Introduction to Quantum
Mechanics (PH101)
Pankaj Kumar Mishra
Department of Physics
IIT Guwahati, Assam, India
[email protected]Mobile number:8472801070
Research Area: Quantum turbulence
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Time Table Plan
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
16 17 18 19 20 21 Classical Part
Mon-1 Tue-1 Wed-1 Thur-1 Fri-1
23 24 25 26 27 28
November 2020
Mon-2 Tue-2 Wed-2 Thur-2 Fri-2 Discussion KP: 17 Nov – 08 Dec
30
Holiday
AP: 09 Dec – 30 Dec
1 2 3 4 5
Tue-3 Wed-3 Thur-3 Fri-3 Discussion
7 8 9 10 11 12
Mon-3 Tue-4 Wed-4 Thur-4 Fri-4 EXAM 01
December 2020
14
Mon-4
15
Tue-5
16
Wed-5
17
Thur-5
18
Fri-5
19
Discussion
STR and QM
21 22 23 24 25 26
Mon-5 Tue-6 Wed-6 Thur-6 Holiday Discussion BRB: 05 Jan – 29 Jan
28 29 30 31 PKM: 02 Feb – 23 Feb
Mon-6 Tue-7 Wed-7 Thur-7
1 2
Fri-6 EXAM 02
4 5 6 7 8 9
Mon-7 Tue-8 Wed-8 Thur-8 Fri-7 Discussion Exams:
11 12 13 14 15 16
January 2021
Mon-8 Tue-9 Wed-9 Holiday No Class Discussion Exam 01: 12 Dec
18
Mon-9
19
Tue-10
20
Wed-10
21
Thur-9
22
Fri-8
23
Discussion
Exam 02: 15 Jan
25 26 27 28 29 30 Exam 03: 06 Feb
Mon-10 Holiday Wed-11 Thur-10 Fri-9 Discussion
1 2 3 4 5 6 Exam 04: 27 Feb
Mon-11 Tue-11 Wed-12 Thur-11 Fri-10 EXAM 03
8 9 10 11 12 13
Mon-12 Tue-12 Wed-13 Thur-12 Fri-11 Discussion
February 2021
15 16 17 18 19 20
Mon-13 Tue-13 Wed-14 Thur-13 Fri-12 Discussion
22 23 24 25 26 27
Mon-14 Tue-14 Fri-13 Thur-14 Fri-14 EXAM 04
1 2 3 4 5 6
March 2021
break break break break break break
Contents to be covered in the course
❑ Necessity to have Quantum Mechanics: Photoelectric effect, Black body
radiation, Compton effect, Line spectra, etc.
❑ Old quantum mechanics: Bohr’s model.
❑ Wave-particle duality: Two-slit experiment of matter wave (electron), De
Broglie hypothesis, Representation of the quantum particle as a wave packet,
uncertainty relation.
❑ Introduction and interpretation of the Schrödinger wave equation for
quantum-mechanical (matter) waves. Physical Interpretation of the
observables using the Schrodinger waves: eigen values, eigenstates,
expectation values of the observables, Hilbert space representations, etc.
❑ Solution of the Schrödinger equation for a one-dimensional “particle in a
box”.
❑ Behaviour of a quantum-mechanical particle in a “finite potential well”.
❑ The quantum-mechanical harmonic oscillator, a model for molecular
vibrations.
Why
Quantum
Quantum
Mechanics
Mechanics
It is a fundamental theory in Physics that describes the Physical properties of
the nature at atomic and subatomic level.
Quantum Chemistry, Quantum field theory, Quantum technology (Quantum
computation, quantum cryptography …), quantum information
5
(quantum
teleportation, quantum entanglement…).
Why Quantum Mechanics
✓ Why some materials are conductors, some are insulators,
some are semiconductor, some are superconductor, some are
superfluid, etc. can be understood only through quantum
mechanics.
✓ Classical Mechanics and Maxwell’s Equation can explain
macroscopic phenomena such as motion of billiard balls,
rockets, etc. Quantum mechanics used to explain the
microscopic phenomena at very small scale such as photon
atom scattering, electron motion in the material.
✓ Classical mechanics describes the particle trajectory where
evolution of the state is governed by the newton’s equation
of motion and the paths are deterministic in nature.
Quantum mechanics particle can act like both wave or the
particle and the state is conglomeration of several possible
6
outcomes (QM uses the language of probability). Energy is
quantized!
Classical Mechanics
Newton, Sir Isaac, PRS,
(1643 – 1727), English
physicist and
mathematician
Euler, Leonhard Lagrange, Joseph Louis (1736 -- Hamilton, William Rowan (1805 --
(1707 -- 1783), 1813), 1865),
Swiss Italian-French mathematician, Irish mathematician and astronomer.
mathematician. astronomer and physicist.
Classical Electrodynamics
Coulomb, Charles Biot, Jean Baptiste (1774 Ampere, Andre Marie Lorentz, Hendrik
Faraday, Michael
Augustin (1736 – 1806), --1862), French Physicist; (1775 -- 1836), French Antoon (1853 -- 1928),
(1791 -- 1867),
French physicist Savart, Félix (1791 -- Physicist Dutch Physicist
English Physicist
1841),
French Physicist
Maxwell, James Clerk (1831 – 1879), Scottish physicist
Classical Physics of collection of large number of particles
Dalton, John Carnot, Nicolas Helmholtz, Hermann Clausius, Rudolf Julius
Léonard Sadi (1796 - Joule, James Ludwig Ferdinand von
(1766 -- 1844), Emanuel (1822 -- 1888) ,
- 1832), Prescott (1818 -- (1821 -- 1894), German
British chemist German mathematical
French physicist. 1889), British physicist and physician.
and physicist. physicist.
physicist.
Thermodynamics
and Staitistical
Mechanics
Thomson, William Maxwell, James Lord and Lady Kelvin at Boltzmann, Ludwig, (1844 – 1906),
(Baron Kelvin) (1824 - Clerk (1831 – Austrian physicist.
the coronation of King
1907), British 1879), Scottish
physicist Edward VII in 1902.
physicist and
mathematician.
❑ At this stage, there is nothing new to be discovered in
Physics now, because all the dynamical properties of
matter and field can be understood using the Classical
Physics.
❑ It was understood that if we know the initial conditions
the future state of a system can be precisely predicted.
❑ All that remains is more and more precise measurement.
Two revolutionary experiments in the late 19th century
Michelson, Albert Morley, Edward Gustav Kirchhoff
Ultraviolet catastrophy in
Michelson-Morley Experiment blackbody radiation (before
(1887) October, 1900)
Einstein, Albert
Planck, Max
Special theory of Relativty
Quantum Mechanics
Necessity of a new Theory
At this stage, several experimental observations could
not be explained using the already existing classical
theory.
❑Black body radiation (1860-1901)
❑ Photo electric effect (1887-1905)
❑ Atomic line spectra (1888-)
Black Body Radiation
✓ All material objects(bodies) absorb
and emit radiations simultaneously. At
thermal equilibrium the body must
absorb and emit thermal energy at the
same rate.
✓ A blackbody is a material which
absorbs all the radiation falling on it Intensity vs Wavelength
and reflects none. A perfect black body (Spectral distribution)
is one which also radiate all the Intensity=Total power radiated per unit
radiation absorbed. area per unit wavelength at a given
temperature.
✓ The interesting properties of
blackbody radiation is that it is
independent of materials.
✓ The radiation which enters though the
whole gets reflected several times
inside the cavity and finally gets
absorbed. A small fraction of that may
get reemitted through the hole.
✓ At thermal equilibrium this should
also be an perfect emitter of radiation.
Black Body Radiation
Observation:
The maximum of the distribution shifts to smaller wavelengths as the temperature
is increased.
Wien’s displacement law:
The wave length at the maximum power
varies inversely with temperature (T).
The proper formula for the power per unit
area at temperature T was given by Stefan
and Boltzmann as:
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
Black Body Radiation
Lord Rayleigh and James Jeans used the classical theories of electromagnetism and
thermodynamics to show that the blackbody spectral distribution can be represented as
This explains the experimental data only in the
limit of large wavelength.
When the above formula diverges.
This is called the ultraviolet catastrophe
Wien’s proposed the spectral distribution as
This is consistent with experimental data for small
wavelength.
Rayleigh- Jeans and Wien’s formula for spectral distribution were purely based on the Classical
Physics and were able to explain the experimental observation in the extreme limits of the
wavelength.Around 1900, this failure indicated that the electromagnetic radiation may not be just a
wave!
correct spectral distribution was necessary to explain the blackbody
radiation....
Blackbody Radiation: Planck’s distribution formula
Max Planck had the best possible experimental data for the blackbody radiation over a
broad range of wavelengths and used the method of curve fitting to obtain the following
formula that fitted the best.
❑ To provide a theoretical explanation to this he assumed that the radiation in
the cavity was emitted by some sort of oscillators that are contained in the wall
of the cavity.
❑ The oscillators can have certain discrete energies determined by E=nhf, where
n is an integer and h is the called the Planck’s constant.
❑ The oscillators can absorb or emit only in discrete multiples of the quanta of
energy given by :
Allowed energy levels according to Planck’s hypothesis for an
oscillator with frequency “f” .
Allowed transitions are indicated by the double headed arrows.
At this point energy can be zero, which will we see is
incorrect!
Blackbody Radiation: Plancks distribution formula
Rayleigh-Jean’s Formula
For small wavelength
Wien’s formula
Photoelectric Effect
❑ Photoelectric effect: Incident light (electromagnetic radiation) shining on the
material transfers energy to the electrons, allowing them to escape.
❑ Electromagnetic radiation interacts with electrons within metals and gives the
electrons increased kinetic energy. Light can give electrons enough extra kinetic
energy to allow them to escape. We call the ejected electrons photoelectrons.
The energy needed to get
electron out of a metal is known
as work function.
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Photoelectric Effect
❑ Same emitter material (V0),
same kind of light (f or )
with 1, 2, and 3 fold
intensity.
❑ photocurrent intensity
depends on incoming light
intensity if sufficiently
energetic light has been
used.
Three different emitter materials,
three different kinds of light (f) are
required to get a photocurrent
Photoelectric Effect
Different materials have different work
functions, i.e. amounts of energy
required to allow an electron to escape
a metal block, note that the slope of all
of these curves is just h
Photocurrent is linear function of light intensity if it is sufficiently
energetic to overcome the work function.
Photoelectric Effect
Experimental observations:
❑ The kinetic energies of the photoelectrons are independent of the light
intensity.
❑ Only sufficiently energetic light makes an effect, there can be an enormous
intensity of light that is not sufficiently energetic and no effect is observed.
❑ The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons, for a given emitting
material, depends only on the frequency of the light.
❑ The smaller the work function (φ) of the emitter material, the smaller is
the threshold frequency of the light that can eject photoelectrons.
❑ However, the number of photoelectrons are produced is proportional to
the intensity of light.
❑ The photoelectrons are emitted almost instantly following illumination of
the emitter, independent of the intensity of the light.
Photoelectric Effect
❑ The existence of a threshold frequency is completely inexplicable in classical theory.
❑ Classical theory predicts that the total amount of energy in a light wave increases as
the light intensity increases.
❑ Classical theory would predict that for extremely low light intensities, a long time
would elapse before any one electron could obtain sufficient energy to escape. We
observe, however, that the photoelectrons are ejected almost immediately.
❑ Conclusion: light can not be simple a wave, must be something else, a stream of
particles (as thought by Newton in deriving geometric (ray-) optic).
Einstein suggested that the electromagnetic radiation field is quantized into particles called
photons. Each photon possesses the quantum of total energy (which is all kinetic as they do
not have rest mass ):
h: Planck’s constant and f is the frequency of the light wave.
Photoelectric Effect
Einstein in 1905 predicted that the stopping potential was linearly proportional to the
light frequency, with a slope h, the same constant found by Planck.
This suggests the light wave can be envisaged to be made of small packets of
energies knows as light quanta (Photon)!
Nobel Prize for A. Einstein, 1921 (none for his other great achievements as
people had difficulty with special relativity for a long time). Also Nobel Prize
for Milikan in 1923 for experiment.
Photoelectric Effect: Summary
❑ In 1839, Alexandre Edmond Becquerel
observed the photoelectric effect via an
electrode in a conductive solution exposed to
light.
❑ In 1873, Willoughby Smith found that
selenium is photoconductive.
❑ In 1887, Heinrich Hertz made observations of
the photoelectric effect and of the production
and reception of electromagnetic (EM) waves.
❑ In 1899, Joseph John Thomson (N) investigated
ultraviolet light in Crookes tubes. In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed
the well-known Einstein's equation
❑ In 1901, Nikola Tesla received the U.S. Patent
for photoelectric effect.
685957 (Apparatus for the Utilization of
Radiant Energy) that describes radiation
charging and discharging conductors by
"radiant energy". In 1916, Robert Andrews
Millikan finished a decade-long
❑ In 1902, Philipp von Lenard (N) observed the experiment to confirm Einstein’s
variation in electron energy with light explanation of photoelectric
frequency. effect.
Atomic Line Spectra
Chemical elements were observed to produce unique wavelengths of
light when burned or excited in an electrical discharge.
dense material, i.e. hot “black
body”, big- bang background
radiation, sun if one does not look
too carefully.
As the white light (with continuous
spectrum) passes through an
absorbing layer of atomic elements
and analyzed with spectrograph a
discrete set of emission lines are
observed.
For every absorption line, there
is an emission line, but typically
not the other way around.
This shows the discrete nature of the atomic transition, i.e., an atom
can absorb or emit the EM radiation in the selective manner!
Explanation of Line Spectra using Classical picture of atom
Nuclear atom model (1911): Ernest Rutherford
Explanation of Line Spectra using Classical picture of atom
Classical physics: atoms should collapse!
Classical Electrodynamics: charged
particles radiate EM energy (photons)
This means an electron
when their velocity vector changes (e.g.
should fall into the
they accelerate).
nucleus.
New mechanics is needed!
Bohr’s model of the Hydrogen atom
Postulates:
❑Electron moves in a circular orbit about the nucleus under
the influence of the electrostatic attraction.
❑The orbits are stationary in nature, i.e., the total energy of
the electron moving in the orbit remains constant, so it
does not emit electromagnetic energy.
❑Radiation can only take place when a transition is made
between the allowed energy levels.
❑The angular of an electron moving in the stationary orbit
is not continuous but can have the discrete values (Angular
momentum is quantized).
Bohr’s model of the Hydrogen atom
Circular Motion:
Quantization of angular momentum (Bohr’s hypothesis):
Resulting the quantization of velocity and radius of the orbit:
Total Energy: E= T(K.E.)+V(Potential energy)
Using the quantization of velocity and radius we have
Finally we get the quantized energy as
Bohr's model of atomic structure, 1913
The electron's orbital angular momentum is
quantized
Bohr, Niels Henrik David (1885
-- 1962), Danish physicist.
The theory predicts that electrons travel in discrete orbits around the atom's nucleus,
with the chemical properties of the element being largely determined by the number
of electrons in each of the outer orbits
The idea that an electron could drop from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one,
emitting a photon (light quantum) of discrete energy (this became the basis for
quantum theory).
We shall continue in the next class
Evolution of Quantum Mechanics
Stefan (1879) Plank(1900) Einstein(1905)
Wien (1893) Photons
Rayleigh (1900)
&
Jeans (1905)
(Thermal radiation)
Roentgen (1895) Quantum Mechanis:
Becquerel (1896) Born(1926), Heisenberg(1925),
(X-Rays and Radioactivity) Schroedinger(1926), Dirac(1927)
Balmer (1884)
Rydberg (1890)
Zeeman (1896)
(Spectral lines)
Thomson (1897)
(Electron)
Rutherford (1911) Bohr(1913) De Broglie(1924)
(Nucleus) Model of atoms Wave-particle duality
