- in stomach, most, not all, TAGs change - largest cells in body where cytoplasm
physically to small globules or droplets is replaced / large TAG droplets
called chyme - located primarily beneath skin,
- chyme = thick semi-liquid material made up especially in abdominal region & vital
of small TAGs globules organs
- insulator against heat loss &
● STOMACH protection against physical shock
- lipid digestion starts in the stomach ● HYDROLYSIS OF TAGs
where: - several hormones trigger hydrolysis
> gastric lipase enzymes of TAGs via:
hydrolyze TAG ester bonds > activation of cAMP
> 10% of TAGs are hydrolyzed in > release of glycerol & F.A into
stomach bloodstream (triacylglycerol
**note: high-fat foods stay in mobilization)
stomach longer, and a high-fat - 10% of TAGs are replaced everyday
meal causes a feelings of being full ● TAGs & ENERGY RESERVES
for a long period of time - triacylglycerol energy reserves (fat
reserves) = human body’s major
● SMALL INTESTINE / INTESTINAL CELLS source of stored energy
- chyme enters the S.I and is **note: energy reserves associated
emulsified with bile salts w/ protein, glycogen, & glucose are
- pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes ester small to very small when compared
bond linkages between fatty acid to fat reserves
units and glycerol
**note: normally ⅔ F.A are
hydrolyzed GLYCEROL METABOLISM
- fatty acids, monoacylglycerols, & bile
salts combine to small droplets called ● GLYCEROL AFTER ENTERING THE
micelles BLOODSTREAM
- micelles = tiny spherical droplets and - Taken to liver/kidney & converted to
small enough to be absorbed through dihydroxyacetone phosphate in 2
intestinal cell membranes steps:
- in intestinal cells = > phosphorylation of primary
monoacylglycerols & F.A are hydroxyl group of the glycerol
repackaged to form TAGs > oxidation of secondary alcohol
- these new TAGs combine w/ group of glycerol to a ketone
membrane lipids (phospholipids &
 OXIDATION OF FATTY ACIDS ATP PRODUCTION FROM
● BREAKDOWN OF FA TO PRODUCE FA OXIDATION
ENERGY
1. FA must be activated by binding to CoA ● FA vs. GLUCOSE OXIDATION
- Takes place in mitochondrial - FA oxidation produces a net of 120
membrane ATP molecules by oxidation of C18
- FA react w/ CoA in the presence atom or stearic acid
of ATP to produce high-energy **note: 2 ATP molecules are
acyl CoA needed for activation of FA, so net
- ATP in converted to AMP ATP production is 120 molecules
2. FA must be transported to mitochondrial **note: 1 stearic acid molecule/
matrix C18 atom produces 122 molecules
- shuttle mechanism is involved of ATP
3. FA must be repeatedly (FA spiral) - stoichiometric comparison:
oxidized to produce acetyl CoA, FADH2, > 1.00 g stearic acid produces
& NADH 0.432 mole ATP
- B-oxidation pathway > 1.00 g glucose produces 0.167
- 4 reactions repeatedly cleave 2 mole ATP
carbon units front he carboxyl - stearic acid produces 2.5 times more
end of acyl CoA molecule energy than glucose
KETONE BODIES
4 STEPS OF BETA-OXIDATION PATHWAY AND KETOGENESIS

1. FIRST DEHYDROGENATION - acetyl CoA formed from b-oxidation

- H atoms are removed from the pathways is further process by CAC
alpha & beta carbons, creating a - lipid-carbohydrate metabolism can be
double bond between these 2 disturbed by the following conditions:
carbon atoms > dietary intake is high in fat & low
- FAD (oxidizing agent), FADH2 in carbohydrates
(product) > diabetic conditions where the
2. HYDRATION body cannot use glucose properly
- + molecule of water across the > prolonged fasting conditions
trans double bond, producing a ● KETONE BODIES
secondary alcohol at the - low supply of oxaloacetate = acetyl
B-carbon position CoA will be in excess (increased
3. SECOND DEHYDROGENATION concentration)
- B-hydroxyl group is oxidized to a - excess acetyl CoA is converted to
keto functional group w/ NAD+ ketone bodies
(oxidizing agent) ● KETOGENESIS
4. THIOLYSIS - synthesis of ketone bodies from
- FA chain is broken between acetyl CoA
alpha & beta carbons by reaction - primary site is in liver mitochondria
w/ CoA molecule - 3 ketone bodies produced:
- products: acetyl CoA & new acyl > acetoacetate
CoA molecule > b-hydroxybutyrate
> acetone
● OXIDATION OF UNSATURATED FATTY
ACIDS STEPS IN KETOGENESIS
- requires 2 additional steps compared
to saturated FA 1. FIRST CONDENSATION
- 2 acetyl CoA molecules combine to
1. EPIMERASE produce acetoacetyl CoA, reversal of
- changes D configuration to last step of the b-oxidation pathway
an L configuration 2. SECOND CONDENSATION
2. CIS-TRANS ISOMERASE - acetoacetyl CoA reacts w/ third
- produces a trans-(2,3) double acetyl CoA & water to produce
bond from cis-(3,4) double 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA
bond (HMG-CoA) & CoA-SH
3. CHAIN CLEAVAGE 4. HYDROGENATION
- HMG-CoA is cleaved to acetyl CoA - hdrogen is added to alkene 3 to
& acetoacetate form saturated butyryl ACP from
4. HYDROGENATION NADPH
- acetoacetate is reduced to
b-hydroxybutyrate ● UNSATURATED FA BIOSYNTHESIS
- molecular O2 is needed to produce
**note: KETOSIS is the condition of body double bond
where high levels of ketone bodies are present - essential unsaturated FA linoleic and
in blood & urine linolenic cannot be biosynthesized

BIOSYNTHESIS OF FA: LIPOGENESIS ● IMPORTANT CONTRAST BETWEEN CAC

& LIPOGENESIS INTERMEDIATES
- CA intermediates involve C4 diacids,
LIPOGENESIS DEGRADATION OF & lipogenesis intermediates involve
FA C4 monoacids
- the order in which the various acid
- occurs in cell - occurs in
cytosol mitochondrial derivative types are encountered in
matrix lipogenesis is the reverse of the order
in which they are encountered in CAC
- multi-enzyme - enzymes are not
complex called physically FATES OF FA GENERATED ACETYL CoA
FA synthase associated, and
catalyzes reaction steps ● ACETYL CoA AFTER FA OXIDATION
reactions are independent - further channeled in different routes
- intermediates are - carrier of FA > further processed to obtain ATP
bonded to acyl degradation is > ketone body formation
carrier protein CoA > storage in form of TAGs
(ACP) > used as starting material for
production of lipids & other FA
- dependent on - dependent on
reducing agent FAD & NAD+ ● CHOLESTEROL
NADPH - necessary component of CM
- precursor for bile salts, sex
● CITRATE-MALATE SHUTTLE SYSTEM hormones, & adrenal hormones
- acetyl CoA = starting material for RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LIPID AND
lipogenesis CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
- acetyl CoA = generated in
mitochondria & must first be ● ACETYL CoA
transported to cytosol - Primary link between lipid &
- citrate-malate transport system helps carbohydrate metabolism pathways
transport acetyl CoA to cytosol - starting material in biosynthesis of FA,
indirectly cholesterol, ketone bodies (lipid
● ACP COMPLEX FORMATION metabolism)
- all intermediates in FA synthesis are - degradation product in glucose,
linked to carrier proteins(ACP-SH) glycerol, & FA (carbohydrate
- ACP-SH (giant CoA molecule) metabolism)
● CHAIN ELONGATION
B VITAMINS AND
LIPID METABOLISM
1. CONDENSATION
- acetyl ACP & malonyl ACP
- structurally modified B vitamins function as
condense together to form
coenzymes in lipid metabolism
acetoacetyl ACP
- B vitamins that participate in various
2. HYDROGENATION
pathways of lipid metabolism:
- keto group of acetoacetyl
> niacin (NAD+, NADH, & NADPH)
complex is reduced to alcohol by
> riboflavin (FAD)
NADPH
> pantothenic acid (CoA, acetyl CoA, &
3. DEHYDRATION
ACP)
- water is removed from alcohol to
> biotin
form an alkene
BIOCHEM
chymotrypsin, & carboxypeptidase in
their inactive forms
● PROTEIN DIGESTIVE ENZYMES IN
INTESTINE
FINALS
- proteolytic enzymes
> catalyzes the breaking of peptide
bonds
> enzymes that attack peptide bonds
> pepsin
PROTEIN METABOLISM
> trypsin
> chymotrypsin
● various processes responsible for synthesis
- zymogens
of proteins & amino acids (anabolism), &
> proteolytic enzymes produced in
breakdown of proteins by catabolism
inactive form
● anabolism = building of complex molecules
> turned on at the appropriate time &
from numerous to simple
place
● catabolism = breakdown of complex
molecules into numerous ones
**note: most digestive & blood-clotting
● PROTEIN = CHONS
enzymes are proteolytic enzymes
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS - liberated A.A are transported in
bloodstream via active transport process
arginine*** methionine
- passage of polypeptides & small proteins
histidine phenylalanine across the intestinal wall is uncommon in
adults
isoleucine threonine SUMMARY OF DIGESTION OF PROTEIN IN
leucine tryptophan HUMANS

lysine valine stomach → small intestine = amino acids →

a.a pool
***note: arginine is only essential for children
PROTEIN DIGESTION AMINO ACID UTILIZATION
AND ABSORPTION ● AMINO ACID POOL
● STOMACH - a.a. formed through digestion process
- beginning of protein digestion enters AAP
- DIETARY PROTEIN = stimulates - total supply of free a.a available for use
release of gastrin in the human body
- GASTRIN = promotes secretion of - sources:
pepsinogen & HCl > dietary protein
- HCl has 3 fxns: > PROTEIN TURNOVER: repetitive
> antiseptic properties kill most process in which proteins are
bacteria degraded & resynthesized
> denaturing action “unwinds” > biosynthesis of a.a in liver
globular proteins **note: only non-essential a.a. Are
> acidic property leads to activation synthesized
of pepsinogen ● NITROGEN BALANCE
- pepsin affect hydrolysis of 10% peptide - when # of nitrogen taken in human body
bonds as protein = the # of nitrogen excreted in
● SMALL INTESTINE waste materials
- production of secretin is stimulated by - types of nitrogen imbalance:
passage of small amounts of acidic > negative nitrogen imbalance
protein content into S.I - protein degradation exceeds
- Secretin = stimulates bicarbonate protein synthesis
(HCO3) production, which helps - # of nitrogen in urine exceeds
neutralize acidified gastric content consumed #
**note: bicarbonate production - results in tissue wasting
promotes secretion of pancreatic
digestive enzymes: trypsin,
 > positive nitrogen imbalance ● AMMONIUM PRODUCTION VIA
- rate of protein synthesis OXIDATIVE DEAMINATION
(anabolism) is more than protein - occurs in mitochondria of liver & kidney
degradation (catabolism)
- indicated by the synthesis of
THE UREA CYCLE
large # of tissue
- series of reactions where urea is produced
USES OF A.A IN HUMAN BODY from ammonium ions & aspartame as
nitrogen sources
1. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS - net effect of transamination & deamination
- uses 75% of free a.a reactions is the production of ammonium
2. NON-PROTEIN NITROGEN-CONTAINING ions & aspartate
COMPOUNDS SYNTHESIS - urea in liver is transported via blood to
- purine & pyrimidine synthesis kidneys & eliminated from body in urine
- heme for hemoglobin synthesis - UREA = odorless white solid w/ salty taste,
3. NON-ESSENTIAL A.A SYNTHESIS has a melting point of 133 celsius, soluble
- essential a.a cannot be synthesized due in water
to lack of appropriate carbon chain ● CARBAMOYL PHOSPHATE
4. PRODUCTION OF ENERGY - 1 of the sources of fuel for urea cycle
- a.a are not stored in the body - 2 ATP molecules are expended in
- excess a.a are degraded formation of 1 carbamoyl phosphate
- each a.a has unique degradation molecule
pathway - contains high-energy phosphate bond
- formed in mitochondrial matrix
DEGRADATION PATHWAYS
- amino nitrogen atom is removed & excreted STEPS OF UREA CYCLE
from body as urea 1. CARBAMOYL GROUP TRANSFER
- remaining carbon skeleton is converted to - CG is transferred to ornithine to from
pyruvate, acetyl CoA, or CAC intermediate citrulline
2. CITRULLINE-ASPARTATE
TRANSAMINATION & OXIDATIVE CONDENSATION
DEAMINATION - citrulline is transported to cytosol &
- degradation of a.a takes place in 2 stages reacts w/ aspartate to produce
> removal of a.amino group argininosuccinate synthetase, utilizing
> degradation of remaining carbon ATP
skeleton 3. ARGININOSUCCINATE CLEAVAGE
- removal of amino groups requires: - argininosuccinate is cleave to arginine &
> transamination fumarate by enzyme argininosuccinate
- interchange of amino group in lyase
a-amino acid w/ keto group in 4. UREA FROM ARGININE HYDROLYSIS
a-keto acid - hydrolysis of arginine produces urea &
> oxidative deamination regenerates ornithine under influence of
- a-amino acid is converted to arginase
a-keto acid w/ release of - oxygen atom present in urea comes
ammonium ion from water
- occurs in mitochondria of liver & - ornithine is transported back to
kidney mitochondria to be used in urea cycle
● GLUTAMATE PRODUCTION VIA
TRANSAMINATION UREA CYCLE NET REACTION
- GLUTAMATE = produced through
- equivalent of 4 ATP molecules is
transamination when a-ketoglutarate is
expended in production of 1 urea molecule
the amino group acceptor
- 2 molecules of ATP are consumed in
● ASPARTATE PRODUCTION VIA
production of carbamoyl phosphate
TRANSAMINATION
- equivalent of 2 ATP molecules is
- glutamate is the reacting acid &
consumed in step 2 of urea cycle to give
oxaloacetate is the reacting keto acid
AMP & PPi
● LINKAGE BETWEEN UREA CYCLE & - Degradation of hemoglobin:
CAC > globin protein part is converted to a.a,
- fumarate is converted to aspartate which become part of a.a pool
- aspartate re-enters urea cycle at step 2 > iron atom becomes part of ferritin
> ferritin - iron-storage protein
AMINO ACID CARBON > tetrapyrrole carbon arrangement of
SKELETONS heme is degraded to bile pigments
**eliminated in feces/ urine
- transamination/oxidative deamination
● BILE PIGMENTS
removes amino group from a.a
- colored tetrapyrrole degradation
> a-keto acid that contains skeleton of
products present in bile
a.a is produced
- types of bile pigments:
- each of 20 a.a undergo different
> biliverdin - green
intermediates
> bilirubin - reddish orange
> products formed are intermediaries
> stercobilin - brown
in CAC
> urobilin - yellow
> 3 products: pyruvate, acetyl CoA,
- daily normal excretion of bile pigments
acetoacetyl CoA
> 1-2 mg in urine
- a.a converted to CAC intermediates can
> 250-350 mg in feces
serve as glucose precursors
● JAUNDICE
> GLUCOGENIC AMINO ACID
- caused by imbalance between formation
- a.a that has a carbon-containing
& removal of bilirubin
degradation product that can be
- gives skin & white of eye a yellow tint
used to produce glucose via
gluconeogenesis
- a.a converted to acetyl CoA or acetoacetyl PROTEINS AND THE
CoA can contribute to formation of F.A ELEMENT SULFUR
> KETOGENIC A.A ● HYDROGEN SULFIDE AS BIOCHEMICAL
- a.a that has carbon-containing SIGNALING AGENT
degradation product that can be - regulates vascular blood flow & bp
used to produce ketone bodies > act as smooth muscle relaxant &
vasodilator
AMINO ACID BIOSYNTHESIS - influences brain function (mababa
kapag may alzheimer’s disease)
- non-essential a.a are synthesized in fewer - influences insulin levels in type 1
steps than essential a.a diabetes (kapag sobra naman nag llead
- primary source of essential a.a for humans to reduced insulin production:<)
& animals is plants

INTERRELATIONSHIPS AMONG
HEMOGLOBIN CATABOLISM METABOLIC PATHWAYS
- metabolic pathways of carbs, lipids, &
● RED BLOOD CELLS proteins are integrally linked to one another
- highly-specialized cells that delivers - change in 1 pathway can affect many other
oxygen to cells & remove carbon dioxide pathways
from body tissues
- mature RBCs have no nucleus or DNA EXAMPLES:
> filled w/ hemoglobin
- RBCs are formed in bone marrow ● FEASTING
> approx 200 billion new RBCs are - over-eating (katakawan, chz)
formed daily - causes body to store limited # of
- life span of RBCs is approx 4 months glycogen & fat
- old RBCs are broken down in spleen & ● FASTING
liver - food is not ingested (nde k kOmakain)
● HEMOGLOBIN - body uses stored glycogen & fat for
- conjugated protein w/ 2 components: energy
> heme - protein portion ● STARVATION
> globin - prosthetic group - prolonged fasting
- iron atom in heme interacts w/ oxygen - body protein is broken down to a.a to
> reversible complex is formed synthesize glucose
 - fats are converted to ketone bodies

B VITAMINS AND
PROTEIN METABOLISM
- all 8 B vitamins participate in various
pathways of protein metabolism
- components of many coenzymes
● NIACIN
- oxidative deamination reactions
● PLP
- transamination reactions

● SIMPLE AND CONJUGATED ENZYMES

- SIMPLE ENZYME
> composed only of protein (amino
acid chains)
- CONJUGATED ENZYME
> has non-protein & protein parts
>APOENZYME
- protein part
> COFACTOR
- non-protein part
- provide additional chemically
reactive functional groups
- COENZYMES : serve as cofactor
in conjugated enzyme
> HOLOENZYME
- biochemically activated
conjugated enzyme
- apoenzyme + cofactor
● ENZYME ACTIVITY
- measure of rate at which enzyme
converts substrate to products in
biochemical reaction
BIOCHEM
● Which of the following conversions is
accomplished by the process of glycolysis?
- GLUCOSE TO PYRUVATE
● What are the first 2 intermediates in the
FINALS (QUIZZES)
process of glycolysis?
- GLUCOSE 6-PHOSPHATE &
FRUCTOSE 6-PHOSPHATE
● In the human body, under aerobic
conditions and anaerobic conditions,
CARBOHYDRATE
respectively, pyruvate is converted to?
METABOLISM - ACETYL CoA & LACTATE
● Accumulation of which of the following
● Where does the digestion of carbohydrates substances is the cause of stiff and sore
begin? muscles after vigorous exercise?
- MOUTH - LACTATE
● Under aerobic conditions, what is the fate of ● The net yield of ATP when 18 glucose
pyruvate? molecules are metabolized during the
- IT IS CONVERTED TO ACETYL process of glycolysis is___
CoA, WHICH ENTERS THE - 36
CITRIC ACID CYCLE ● Glycogen is converted to glucose in which
● Which of the following pathways is of the following processes?
responsible for the synthesis of glucose - GLYCOGENOLYSIS
from non-carbohydrate materials? ● Which of the following intermediates is not
- GLUCONEOGENESIS involved in glycolysis but is in
● Where does gluconeogenesis occur? gluconeogenesis?
- LIVER - OXALOACETATE
● Which of the following pairs of processes ● Which of the following hormones promotes
are the reverse of each other in terms of the the uptake and use of glucose by cells?
initial reactant and final product? - INSULIN
- GLYCOLYSIS & ● Which of the following C6 stage glycolysis
GLUCONEOGENESIS intermediates is paired with the correct type
● What hormones control carbohydrate of enzyme needed for its production?
metabolism? - GLUCOSE 6-PHOSPHATE;
- INSULIN, GLUCAGON, KINASE
EPINEPHRINE ● In which of the following processes is
● How does the body react biochemically glucose 6-phosphate the end product?
when it is in a dangerous situation and - GLYCOGENOLYSIS
needs extra energy to avert the danger? ● Which of the following hormones increases
- EPINEPHRINE blood glucose levels?
● The day after a vigorous workout, after - GLUCAGON & EPINEPHRINE
months of living a sedentary life, your
muscles are very sore. Biochemically, what
happened in your body to cause this LIPID
soreness? METABOLISM
- LARGE AMOUNTS OF
GLUCOSE WERE ● Biosynthesis of cholesterol occurs in the
METABOLIZED TO PYRUVATE ____
THAT WAS CONVERTED - LIVER
UNDER ANAEROBIC ● What is the net ATP production for Palmitic
CONDITIONS TO LACTATE, Acid (a 16 carbon fatty acid?) if your end
WHICH ACCUMULATED IN products are: 8-Acetyl CoA, 7-NADH,
YOUR MUSCLES. THIS 7-FADH2?
BUILDING OF LACTATE IS -
WHAT CAUSED THE
SORENESS.
● The primary site within the human body
where carbohydrate digestion occurs is
the?
- SMALL INTESTINE
● A 47 yrs old patient comes to the ● Which of the following statements
emergency room, complaining of dizziness, concerning the chain elongation phase of
and blurring of vision, all vital signs except fatty acid biosynthesis is correct?
BP (170/100 mmHg) were normal. The - STEP 2 INVOLVES A
doctor asks your clinical impression of the HYDRATION REACTION
patient and what test would help support
your impression?
- HYPERTENSION: SERUM LIPID
PROTEIN
PROFILE METABOLISM
● Besides cholesterol being an important cell
membrane component, what other function ● Protein digestion begins in the ___ and is
does cholesterol serve? completed in the ___, resulting in the
- IT IS A PRECURSOR FOR release of amino acids.
VARIOUS CLASSES OF - STOMACH; SMALL INTESTINE
STEROID HORMONES ● What two types of biochemical reactions are
required for the removal of the amino group
● When the lipid-carbohydrate metabolism is
from most amino acids?
upset by certain body conditions, more
- TRANSAMINATION AND
Acetyl CoA is produced that can be used in OXIDATIVE DEAMINATION
the citric acid cycle. This results in the ● The net effect of amino acid degradation is
production of ____ by a process known as the production of the ammonium, which is
_____ toxic. How is the ammonium ion eliminated
- KETONE BODIES; from the body?
KETOGENESIS - IT IS CONVERTED TO UREA IN
● Shortly, after arriving at your place of work THE UREA CYCLE AND
in a clinical laboratory, you have your blood EXCRETED IN THE URINE
drawn for serum analysis. You notice your ● What are the four intermediates that contain
the carbon skeletons from amino acid
serum is milky white in appearance rather
degradation in the citric acid cycle?
than the normal straw color. Why is this?
- A-KETOGLUTARATE, SUCCINYL
- YOU HAD A HIGH FAT CoA, FUMARATE,
BREAKFAST, AND THE MILKY OXALOACETATE
COLOR IS DUE TO THE ● Degradation of heme from hemolysis
PRESENCE OF HIGH LEVELS produces the product ____, which is
OF CHYLOMICRON, A converted to ____.
LIPOPROTEIN THAT - BILIVERDIN; BILIRUBIN
TRANSPORTS ● In degradation of the sulfur-containing
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS FROM amino acid cysteine, the sulfur is released in
THE SMALL INTESTINE TO the form of:
- HYDROGEN SULFIDE
THE BLOODSTREAM
● During starvation, what is used as a source
● A patient with hypercholesterolemia comes
of energy after the glycogen stores have
to you for consultation, which of the been depleted?
following findings from your clinical - Both (a) and (b)
interview/evaluation would be possible ● Transamination reactions require the
cause of his high cholesterol levels? cofactor PLP, which involves:
- DIET: LECHON, - VITAMIN B6
INNARDS,CHEESES ● What best describes what happens to the
● The first stage of glycerol metabolism protein after eating a high-protein meal?
involves a two step process on which the - PROTEIN DIGESTION BEGINS IN
glycerol is converted to ____ THE STOMACH AND THEN
MOVES TO SMALL INTESTINE
- DIHYDROXYACETONE
WHERE COMPLETE DIGESTION
PHOSPHATE
OCCURS. THE FREE AMINO
● Which of the following is a correct ordering ACIDS ARE STORED IN THE
of cholesterol intermediates as they are AMINO ACID POOL.
encountered during the biosynthesis of ● As dietary protein materials leave the
cholesterol? stomach, they
- MEVALONATE, ISOPENTENYL - ARE A MIXTURE OF LARGE
PHOSPHATE, SQUALENE POLYPEPTIDES
● The net overall effect of transamination
reactions in the human body is to collect the
amino groups from a variety of amino acids
into a single compound, which is
- AN AMINO ACID
● Which of the following statements
concerning the degradation of amino acid
carbon “skeletons” is correct?
- SOME, BUT NOT ALL, FINAL
DEGRADATION PRODUCTS ARE
CITRIC ACID CYCLE
INTERMEDIATES
● Which of the following statements
concerning amino acid biosynthesis is
incorrect?
- ALL BUT SIX OF THE STANDARD
AMINO ACIDS CAN BE
BIOSYNTHESIZED IN THE HUMAN
BODY
● Amino acid metabolism differs from that of
carbohydrates and triacylglycerols in that:
- THERE IS NO STORAGE FORM
FOR AMINO ACIDS IN THE BODY
● The net effect of transamination is to
- TO COLLECT THE AMINO
GROUPS FROM A VARIETY OF
AMINO ACIDS INTO A SINGLE
COMPOUND
● The “fuel” for the urea cycle is
- CARBAMOYL PHOSPHATE