Conjunctions
Definition: Conjunctions are words used to join words, phrases, or clauses together. They help
in creating complex sentences and in making our speech and writing more fluid.
Types of Conjunctions:
1. Coordinating Conjunctions: Connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal rank.
2. Subordinating Conjunctions: Connect a dependent clause to an independent clause.
3. Correlative Conjunctions: Pairs of conjunctions that work together.
1. Coordinating Conjunctions
Definition: These conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses that are of equal importance.
Examples:
For: He did not come, for he was ill.
And: I bought a book and a pen.
Nor: She neither called nor texted.
But: He is rich but unhappy.
Or: You can have tea or coffee.
Yet: It was raining, yet we went out.
So: She was tired, so she went to bed.
Example in a Sentence:
I want to go for a walk, but it’s raining.
Exceptions:
Coordinating conjunctions should not be used to start a sentence in formal writing.
2. Subordinating Conjunctions
Definition: These conjunctions connect a dependent clause to an independent clause, showing a
relationship between them.
Examples:
Because: She left because she was tired.
Although: Although it was late, they continued working.
Since: Since you are here, we can start the meeting.
Unless: I won’t go unless you come with me.
While: While I was reading, the phone rang.
Example in a Sentence:
She stayed home because she was not feeling well.
Exceptions:
A comma is often used after the dependent clause if it starts the sentence.
3. Correlative Conjunctions
Definition: These are pairs of conjunctions that work together to coordinate two items.
Examples:
Either…or: Either you start working, or you leave.
Neither…nor: She is neither rich nor famous.
Both…and: Both the teacher and the students were excited.
Not only…but also: He is not only intelligent but also very hardworking.
Whether…or: I don’t know whether to stay or leave.
Example in a Sentence:
Both the cat and the dog were adopted.
Exceptions:
Correlative conjunctions must be used in pairs, and they must relate to the same
grammatical elements.
Summary: Conjunctions are essential for connecting ideas and creating more complex and
engaging sentences. Understanding the types of conjunctions and their proper usage helps in
effective communication. Remember the exceptions to avoid common grammatical errors.
Comma Usage with Coordinating Conjunctions
Definition: A comma is often used with coordinating conjunctions to join independent clauses in
a sentence.
When to Use a Comma:
1. Independent Clauses:
o Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
when it connects two independent clauses (complete sentences).
Example:
I wanted to go for a walk, but it started raining.
o Here, "I wanted to go for a walk" and "it started raining" are both independent
clauses.
2. Items in a Series:
o Use a comma to separate items in a list or series, including before the
coordinating conjunction (often called the Oxford comma).
Example:
We bought apples, oranges, and bananas.
o The comma before "and" in the list is the Oxford comma.
Exceptions:
1. No Comma with Simple Compound Predicates:
o Do not use a comma when the coordinating conjunction connects two verbs
(compound predicates) that share the same subject.
Example:
She likes to read and to write.
o Here, "likes to read" and "to write" share the same subject "She".
2. Short Independent Clauses:
o Sometimes, a comma is optional when the independent clauses are very short and
closely connected.
Example:
I came and I saw.
o The comma is optional because the clauses are short.
Summary of Comma Usage with Coordinating Conjunctions
Use a comma:
Before a coordinating conjunction that joins two independent clauses.
In a list or series, including before the last item (Oxford comma).
Do not use a comma:
When the coordinating conjunction connects two verbs (compound predicates) that share
the same subject.
With short independent clauses, the comma is optional.
Understanding these rules helps ensure your sentences are clear and correctly punctuated.
Simple Present to Simple Past
Statements
Direct: She says, "I eat apples."
Indirect: She said that she ate apples.
Questions
Direct: He asks, "Do you eat apples?"
Indirect: He asked if I ate apples.
Present Continuous to Past Continuous
Statements
Direct: She says, "I am eating an apple."
Indirect: She said that she was eating an apple.
Questions
Direct: He asks, "Are you eating an apple?"
Indirect: He asked if I was eating an apple.
Present Perfect to Past Perfect
Statements
Direct: She says, "I have eaten an apple."
Indirect: She said that she had eaten an apple.
Questions
Direct: He asks, "Have you eaten an apple?"
Indirect: He asked if I had eaten an apple.
Present Perfect Continuous to Past Perfect Continuous
Statements
Direct: She says, "I have been eating an apple."
Indirect: She said that she had been eating an apple.
Questions
Direct: He asks, "Have you been eating an apple?"
Indirect: He asked if I had been eating an apple.
Simple Past to Past Perfect
Statements
Direct: She said, "I ate an apple."
Indirect: She said that she had eaten an apple.
Questions
Direct: He asked, "Did you eat an apple?"
Indirect: He asked if I had eaten an apple.
Past Continuous to Past Perfect Continuous
Statements
Direct: She said, "I was eating an apple."
Indirect: She said that she had been eating an apple.
Questions
Direct: He asked, "Were you eating an apple?"
Indirect: He asked if I had been eating an apple.
Past Perfect (No Change Needed)
Statements
Direct: She said, "I had eaten an apple."
Indirect: She said that she had eaten an apple.
Questions
Direct: He asked, "Had you eaten an apple?"
Indirect: He asked if I had eaten an apple.
Past Perfect Continuous (No Change Needed)
Statements
Direct: She said, "I had been eating an apple."
Indirect: She said that she had been eating an apple.
Questions
Direct: He asked, "Had you been eating an apple?"
Indirect: He asked if I had been eating an apple.
Future Simple to "Would"
Statements
Direct: She says, "I will eat an apple."
Indirect: She said that she would eat an apple.
Questions
Direct: He asks, "Will you eat an apple?"
Indirect: He asked if I would eat an apple.
Future Continuous to "Would be"
Statements
Direct: She says, "I will be eating an apple."
Indirect: She said that she would be eating an apple.
Questions
Direct: He asks, "Will you be eating an apple?"
Indirect: He asked if I would be eating an apple.
Future Perfect to "Would have"
Statements
Direct: She says, "I will have eaten an apple."
Indirect: She said that she would have eaten an apple.
Questions
Direct: He asks, "Will you have eaten an apple?"
Indirect: He asked if I would have eaten an apple.
Future Perfect Continuous to "Would have been"
Statements
Direct: She says, "I will have been eating an apple."
Indirect: She said that she would have been eating an apple.
Questions
Direct: He asks, "Will you have been eating an apple?"
Indirect: He asked if I would have been eating an apple.
Mixed Tenses and Complex Sentences
Mixed Statements
Direct: She said, "I was watching TV when he called."
Indirect: She said that she had been watching TV when he called.
Modal Verbs
Can to Could
Direct: She says, "I can swim."
Indirect: She said that she could swim.
May to Might
Direct: He says, "I may come."
Indirect: He said that he might come.
Must to Had to
Direct: She says, "I must leave."
Indirect: She said that she had to leave.
Commands and Requests
Commands
Direct: He said, "Eat the apple."
Indirect: He told me to eat the apple.
Negative Commands
Direct: She said, "Don't eat the apple."
Indirect: She told me not to eat the apple.
Requests
Direct: He said, "Please eat the apple."
Indirect: He asked me to eat the apple.
Changing Time Expressions
Time expressions often change when converting from direct to indirect speech:
now → then
today → that day
tonight → that night
tomorrow → the next day / the following day
yesterday → the previous day / the day before
last night → the previous night / the night before
this week → that week
next week → the following week
ago → before
here → there
Examples
Direct: He said, "I will go there tomorrow."
Indirect: He said that he would go there the next day.
Direct: She said, "I am meeting him today."
Indirect: She said that she was meeting him that day.
Practice Examples
Let's practice with a few examples. I'll provide the direct speech, and you can try converting it to
indirect speech.
1. Direct: John said, "I am going to the gym now."
2. Direct: Mary said, "I have finished my assignment."
3. Direct: The manager said, "We will have a meeting next week."
4. Direct: Tom asked, "Are you coming to the party tonight?"
