Modelling

For
Power Generation Components

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 Electrical Power System Conrol
Power Generation System
Modelling and Control

Prepared by
Dr Alaa Abdel Razek

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Contents:

Introduction 4
Book 1: Modelling of Turbine 9
Book 2: Modelling of Synchronous Generator and Load 15
Book 3: Modelling of Speed Governor and Steam Valve 23

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Introduction:
Power Generation System Components:
• Turbine.
• Generator.
• Governor.
The prime source of electrical energy is supplied by utilities are the kinetic energy
of water and the thermal energy, which is derived from fossil fuels and nuclear
fission. The prime mover converts these sources of energy into mechanical
energy that is converted to electrical energy by synchronous generators.
Two important parameters in the power system are:
System Voltage and System Frequency
These two have to be continuously controlled to maintain them within acceptable
limits. Frequency deviations occur due to imbalance between generation and
loads.
The prime mover governing system provide a means of controlling power and
frequency, a function commonly referred to as load-frequency control or
automatic generation control [AGC].
Figure (1) presented the power system components and Figure (2) presented the
functional relationship between the basic elements associated with power
generation and control.
This book examines the characteristics of prime movers and energy supply
systems and develops appropriate models suitable for their representation in
power system dynamic studies. Also, the principles and implementation of
automatic generation control are described.

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 Valve Control

Step-up Step-down
Valve transformer transformer

Turbine G Transmission
Lines
Load

Vf

Figure (I-1): power generation system components

AGC
(Governor
System) Synchronous Generator
Steam Rotor Stator
From Steam Generator

T
Steam Exciter
W
Turbine
O

K
AVC
To Condenser (Regulator)

Figure (I-2): Functional block diagram of power generation and control system

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Basic Generator Control Loop:
The power generation system is equipped with two major control loops, namely:
1. Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
2. Automatic Load-Frequency Control (ALFC) or (AGC)
Figure (3) shows the two control loops for a generation set. The AVR will be
discussed with another chapter. The ALFC, also called AGC, controls the real
power to maintain the system frequency a constant. This is achieved by
controlling the speed of the prime mover (turbine).

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 ∆𝑃𝐶 Direct Power Control
Reference Reference
Frequency 𝑓𝑟 Automatic Voltage Voltage
Speed
Governor Regulator

Position Feedback Change Position Signal

Steam Exciter

Hydraulic
Valve Mechanical Turbine Electrical
Generator
Measuring
Power Transformer Voltage
𝑓𝑚 Measuring
Frequency

Electricity Network

Figure (3): Shows the two control loops for a generation set

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 Modelling
For
Power Generation Components

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Book 1: Modelling of Turbine
A mechanical device which converts the kinetic energy of some fluid like steam,
water, flue gas, etc. into rotational energy to perform work is called a turbine.
Based on the source of rotation, the main types of the turbines are:
•Steam turbine
• Water turbine
• Gas turbine
• Wind turbine
The prime mover driving a generator unit may be a steam turbine or a
hydrturbine. The models for the prime mover must take account of the steam
supply and boiler control system characteristics in the case of steam turbine, or
the penstock characteristics for a hydro turbine. In this section, only the simplest
prime-mover model, the non-reheat steam turbine, will be used. The models for
other more complex prime movers, including hydro turbines, are developed in
many refrences.

Nonreheat Turbine:
Only one stage is used, which is called a nonreheat turbine. From a response point
of view this turbine type is quit simple. Upon opening the control valve the steam
flow will not reach the turbine cylinderical instantaneousely.
Figure (2), shows the basic components of a steam turbine system. Water is
transformed into steam of high temperature and presure in the steam generator (
called “boiler” in fossil-fired units). A drum ofen services as a buffer storage
before the steam reahes the control valves. When expanding in the turbine the
steam releases a portion (about one-third) of its energy in mechanical form. The
turbine power is directly proportional to the flow (kilogrames per second) of the
steam.

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 Drum Control Valve

∆𝑃𝑣
Steam Generator Valve

Turbine G
(Boiler)

∆𝑃𝑚

Condenser
Boiler Feed
Pump Cooling Water

Fig. (B1-1): Schematic Diagram of Nonreheat Turbine Steam Cycle

in Fossil-fired Plant
where,

∆𝑃𝑣 is the change in steam valve, which causes a change in mechanical power
turbine ∆𝑃𝑚

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Reheat Turbine:
To increase overall efficiency the turbine is often divided into tow or sevral stages
turbines. Between the stages the steam is reheated in reheaters. From the LP (Low
Pressure) stage the steam exits into the condencer in ehich, upon cooling, steam
condenses into water. The steam cycle is completed upon pumping the condensed
water back into the steam generator.

Control Valve

Drum

Reheater
Valve
Steam Generator (Boiler)

HP LP
Turbine Turbine G

Condenser
Boiler Feed Pump
Cooling Water

Fig. (B1-2): Schematic Diagram of Reheat Turbine Steam Cycle in Fossil-fired

Plant

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Nonreheat Turbin Modelling:
A delay is experinced in the piping, or steam chest. This delay can be modeled as
a time constant 𝜏𝐶𝐻 and this type of turbine will thus have a transfer function as:
∆𝑃𝑇 1
𝐺𝑇 (𝑠) = =
∆𝑃𝑣 1 + 𝑠𝜏 𝑇𝑅
𝜏 𝑇𝑅 is the turbine time constant, which has a typical range 0.1-0.5 second.

ΔPv(S) 𝟏 ΔPT (S) or ΔPm (S)

𝟏 + 𝒔 𝝉𝑻𝑹

Fig. (B1-3): Block Diagram for Nonreheat Prime Mover Model

Reheat Turbin Modelling:

Assume that HP and LP stages have the per-unit megawatts ratings (α) ans (1- α)
respectively.
Upon changing the control valve with the incremental (ΔPv) the HP turbine
contributes the power componentt as:
1
∆𝑃𝑇,𝐻𝑃 = 𝛼 ∆𝑃𝑣 𝑀𝑊
1 + 𝑠𝜏𝐶𝐻
The reheater response represents a delay (τRH) and the LP stage then contributes:
1 1
∆𝑃𝑇,𝐿𝑃 = (1 − 𝛼) ∆𝑃𝑣 𝑀𝑊
1 + 𝑠𝜏𝐶𝐻 1 + 𝑠𝜏𝑅𝐻
The total power is obtained by adding the two components. We thus obtain (after
some algebra) the overall turbine transfer function:
∆𝑃𝑇,𝐻𝑃 + ∆𝑃𝑇,𝐿𝑃 1 1 + 𝑠 𝛼 𝜏𝑅𝐻
𝐺𝑇,𝑅𝐻 (𝑠) = =
∆𝑃𝑣 1 + 𝑠𝜏𝐶𝐻 1 + 𝑠𝜏𝑅𝐻
𝜏𝐶𝐻 has a typical range 4-10 second, which is making the reheat turbine very slow
dynamically.

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Hydro Turbines:
When water flows from high elevation to the hydro turbine, gravitational
potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. Then, the turbine shaft,
obtaining mechanical energy from the conversion, drives the machine to generate
electricity. In a turbine, the power is controlled by regulating the flow into the
turbine using the position of the gates or nozzles.
Figure 5 depicts a so-called Pelton turbine. Depending upon the water head [H]
hydro turbines vary considerably regarding design. However, they all have
essentially the same response characteristics which can be expressed by the
following transfer function:
1 − 2𝑠 𝛼 𝜏𝑤
𝐺𝑇,𝑅𝐻 (𝑠) =
1 + 𝑠𝜏𝑤
𝜏𝑤 represents the time required for the water to pass through the penstock in
Figure (5).

Higher Reservoir

Hs Penstock
L
Q Water Turbine
1
ѳ Lower Reservoir

Fig. (B1-4): Schematic Diagram of Pelton Type Turbine in Hydro-Electric Plant

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Discussion:
Figure (6) shows a comparison of response features of steam versus hydro
turbines. The nonreheat steam turbine gives a fast response. The reheat turbine
give slower response than nonreheat.
The hydro turbine response is characterized by an initial fast decrease followed
by a slower exponential increase. This type of response is referred to as
‘nonminimum” phase. As the control gate opens up the water pressure
experiences an initial dip but recovers and increases as the water in penstock
slowly accelerates to new and higher velocity.
ΔPT
Fig. (B1-5): 1
Step responses for three
2
different turbine types
3
1-Nonreheat Steam T, s
Turbine Steam
2-Reheat
Turbine
3-Hydro Turbine

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Book 2: Modelling of Synchronous Generator and Loads
Synchronous machines are mainly used as generators and form an integral part of
the power system. The synchronous generator is used to produce most of the
electric power used throughout the world.
❖ A synchronous generator is a device for converting mechanical power from
a turbine to ac electric power at a specific voltage and frequency.
❖ The term synchronous refers to the fact that this machine's electrical
frequency is locked in or synchronized with its mechanical rate of shaft
rotation.
❖ The synchronous machine circuits; in a synchronous generator, a dc current
is applied to the rotor winding, which produces a rotor magnetic field. The
rotor of the generator is then turned by a prime mover, producing a rotating
magnetic field within the machine. This rotating magnetic field induces a
three-phase set of voltages within the stator windings of the generator.

Adjustable resistance for

field current jXAR RA + jXA
+
IA
IF
dc VF Ef EA VG

Rf + jXf

Fig. (B2-1): The per-phase equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator.

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 Load frequency or real power control, this also referred to as Megawatt-
Frequency or P-F control. The aim of this control is to maintain real power
balance in the system through control of system frequency. Whenever the real
power demand changes, a frequency change occurs. This frequency error is
amplified, mixed and changes to restore the balance between the input and output
by changing the turbine input.
Effect of real power on system frequency:
The ac motors as the larger load, run at speeds which are related to the system
frequency. It is necessary to maintain the system frequency within ±2 Hz of the
50 Hz value to ensure satisfactory performance of motors. However, the main
reason for keeping the system frequency within strict bounds is that if the
frequency error is kept within strict limits, the balance between generation and
absorption of real power can be maintained in a satisfactory way. Thus, a control
on system frequency enables the control of real power in the system and also the
turbine speed should be within specified speed otherwise blade deterioration
occurred.
Every alternator in the system runs synchronously and generates real power.
The total real power output of all alternators equals the load plus the transmission
loss. Within each alternator there is a perfect balance between the prime mover
torque and the load torque. If a change in system load occurs, the frequency trends
to fluctuate. The kinetic energy tries to keep a momentary energy balance till the
change in frequency (or speed) is detected by the governor which changes the
inputs to the prime mover and the balance between the input and output is again
restored. Modern power systems maintain the system frequency with ±0.25 Hz
of the 50 Hz value.

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Generator-Load Model:
The change in load power active causes drop in frequency, which affect the
rotating generation parts due to kinetic energy and causes change with part of
load, which is frequency sensitive.
Then the generation power equals:
1- Power changes due to kinetic energy.
2- Load parts, non-frequency, and frequency sensitive power.
Power changes due to kinetic energy:
The kinetic energy tends to accelerate or decelerate the generator:
𝑇𝑎 = 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑒𝑚
From Newton’s laws of motion is given by:
𝐼𝛼 = 𝑇𝑎
where:
I is the moment of inertia,
𝛼 is the angular acceleration,
𝑇𝑎 is the net torque.
The angular acceleration equals:
𝑑 2 𝜃𝑚
𝛼=
𝑑𝑡 2
where:
𝜃𝑚 is the rotor angle.
The rotor angle can be converted into an angle, measured with respect to a
synchronously rotating reference axis such that:
𝛿𝑚 = 𝜃𝑚 − 𝜔𝑠𝑚 𝑡
where:
𝛿𝑚 is the angular displacement in rad,
𝜔𝑠𝑚 is the synchronous speed in rad/s.
When differentiate the last relation two times, we get:

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 𝑑 2 𝛿𝑚 𝑑 2 𝜃𝑚
=
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
Substituting into main torques equation, we get:
𝑑 2 𝛿𝑚
𝐼 = 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑒𝑚
𝑑𝑡 2
Multiplying both sides by the angular velocity 𝜔𝑚 , we get:
𝑑 2 𝛿𝑚
𝜔𝑚 𝐼 = 𝜔𝑚 (𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑒𝑚 )
𝑑𝑡 2
As we had:
𝜔𝑚 𝐼 = 𝑀 is the angular moment of inertia or inertia constant.
𝜔𝑚 𝑇𝑚 = 𝑃𝑚 is the mechanical power input at the shaft minus rotational losses.
𝜔𝑚 𝑇𝑒𝑚 = 𝑃𝐺 is the electrical power generator output minus rotational losses.
We can write above equation as:
𝑑 2 𝛿𝑚
𝑀 = 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝐺
𝑑𝑡 2
The value of M varies over a wide range depending on the rating and type of the
generator. M can be assumed to be a constant.
Another constant H is used to specify the energy stored in the machine:
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝐽 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝐻=
𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑉𝐴
H is called inertia constant. It lies in a narrow range for different machines.
M and H are related as follows:
2𝐺𝐻
𝑀= [ 𝑀𝐽 − 𝑠/𝑚𝑒𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑]
𝜔𝑚
where,
G is Machine rating MVA, In pu, M=2H

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Kinetic Energy-Frequency relationship:
The change in generation due to load changes causes change in generator set
kinetic energy as:
𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝜔
𝐽 = 𝑇𝑎 → 𝐽𝜔 = 𝑇𝑎 𝜔 = 𝑃𝑔−𝐾𝐸 →
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃𝑔−𝐾𝐸 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐽𝜔 𝑑 𝜔

The kinetic energy is proportional to square of frequency:

1
𝐾. 𝐸. = ∫ 𝑃𝑔−𝐾𝐸 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝐽 𝜔 𝑑 𝜔 = 𝐽𝜔2 → 𝐾. 𝐸. 𝛼 𝑓 2 𝑎𝑠 𝜔 𝛼 𝑓
2

𝐾. 𝐸.0 𝛼(𝑓 0 )2 & 𝐾. 𝐸. 𝛼(𝑓 0 + ∆𝑓)2

2
0
𝑓 0 + ∆𝑓
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝐾. 𝐸. ( )
𝑓0

2∆𝑓
0
∆𝑓 2
𝐾. 𝐸. ≅ 𝐾. 𝐸. (1 + 0 ) 𝑎𝑠 ( 0 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑓 𝑓

𝑑𝐾. 𝐸. 2𝐾. 𝐸.0 𝑑

𝑎𝑠 𝐾. 𝐸. = ∫ 𝑃𝑔−𝐾𝐸 𝑑𝑡, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∆𝑃𝑔−𝐾𝐸 = = ∆𝑓
𝑑𝑡 𝑓 0 𝑑𝑡

2𝐻𝑆𝑟 𝑑
𝐾. 𝐸.0 = 𝐻𝑆𝑟 → ∆𝑃𝑔−𝐾𝐸 = ∆𝑓
𝑓 0 𝑑𝑡

2𝐻𝑆𝑟
∆𝑃𝐺−𝐾𝐸 (𝑠) = 𝑠 ∆𝑓(𝑠) = 𝑘𝐺𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑠 ∆𝑓(𝑠)
𝑓0

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where,
2𝐻𝑆𝑟
𝑘𝐺𝑠𝑒𝑡 = , 𝐼𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑘𝐺𝑠𝑒𝑡 = 2𝐻 = 𝑀
𝑓0
∆𝑃𝑔−𝐾𝐸 (𝑠) is the change in generation rotating set due to change in kinetic
energy.

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Load parts, non-frequency, and frequency sensitive power:
Some loads exhibit variation in active power drawn with respect to frequency
variations and another load part is non-frequency sensitive load change [ ∆𝑃𝐿 ].
The part of load changes with frequency [ ∆𝑃𝐿−𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞 ] is given by:
∆𝑃𝐿−𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞
∆𝑃𝐿−𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝛼 ∆𝑓 → ∆𝑃𝐿−𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝐷. ∆𝑓 → 𝐷 =
∆𝑓
where, D is the load damping constant.
D is expressed as a percentage [%] change in load divided by change [%] in
frequency.
For example, if D=1.5, it means that the load change by 1.5% foe 1% change in
frequency.
Then, neglecting losses, the total change in load is equal to the change in electrical
output of the generator, ∆𝑃𝑔 . Therefore:
∆𝑃𝐺−𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = ∆𝑃𝐿 + ∆𝑃𝐿−𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞 = ∆𝑃𝐿 + 𝐷. ∆𝑓
∆𝑃𝑔−𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑠) = ∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠) + 𝐷. ∆𝑓(𝑠)
These is the change in generation rotating set due to the change in load.

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Equivalent Generator – Load Block Diagram:
Then the total generation set changes equals:
∆𝑃𝐺 (𝑠) = ∆𝑃𝐺−𝑘𝐸 (𝑠) + ∆𝑃𝐺−𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑠)
∆𝑃𝐺 (𝑠) = 𝐾𝐺𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑠 ∆𝑓(𝑠) + ∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠) + 𝐷. ∆𝑓(𝑠)
∆𝑃𝐺 (𝑠) − ∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠) = (𝐷 + 𝐾𝐺𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑠) ∆𝑓(𝑠)
1
∆𝑃𝐺 (𝑠) − ∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠) = (1 + 𝜏𝑝𝑠 𝑠) ∆𝑓(𝑠)
𝑘𝑝𝑠
where,
1
𝑘𝑝𝑠 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷
𝜏𝐺𝑠𝑒𝑡 2𝐻𝑆𝑟 2𝐻
𝜏𝑝𝑠 = = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑢 =
𝐷 𝐷𝑓 0 𝐷

∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠)

∆𝑃𝐺 (𝑠) - 𝑘𝑝𝑠 ∆𝑓 (𝑠)

෍
+ (1 + 𝜏𝑝𝑠 𝑠)

Fig. (B2-1): Block Diagram for Generator plus Load Model

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Book 3: Modelling of Speed Governor and Steam Valve
Speed Governor
The speed governor system acts to translate the speed changes resulting from load
variation into steam control.
The following is the block diagrams of the speed governor, which measuring the
difference frequency due to load power changes and produces the required
distance changes for steam valve to change, which changes turbine steam
according to the requirement frequency.
Steam Valve
The actuator of a large turbine steam valve must generate large forces that are
required to overcome forces exerted by the steam flow and friction in the valve
stem seal. Valve positioning must be accurate for adequate control of turbine
generator load.
The proper equipment protection requires fast and reliable action of the valves
during emergency conditions. Compared with other types of valve actuators (e.g.,
mechanical, or electrical).
Hydraulic actuators meet the above requirements best. This is why they are
commonly used to operate steam turbine valves.
Hydraulic actuator comprises a pilot valve and main piston arrangement. Low
power level pilot valve movement is converted into high power level piston valve
movement. This is necessary to open or close the steam valve against high
pressure steam.

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Illustrated Diagrams for Speed Governor and Steam Valve

∆𝑃𝐶
+
∆𝑃𝐺𝑜𝑣 Hydraulic ∆𝑷𝑻
+ ෍
𝑓𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 System
∆𝑓 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑠
෍
− −
𝑓𝑚 𝛽𝐺𝑇

∆𝑃𝐶 + Hydraulic System

∆𝑃𝐺 𝑘𝑔𝑠 ∆𝑷𝑻

෍
𝛽𝐺𝑇 ∆𝑓 1 + 𝑠 𝜏𝑔𝑠
−

(∆𝑃𝐶 − 𝛽𝐺𝑇 ∆𝑓) ∆𝑃𝐺 ∆𝑃𝑇

𝑘𝑔𝑠
1 + 𝑠 𝜏𝑔𝑠

where,
𝑘𝑔𝑠 is the governor – steam valve system gain and

𝜏𝑔𝑠 is the governor – steam valve system time constant.

Block Diagrams for Speed Governor and Steam Valve

∆𝑃𝐶 (𝑆) + 𝑘𝑔𝑠 ∆𝑃𝑇 (𝑆)

1 + 𝜏𝑔𝑠 𝑠
−

∆𝑓
𝛽𝐺𝑇

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