Applied (Action) & Fundamental (Basic/Pure) Research

Applied (Action) Research

- Applied Research is about finding a solution of a problem or issue affecting the group,
society or organization.
- Example: How to minimize production time & cost of a product? How to deal with
global warming? How to control deadly disease (E.g., HIV, AIDS)-to solve real life
problem research is done
Fundamental (Basis/Pure) Research
- Fundamental research is to increase knowledge or development of theories, models,
ideas, & principles etc.
- Gathering knowledge for the sake (improvement) of knowledge.
- No solution to a practical problem immediately. It can be used as basis for applied
research.
- Example: A study to see which areas of South Asia have the most rain?
- Academic Research

Difference between Qualitative & Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research
It is focused on understanding experiences and perceptions through methods like interviews,
focus groups, or observations. This type of research provides more detailed in depth
information and can help to uncover underlying motivations emotions.
For example: of qualitative research could be a small business owner conducting in person
online interviews with their customers to gather feedback.
Quantitative research
Quantitative research is focused on numerical data such as surveys or experiments. This type of
research allows for statistical analysis and can produce measurable results.
Difference Between Quantitative Research & Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
 1. Use to generate numerical data and It concerned with establishing answer
hard fact by employing statistical, to the “why” and “How” phenomena
logical & mathematical technique. question.
2. Collection and analysis of data. Follow scientific method
3. It is hypothetico-deductive It is empiric inductive research
research.
4. It lays on Gernalisations to the Build understanding based on
population characteristics particular view.
The goal of quantitative research is
The goal of qualitative research is to
to quantify data and apply the get an understanding of underlying
findings from a sample to the (root) causes and motivation, to
population of interest. provide information about the
circumstances surrounding an issue,
and to provide suggestions.
Researcher clearly do know in Researcher has only a rough idea in
advance what they are seeking for advance what he/she is looking for.
Researcher uses tools such as Researcher is the data gathering
questionnaire or equipment for the instruments
collection of data.
The outcomes are exploratory and It is used to recommend a final course
investigative. Findings are not of action.
conclusive and cannot be used to
make gerneralisation.

Absence of truths
Qualitative research gathers data/information that contributes to the generation of knowledge,
even if its primary focus is on reality and human conditions. Knowledge is not obtained in a
vacuum; rather, it is acquired within an environment. This is the key reason why the main focus
of qualitative research is on the plausibility of their interpretation rather than the reality.
Importance of the context
Since capturing the truth is difficult, context is important in qualitative research as a relevant
factor. Every qualitative study, as this one suggests, needs context in order to fully understand
the reality.

Importance of meaning
One of the major goals of research is that it aims to draw meaning from the data. However, this
drawing of meaning is unique in qualitative research. Here meaning is derived from a number
of sources evaluating any number of variables.
Research as instruments
A qualitative research is frequently differentiated by its nature that it places the researcher at the
center of the data collection process. As such, the researcher serves as the instrument for
gathering information.
Flexibility of the Research Design
The adaptability of research design is another crucial aspect of qualitative research. To further
illustrate, the primary group moderator/administrator does not know which particular
topics/area to follow/cover until they are in a group discussion. Although flexibility is the
observer's main objective, an observer who participates has limited control over what happens
of the observed.

What is Research?
- Creation of new knowledge. (e.g., COVID 19)
- Enhancement in the previous knowledge.
Chapter – 2
Literature Review
- It is a critical recap of what has already been researched on a topic under study.
- Research Literature is taken from books, journals, research papers, scholarly articles etc.
1. Provide foundation of knowledge of topic under research
2. What has been discovered so far?
3. To avoid duplication of work
4. To identify research gaps and unresolved problems
5. To identify conflicts in previous studies
6. To develop theoretical framework

Research Gap
- A research gap is question or a problem that has not been answered by any of the existing
studies or research within your field.
- Research gap exists when there is a new concept/idea (i.e., research gap) that hasn’t been
studied so far.
- Sometimes you’ll find a research gap if all the existing research is outdated and in need
of new/updated research. Or a specific population has not been studied
 - The relationship between Job Satisfaction and job performance among employees, A case
study of commercial Banks in Colombo
1. New variable add
2. Only commercial bank not central bank
3. Only done on one city and extended to whole country wide
4. Haven’t been addressed previous research
How & Where to identify research gap
- Look for following section in research papers/thesis;
1. Literature Review on your topic
Study of different article, research paper, and material already produced – lead to
know not addressed on previous research
2. Suggestion for future research
3. Limitation of research
Can be addressed through research
4. Conclusion
Able to know how these research has been addressed the problem, if not addressed on
that research we are able to track research gap
5. Check reference or citation
Able to know what type of research have done previously which is pending for
research
6. Advice from research supervisor
Able to know the gap vide suggestion as provided by supervisor.
Theoretical Framework in Research
Theory:
Theory is a generalized statement that asserts a connection between two or more types of
phenomenon (observed)

Types of Data
Numerical Data
1. A data which can be represented in numeric form (number or digit etc.) For example:
literacy rate in a country (90%), crime rate (1.411), production time of a product (10min)
etc.
2. Non numeric (Subjective) data: A data which is represented in words, text, objects,
pictures etc. For example: To determine the satisfaction of employees with current
reward system of the company.
Qualitative research deals with quality or kind (study about characteristics/feathers). A research
which is conducted to understand human behavior, opinions, attitude, preferences, experiences
on the basis of interpretation & observation is called qualitative research.
Qualitative research deals with non-numerical data e.g., words, pictures, objects, text etc.
Attitude, behavior, thoughts, feelings, preferences & thoughts etc. To understand the reasons
behind this. (o;sf] lax]lao/ o:tf] lsg o:tf] 5 . _
Quantitate research relates with the aspects that can be quantified or can be expressed in terms
of quantity.
Quantitative research deals with numerical data, facts, numbers, patters etc.
Numerical & statistical data, facts, values, numbers and represent results in terms of graphs,
tables, charts.

Objectives
Qualitative Quantitative
To understand the underlying motive & To study cause and effect relationship.
desires.

Sampling
Qualitative Quantitative
Sample size is small. Sample size is large.
Judgmental & purposive sampling. Random sampling

Data Collection
Qualitative Quantitative
Non-structured techniques; surveys, Structured techniques: interviews,
case studies, discussion, focus groups. questionnaire, documents reviews,
observation.

Research Type
Qualitative Quantitative
Exploratory research (Attitude /desire Conclusive research
ko check garne ki kosish garthe hey
Results
Qualitative Quantitative
- It develops initial understanding. It recommends final course of action
- To explore and go deep in a Helps to make decisions.
problem under study

What is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non numerical data e.g. text, video,
image, or audio to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences.
Qualitative research is opposite to quantitative research.
Qualitative research is used to capture information related beliefs, norms, values, feelings,
emotions, thoughts, motivation and behaviors. As this information can’t be expressed in
numerical from.
Uses:
Qualitative research is widely used in anthropology, sociology, education, health, history,
humanities & social science etc.
Methods
1. Observation
Record what you have seen or heard during observation.
2. Interviews
Ask questions in one-one conversations
3. Focus groups
Group of people (6-10) discussing common problem. Focus group is formed to find
answer of “why” “what” and “how” questions.
4. Surveys
Collecting data using questionnaires with open ended questions
5. Secondary research
Using secondary qualitative data (text, image, audio or video)
i.e., researcher uses the data which have been already collected doesn’t collect the data
himself and used in his/her research.
Types of Qualitative Research
1. Historical Study –events/history which have already happen in past – investigate/study
2. Ethnography- study in respect of respective society/community culture
 3. Phenomenology: (to describe and understand a specific experience/phenomena in depth)
researcher kisi phenomena or event ko describe karta hey or investigate kartha hey.
4. Case study: research select the any case and do in depth analysis it can be event/situation.
5. Action research: researcher link the theory with the practice for social changes or in order
to bring social change.
6. Grounded Theory: research collect the research topic and inductively develop the theory.-
developing theory from data-data collection and analysis goes in parallel and this process
continues iteratively until the theory is emerged.
Ethnographic Research
- It is a type of Qualitative Research.
- Ethnographic research examines how a group of people act and interact with each other
in their environment.
- It is mostly based observation about people rather than focusing on complex data and
numbers.
- Ethnographic research is widely used in social science, behavioral science, health care
etc.
Phenomenological Research
- Phenomenological research or phenomenology is a type of qualitative research.
- A research in which the live experience of individuals or group of individuals are
explored around particular phenomenon.
- Objective: To understand/describe a specific phenomenon in depth and reach at the
essence of participants lived experience of the phenomenon.
- Application: it is widely used in social sciences e.g., sociology, anthropology,
psychology, education etc.
Grounded Theory
- Concept of grounded theory was first introduced by Glaser and Strauss in 1967.
- According to Glaser and Strauss grounded theory is discovery of theory from data.
- Sampling Technique
a. Theoretical sampling is used in grounded theory.
b. Theoretical sampling is a sampling technique which is used to collect data from
sample for the purpose of development of theory.
- How it works:
a. Data collection and analysis goes in parallel and this process continues till the theory
is emerged.
b. It is inductive approach.
c. Grounded theory is widely used qualitative data analysis method.
Case study
 - It is an in depth and detailed study of specific subject such as person, group, place,
event, organizationor phenomenon.
- Case studies are used for describing, comparing, evaluating and understanding different
aspects of research problem.
- It is not used for cause and effect problem
- Major focus of case study is on exploration and description of a phenomenon.
- When to conduct case study:
When you want to gain concrete, contextual, detailed and in-depth knowledge about a
specific real-world subject.

What is Quantitative Research?

- Quantitative Research involves collecting and analyzing numerical data. It is ideal for
identifying trends, patterns, averages, making future predictions, testing causal
relationships, and generalizing results for large populations.
- Example of numerical data are income, salary, height, length, temperature size, weight
etc.
- Quantitative Research is opposite to qualitative research.
- Uses
Quantitative research is widely used in biology, chemistry, psychology, gender studies,
polite science, economics, sociology, marketing etc.
Characteristics
- Quantitative Data; It is represented through tables, charts, graphs, etc. This graphical
representation helps readers to understand research data and results.
- Prior Studies; various factors related to the research topic are studied before collecting
data from respondents.
- Generalization of Results; Results of the research can be generalized to the whole
population.
Methods of Quantitative Research
Descriptive Research;
- It aims to describe a population, situation, or phenomenon.
- Descriptive researcher answer what (Sof x'cfyf, where(sfxf x'cfyf, when(sa x'cfyf and
how(Sof;] x'cfyf question not why questions.
Correlation Research;
- Correlation research investigate relationships between variables without the researcher
controlling or manipulating any of them.
- Correlation shows the strength and direction of the relationship between two or more
variables. (Closely related e.g environment temp increases then sales of ice cream
increases)-positive/negative
Experimental Research
- Experiments are conducted to study cause and effects relationships. Researcher
manipulate independent variable(S) and measure their effect on dependent variable (s).
Survey research
- Survey are used to ask questions to the respondents through online polls, online surveys,
paper questionnaires, web-intercept surveys, etc.

CHAPTER 3
What is Research Design?
- The research design refers to the overall strategy and analytical approach (breaking down
complex process into its parts) that a researcher chose in order to integrate, in a coherent
(consistent/clear) and logical way, the different components (part) of the study, thus
ensuring that the research problem will be thoroughly investigated.
- Research Design provides the foundation for carrying out research effectively &
efficiently.
Types of Research Design
1. Explanatory Research
- It discovers new idea & insights (deep understanding of something)
- Explanatory research intends to explore research question and doesn’t intend to offer
final and conclusive solution to existing problems, it help to better understand the
problem.
- Unstructured interviews are widely used as primary data collection method in
explanatory research. Survey, focus groups, observation methods can also be used to
collect primary data for explanatory research.
2. Descriptive Research
- Descriptive Research is about describe the problem under research.
- Describe the state of affairs as it exists at present, situation or phenomena.
- It is used to identify trends in a particular field or the frequency of occurrence of an
event.
- Descriptive research focuses on “What has happened or what is happening?, Not on How
& why it is happening or happened?”
- For examples brand preferences, frequency of shopping.
- There are three descriptive research methods: [Link] 2. Survey 3. Case Study
 3. Casual Research
- Casual Research is used to determine the cause(source) and effect relationship between
two or more variables (Independent and Dependent)
- Casual Research explains the cause of a problem, and if the cause is removed/controlled
then problem is solved.
- For example: To determine the effect of marketing strategies (Cause) on sales
volume(effect).

Characteristics of Research Design

1. Neutrality
- Research should be neutral and free from research bias (sampling bias, publication bias,
researcher bias, response bias, selection bias, cognitive bias etc.)
2. Reliability
- Reliability deals with the consistency, the researcher expects similar results every time. It
is only possible if research design is reliable.
3. Validity
- Research instrument or research method should measure what it is supposed to measure
& accurately measure. For example a questionnaire is designed to collect data regarding
employee’s job satisfaction, if it measuring job satisfaction then it is valid instrument.
4. Generalizability
- Research is conducted on sample, if we can apply or extend results of sample to the
whole population, it is called generalization. A generalization method implies that survey
can be conducted on any part of population with similar accuracy.

1. Ex-post facto Research

- Ex post facto research is also called after the fact research or casual comparative
research.
- It is a type of research in which the investigation starts after the fact has occurred without
interference from the researcher.
- Actual results are used to draw conclusions.
- Example: earthquake/flood hit area, causes of delinquency(wrongdoing)

What is Ex-post facto Research?

According to Kerlinger (1964) “that research in which the independent variable or
variables have already occurred and in which the researcher starts with the observation of a
dependent variable or variables. He then studies the independent variable in retrospect for their
possible relation to, and effect on, the dependent variable or variables”
Characteristics
- It is not involve in the manipulation of variables.
 - Investigation potential impacts & causes.
- It examines ‘how’ and ‘what’
- Ex-post facto deals with real life situations.
- It is useful when it is impossible, impractical, costly or unethical to conduct an
experiment.
- It is useful when independent variable is lies outside the researcher’s control.

CHAPTER - 4

What is validity?
5. Degree to which an instrument measures what is it intends to measure. Or how
accurately (where reliability is based on consistency) a method measures what it is
intended to measure. (of] o:tf] OSo'kd]G6 tyf OGi8'?d]G6 xf] h:n] h:nfO{ dfkg
ug{ agfsf] xf] To;}sf] dfkg ug]{ sfo{ u5{ .
6. For example, thermometer is designed to measure body temperature, it cannot be used
to check blood pressure. If thermometer is used to measure body temperature then we
say that is tis a valid instrument. But if thermometer is used to check blood pressure
then we say that is a invalid instrument.
7. A test is designed to measure job satisfaction, it is supposed to measure job satisfaction
not employees performance.

Types of validity
1. Face Validity
- Face validity refers to the extent to which a test appears to measure what it claims to
measure based on face value.
- Example, a researcher develop a questionnaire to measure depression level in
employees working in private organizations. Researcher’s colleague then look over
the questions and believe the questionnaire is valid purely on face value.
- Face validity means the content of the test is relevant and appropriate in its
appearance.
- It is the weakest & simplest form of validity.
2. Content Validity
- The extent to which the measurement covers all aspects of the concept being
measured.
- Example, a researcher aims to measure English language ability of college level
students. Researcher develop a test which contains reading, writing & speaking
components, but no listening component.
- Listening is an essential aspect of language ability, so the test lacks content validity to
measure English language ability.
3. Criterion Validity
- Criterion validity evaluates how accurately a test measures the outcome it was
designed to measure.
- Outcome could be a behavior, performance etc.
- Example, a researcher wants to know whether a college entrance exam is able to
predict future academic performance of newly enrolled students. Then 1 st semester
GPA can serve as the criterion variable, as it is an accepted measure of academic
performance.
- After completing 1st semester the researcher can compare their college entry exam
scores with GPA. If the scores of the two tests are close, then the college entry exam
has criterion validity.
Two types
1. Concurrent validity
- Concurrent validity is used when the scores of a test and the criterion variables are
obtained at the same time.
- Score of new test correlates with another test that is already considered valid. High
correlation between new test and criterion variable indicates existence of concurrent
validity.
2. Predictive validity
- Predictive validity is used when the criterion variables are measured after the scores of
the test.
- Example, a researcher examine how the results of a job recruitment test can be used to
predict future performance of employees.
4. Construct Validity
- Construct is a theoretical concept or idea that’s usually not directly measurable. For
example self-esteem, motivation, anxiety etc. (motivation can’t be measured in Kgs,
Liter)
- Construct validity concerns the extent to which your test or measure accurately
assesses what it’s supposed to.
Convergent Validity:
- The extent to which measures of the same /similar constructs actually corresponds to
each other.
 Discriminant validity
- Two measures of unrelated constructs (e.g., anxiety and self-esteem) that should be
unrelated, very weakly related, or negatively related actually are in practice.
What is Reliability?
- The extent to which research instrument or research method consistently has the same
results if it is used in the same situation on repeated occasions.
- Reliability means research instrument or research methods produce stable and
consistent results.
- For example; if a person weighs themselves repeatedly, the weight machine is
expected to produce similar reading each time.
We can say that weight machine is reliable.
Types:
Test-Retest Reliability
- Test retest means performing a test on the group of people at one time, performing the
same test on the same group of people at the later time, then looking at test-retest
correlation between two sets of scores.
- For example to measure the intelligence of people, intelligence doesn’t change
frequently it means constant.
- This technique is used on the attributes which remains stable over time e.g. aptitude. It
is not suitable for attributes changes over time. E.g. mood/(Job satisfaction view
fluctuate on the basis of mood)
Inter-Rater
- The extent to which different observers are consistent with their judgments.
- Judges give ordinal scores of 1-10 for ice skaters.
- In combat sports e.g. boxing in which usually three judges’ scorecards are consulted
to determine the winner.
Crux: a similar situation is observed by two observers and then score given by them, it it
is similar then it means that there is reliability. If it is not similar then it means that there
is no reliability.
Internal consistency
- Internal consistency is a method of estimating whether different parts of a test are
measuring the same variable.
- Two methods are used for Internal Consistency
 Split Half
This involves splitting the items into two halves e.g. split the questionnaire in two
halves. Question on the even number are in one half and questions on the odd number
 are in second half. There should be strong correlation of two sets, if the result of two
halves are different, it means low internal consistency.
 Cronbach’s Alpha:
The most common measures of internal consistency used by researcher. Alpha is the
mean of all possible split-half correlations for a set of items. It shows whether all the
items in a questionnaire measuring the same variable. Value Alpha=>is acceptable.

Statistical Error
1. Sampling Errors
Sampling error is a statistical error in which researcher selects the sample which is not
the true representation of whole population.
Following are the errors which are associated with sample;
- Sample size/Sample Adequacy (not too small not too large)
- Representation (every charcter of the population should be represented in the
population)
- Independence: (no dependency among sampling units)
- Homogeneity (same measurement units for every sample)
2. Non sampling Errors
- These are the errors which are not due to sampling.
- Non sampling error is the statistical error which is arise during data
acquisition/collection, recording, and presenting/tabulating the data. Following are
some of the non-sampling errors;
- Non response (respondent refused to provide data, no data acquisition)
- Measurement(data given by respondent in different unit while analysis is in different
unit OR calculation mistake)
- Mis-interpretation(respondents says something, & you understand something else)
- Sampling bias(some members of the population is intentionally not included in the
sample)
- Arithmetic Error (while there is so much data to handle, there is strong chance
mathematical error or calculation mistake)
Sampling Techniques
- Sampling techniques or methods of sampling means “How we select a sample from
population for study/research?”
- To draw valid conclusion from research sample should be carefully selected which
represents the whole population.
- Two types of sampling techniques;
a. Probability Sampling
Every member of the population has equal chance is being selected for research.
b. Non probability Sampling
Every member of the population has not equal chance of being selected for research.
a. Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
- In this technique every member of the sample is selected purely random basis with
equal chance.
- Picking chits from bowl, lottery system, random number generator etc. are the
methods of simple random sampling.
2. Stratified Sampling
- In this technique population is divided into mutually exclusive (same individual is not
included in more than one group), and then every member of the group has equal
chance of being selected.
- Group is made on the basis of characteristics of population (i.e., age, sex, ethnic
groups, employment status, married status etc.)
3. Systematic Sampling
- In this techniques population is arranged in ascending or descending order, then
researcher randomly picks first items from population.
- Sampling interval (N)= Total Population/Sample size=1000/100=10
- Suppose first number picked by researcher is 7, next will be 7+10=17, next will be
17+10=27, 27+10=37 and so on.
4. Cluster Sampling
- This technique is used when large population (geographically dispersed) is under
study. Whole population is divided into small groups which is called cluster.
- For example a company wants to study the performance of a particular product in the
country. The country is divided into cluster (cities, towns, metropolitan areas etc.)
b. Non Probability Sampling
Convenience Sampling
- It is also called grab sampling, availability sampling, accidental sampling etc.
- It is type of sampling in which data is collected from the “conveniently available
respondents”.
- It is low cost and fast sampling techniques.
Judgmental/Purposive Sampling
 - It is also called authoritative sampling, selective sampling, and subjective sampling.
- It is sampling techniques in which researcher selects the respondents based on his
knowledge & judgment.
- It is easy & cost effective sampling techniques. But is vulnerable to sampling bias as it
is entirely depends on researcher’s judgment.
Quota Sampling
- It is a sampling techniques in which entire population is divided into groups and then
quota (no of items to be selected for research) is assigned against each group.
- Group examples: males, females, employed or unemployed people, age groups, location
etc.
- Once the quota is assigned to each group then sample is selected on convince or
personal judgment.
Snowball Sampling
- As the snowball moves further from top to bottom on glacier it gets bigger and bigger.
- It is a sampling technique in which researcher selects one or two respondents first.
These respondents refer or identify other respondents.
- Researcher continuously selects respondents based on referral until required size is
achieved.
- Snow ball sampling is also called referral sampling, chain sampling, network sampling,
and friend to friend sampling.
Cluster Sampling
- It is a type of probability sampling. It is also called area sampling.
- In this techniques population is divided into small recognizable groups which is called
clusters.
- Once the population is divided in to clusters, then clusters are selected on random basis,
and all the members of that cluster are included in the sample.
- Few things need to be considered while forming clusters.
a. Clusters should be small, consistent and in line with research objectives.
b. No. of units in each cluster should be approximately same.
When to use;
- This technique is used when the population is large & geographically dispersed.
o Advantage
- It ensures data accuracy, as there are large samples from clusters.
- It is convenient when large population is under study than sample random sampling.
- It increases external validity of the research. Because clusters are chosen randomly from
large population.
o Disadvantage
- It only works when there is easy to divide population into different sub groups(clusters)
- It is prone to sampling errors. If the clusters are formed based on personal opinion.
 Stratified Sampling Vs Cluster Sampling
Stratified Sampling Cluster Sampling
- Groups are homogeneous - Groups are heterogeneous
internally. internally.
- Groups are heterogeneous - Groups are homogeneous
mutually. mutually.
- Strata are manually formed - Clusters are formed using
based on common pre-existing groups.
characteristics.
- Sample is taken from strata - Clusters are selected as
using simple random sample using simple random
sampling. sampling.
o Stratified Random Sampling (Type of probability of Sampling)
- It is a type of probability sampling.
- S
i
m
p
l
e

random sampling is not suitable when the population is heterogeneous. As sample may
not be the true representative of whole population. (e.g., school class student)
- In stratified random sampling techniques entire population is divided into mutually
exclusive groups (member which recognized one group can’t be in another group) and
these group called strata, and then sample is taken randomly out of these groups, which
means that every member of the group has equal chance of being selected for sample or
research.
- It ensures sample should represent the heterogeneous population.
When to use
- Stratified random sampling is suitable when the population is large and heterogeneous.
Advantage
- Stratified random sampling is suitable when the population is heterogeneous.
- Sample represents the diverse characteristics of the population.
- It is more precise than simple random sampling.
Disvatage
- It is not suitable when the population is small, as we cannot subdivide the population
into different groups.
- This sampling technique is only useful when the researcher has complete list of
population along with their characteristics.

Simple Random sampling

- It is a type of probability sampling.
- It is a type of sampling in which every member or item of the population has equal
chance of being selected for sample or research, and sample is selected on purely random
basis.
- No favor or restriction is imposed on any member.
o Methods of simple random sampling
- Lottery system picking chits from bowl (similar shape, size, color).
- Random number generator (an automated software who generator new number every
time)
- For example: class teacher picks randomly students during question/answer session.
When to Use:
8. Simple random sampling is suitable when the population homogeneous.
- Population complete list is available with the researcher. (know the characteristics of
population)
- When it is easy to collect data from the member if it is selected at random.
Advantage
- It is simplest form of sampling.
- Eliminate personal bias.
- Every member of the population is equal chance of being selected.
Disadvantages
- It is not suitable when the population is heterogeneous.
- There is chance that selected sample may not represent the whole population.
- If the population is large then it is difficult to approach the respondents.
Judgment/Purposive Sampling
 - It is a sampling technique in which researcher select the sample based on his knowledge
& judgment.
- Selection of sample exclusively depends on judgment of the researcher.
- Judgment of researcher depends on the criterion he has defined for research, the
respondents which fulfills the criteria are selected for sample rest of them are rejected.
- It is vulnerable to sampling bias as it entirely depends on research judgment.
- It is also called authoritative sampling, deliberate sampling, selective sampling,
subjective sampling etc.
o Advantage
- It is simple and easy, no complicated procedure is involved to draw the sample.
- Researcher selects the Sample which is the true representative of the population. But the
researcher needs full knowledge of the population.
- Data is collected only from the relevant respondents. Unnecessary respondents are
rejected.
o Disadvantage
- Personal judgment may leads to sampling bias.
- Judgment error may occur as the researcher is a human being.
- Difficult to defend the selection of participants.
Quota Sampling
- It is a type of Non-probability sampling technique.
- In this sampling technique entire population is subdivided in to homogeneous groups
and then a quota (no of items/respondents to be selected for sample) is fixed for each
group.
- Once the quota is assigned to each group then sample is selected using convenience or
judgment sampling.
- For example, a researcher want to study the preferences of mobile phone brand in
females in a city: (Suppose population is 1000, and sample size is 100)
Step-1: Divide the population into 5 different age groups (16-24,25-34,35-44,45-54,55+
Step:2 : Calculate the proportion of each sub group and calculate sample size of each
group.
Population proportion if age group 16-24 = 50 = 5 (Group Sample size) Group sample size =
sample size/population*population proportion = 100/1000*50=5
Step:2
Calculate the proportion of each subgroup and calculate sample size of each subgroup:
Population proportion of Age Group 16-24 = 50 = 5(Group sample size)
Population proportion of Age Group 25-34 = 250=25 (Group sample size)
Population proportion of Age Group 35-44 = 400=40 (Group sample size)
Population proportion of Age Group 45-54 = 200=20 (Group sample size)
Population proportion of Age Group 55+ = 100=10 (Group sample size)
Total population = 1000, sample size = 100
Step 3
Select the sample from subgroups using convenience or judgment sampling.
Advantage
- Quota sampling is fast, easy & inexpensive.
Disadvantages:
- Sample may not be the true representative of the population, as sampling is totally
based on researcher’s convince and judgment.
Convenience Sampling
- Convenience sampling is a type of non-probability sampling.
- It is a type of sampling in which data is collected from the “conveniently available
respondents”.
- Convenience of the researcher is the top most priority of researcher.
- Convenience is misinterpreted as easiness of researcher, but it is not true.
- Convenience means researcher is unable to select sample through other sampling
techniques due to some reasons.
- Convenience sampling is also called grab sampling, availability sampling, accidental
sampling, chunk sampling, haphazard sampling etc.
When to use Convenience Sampling
- Convenience sampling is chosen when the researcher has not enough resources for data
collection.
- Lack of time, budget.
- Preferable for pilot study.
- Travelling restriction could be the reason of convenience sampling.
o For example: Covid 19
Convenience Sampling
Advantage
- Easy, cost effective, less time and less resource required.
Disadvantage
- Sample are not the true representative of population
- Results of the convenience sampling couldn’t be generalized over entire population.
 - Sampling bias is obvious.
Snowball Sampling
- When a snowball roll over ice it gets bigger and bigger as it moves further. Snowball
sampling technique works in similar fashion.
- In this technique researcher selects one/two initial respondents, collects data from them.
These initial respondents refer or identify other respondents.
- Researcher approach referred respondents, collects data from them, and moves further
to next referred respondents. Researcher repeats the similar activity until required
sample size is achieved.
- This technique works on referral system.
- Snowfall is also called chain sampling, referral sampling, friend to friend sampling and
network sampling.
When to use Snowball Sampling:
- Snowfall sampling is used when the population is unknown
- When the respondents in not easily accessible.

Nominal Scale:
- Nominal scale is used to categorize data into mutually exclusive categories or groups.
- A nominal scale is the 1st level of measurement scale in which the number serve as
“tags” or “labels” to classify or identify the objects.
- The data can be placed into categories but can’t be multiplied, divided, added or
subtracted from one another.
- For example; gender, country, player’s T-shirt number etc.
- Respondents of the questionnaire can be divided into two categories. Males can be
assigned number 1 and female number 2.
It is not used as a magnitude only used for identification there for order is missing.
Ordinal Scale
- Ordinal scale is used to measure variables in a natural order, such as rating or ranking.
They provide meaningful insights into attitudes, preferences, and behaviors by
understanding the order of response.
- For example;
- Ranking of college students based on exam result (1st, 2nd, 3rd )
- How satisfied are you with or services (Rating)
 Totally satisfied
 Satisfied
 Neutral
 Dissatisfied
  Totally Dissatisfied
Interval scale
- Interval scale contains properties of nominal and ordered data, but the difference
between data points can be quantified. This type of data shows both the order of the
variables and the exact difference between the variables.
- For example: measurement of temperature & time.
Ratio scale
- Ratio scale of measurement include properties from all four scale and measurement.
- The data is nominal and defined by an identity, can be classified in order, contains
intervals and can be broken down into exact value.
- Data in the ratio scale can be added, subtracted, divided and multiplied.
- Because of existence of true zero value, the ratio scale doesn’t have negative values.
- Example: weight, height, and distance are all examples of ratio variables.
Likert Scale
- Developed by Rensis Likert, (American Social Scientise) 1932.
- Likert scale is a rating system used in questionnaire to measure people’s aptitude,
opinion, persception and behavior.
o (can’t assigned numerical value in unit)
When to use Likert scale ?
- When to measure employees performance.
- When to measure customer satisfaction
- When you want to take insight about some social issue. (inflation in country-feedback )
- Consequences of policy shift (new draft policy to old draft policy)
- When you want to take feedback of product etc
Examples of Likert Scale
- Agreement Statement (e.g. Liquid milk is better than dry milk)
 Strongly agree
 Agree
 Indifferent
 Disagree
 Strongly Disagree

Chapter -3
What is Primary Data?
Primary data refers to the first hand data gathered by the researcher himself.
Primary Data is collected by the researcher to solve research problem.
Source of Primary Data
Observation Method
- Researcher observe the activity of the concerned object, person, organization,
phenomena etc. to draw a pattern of behavior or response to a particular incident.
- Data is collected through reading, listening, watching, and recording of a particular
situation or event.
- It is most commonly used in behavioral sciences.
- Limitation: sometimes it is very difficult to access an event or person for observation.
- Limited information is collected.
Interview Method
- Interview is the exchange of ideas/information between two more people through
questions/answers.
- Interview organize a meeting with the respondent’s regarding the problem under
research and ask some questions.
- Interview can be structured or un-structured.
- Face-to –Face interview, telephonic interview, online interview etc.
Questionnaire
- It is a research tool having list of questions used to collect the required information
from respondents about the problem under research.
- Information could be related to opinions, experiences, preferences, attitudes etc. of the
respondents.
- Both quantitative & qualitative data can be collected using questionnaire.
Through Schedules
- Schedule is also a collection of questions like questionnaire.
- Questions are placed in a logical order.
- Enumerator describes the questions to the individuals and record the responses.
- This is the major differences between questionnaire and schedules, schedules are filled
by the enumerator whereas questionnaire is filled by the respondents himself.
Focus Groups
- Focus groups is a group discussion (6-10) people on a particular topic organized for
research purposes.
- The group shares their feedback, opinions, knowledge and insights (understanding)
about the problem under research.
- Participants are carefully selected based on past experiences, background knowledge
etc.
- This discussion is guided, monitored and recorded by a researcher sometimes called a
moderator or facilitator.
Experiments
- Experiments deals with manipulating one or more variable (i.e., independent) and
observing the effect on an outcome of interest.
- Data collected through experiments are used to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
PILOT STUDY
- It is a small scale study before conducting the actual research project.
- It is a small feasibility study designed to test various aspects of the methods planned for
a larger, more rigorous (careful), or confirmatory investigation.
- Pilot study answer a question: “Whether the full scale study be conducted in the way
that has been planned or some component(s) need to be altered?”
- Following are the two things need to be considered during pilot study:
1. Sample size for pilot study should be 10% of actual study(sample size)
2. Never include the sample selected for pilot study in actual research.
Advantage
- To check the possibility/feasibility whether the problem is researchable or not.
- To identify the problem in research design.
- To identify the problems in sampling technique and sample size, whether the sample
size or sampling technique is accurate or not.
- To determine the time & cost of full scale research.
- To check the working conditions of the instruments.
- Once the researcher get experience, it minimizes fear & anxiety.
- It also efficiency of researcher.
OR
A pilot study is a research study conducted before the actual study. Pilot studies are
usually executed as planned for the actual study, but on smaller scale. It is conducted in
order to evaluate the feasibility, duration, cost, etc prior to the performance of a full
scale research.
Although a pilot study cannot eliminate all systematic errors or unexpected problems, it
reduces the likelihood of making a Type I or Type II error. Both types of errors make
the main study a waste of effort, time, and money.

DATA COLLECTION METHOD

- Data is the integral part of research.
- Data collected methods are technique & procedures used to gather information for
research purposes.
Primary Data Collection Method
- Include surveys, polls, questionnaires, interviews, observation, Delphi technique, focus
groups, experiments etc.
Secondary Data Collection Method
- Include online database, reports, government publication, historical documents, journals
etc.
What is Secondary Data?
- Secondary data means data collected by someone else earlier.
 - Access to secondary data is fast & easy, it is cost effective.
Sources of Secondary Data Collection:
1. Internal Source: (Sales Report, Financing/accounting statements, customer details,
company information, reports & feedback from dealer/retailer/distributor, Management
information system (MIS).
2. External Source
- Government census (population census, agriculture, census etc.
- Historical documents
- Data published by different government departments & private institution (banks, trade
& industries, social security tax, transport etc.)
- Business Journals, publication, books, magazines
- Libraries, internet
- Commercial source e.g. TV, newspaper, databases

What is Questionnaire?
- A questionnaire is a research tool having list of questions used to collect useful
information from respondents.
- Information collected through questionnaire is about opinions, experiences, preferences,
attitudes etc. of the respondents.
- Questionnaires can be used to collect quantitative and /or qualitative information.
Characteristics of Questionnaire
- Question should be related, specific and concise.
- Question should be in sequence, specific and concise.
- No of questions should be limited (don’t overwhelm the respondents)
- Discriminatory/embarrassing questions should not be used in any case.
- Language used in questionnaire should be simple, don’t use technical terminologies /
abbreviations.
- Calculation question should not be used, these are time consuming.
- Uniformity (i.e., questions shall be related to same nature)
Type of Questionnaire
Structured Questionnaire
- A structured questionnaire is a document used to collect data from respondents and
consists of a set of standardized questions with a predetermined framework that sets
the precise language and sequence of the questions. The questions are more close-
ended. Quantitative data is collected through unstructured questionnaire.
Unstructured Questionnaire
- The questionnaire in this case has a basic structure and some branching questions
but nothing that limits the responses of a respondent. The questions are more open-
ended. Qualitative data is collected through unstructured questionnaire.
Semi Structured Questionnaire
- Unlike the structured questionnaire, which only uses close questions, the semi-
structured questionnaire included open-ended questions too, so that both quantitative
and qualitative information can be gathered.
What is interview? [MODEL QUESTION]
 - Interview is a method of collecting primary data.
- Interview is a way to get information from an individual by asking questions and
hearing their answers.
- Interview is basically a question answer session.
- Interview can be personally (one-on-one), telephonic, online.
When to use interview method:
- Interview is an appropriate method of data collection when we need to get detailed
information on opinions, experiences, thoughts, and feelings of others.
- It is also suitable when the topic of research is complex and question method can’t be
used.
Structured Interviews:
- As the name suggests an interview is well structured. (Question and their order are
decided in advance according to the information required.)
- Usually close-ended, dichotomous (yes/no) or multiple choice questions are used in
structured interviews.
Unstructured Interviews:
- Questions and their order are not decided in advance. It is type of conversation between
interviewer and interviewee.
- The main goal of unstructured interviews is to build a friendly relationship with
respondents to get more information.
- Usually open-ended questions are used in unstructured interviews.
Semi-Structured Interviews
- It is combination of both structured and unstructured interviews.
- Researcher has a general plan of questions but don’t follow any order.
- Usually open-ended questions are used which gives more flexibility to the researcher.

WHAT IS OBSERVATION ?

 Observation is a method of collecting primary data.

 Observation is defined as the systematic, selective and purposeful way of watching,
examining or listening what is happening in their natural setting and document that.
 For example cricket team coach observe his team while they are performing.

When to USE observation method

- Observation is appropriate method of data collection when you want to study culture, an
ongoing process, behavior of an individual etc.
- It is also appropriate method of data collecting when full & accurate information cannot
be obtained through questionnaire because either the respondents are not co-operative
or are unaware of the answers.

Naturalistic Observation
- As the name suggests in naturalistic observation researcher observes how the
participants respond to their environment in real life or natural settings.
- Researcher doesn’t influence their behavior.
- Example: Observing animals in safari park.
 Participate Observation
- It is a type of observation in which researcher actually participate in the activities of the
group being observed as member of group with/without knowing that they are being
observed.
- Example: Spending some time in jail to know perception of prisoners about country’s
judicial system.

Systematic Observation
- In systematic observation one or more researcher are involved to observe events,
participants or situation to count how often a phenomenon occurs. Researcher record
their observation in codes or in numerical categories.
- Example: in swimming, swimmers performance is observed & scored by a panel of
trained judges.

Covert observation
- It is a type of observation where the participants are not aware that they are being
observed.
- Example: observation in public places e.g. train stations, airports, parks, restaurants or
shopping malls etc.

Quantitative Observation
- It deals in quantitative variables, things that can be expressed in numbers
- Example: age, temperature, weight, length population etc.

Qualitative Observation
- In qualitative observation researcher collects data using five senses e.g., sight, sound,
smell, taste, hearing.
- Example: shapes, color, feeling etc.

Case Study
- Observing an individual or a group with an intention to generalize research results to
other people/groups.
- Examples: observing smokers so that they can be compared with non smokers.

Non-Participate Observation
- It is a type of observation in which researchers collect data by observing activity,
situation or behavior without actively interacting with the participants.
- Example: cricket team coach observe his team while they are performing.
 Qualitative Data Analysis Method

Qualitative analysis is about analyzing non-numerical data collected through

interviews, observations and open ended survey questions.
- Two types of data is used in research i.e., Qualitative data and quantitative data.
- Qualitative data is in the form of text, voice images, videos etc. and is collected through
questionnaires, interview, observation, case studies etc.
- Following are the methods used in qualitative data analysis:
a) Content analysis
1. Content analysis is used to identify patterns, presence of specific words, themes,
and concept with in a piece of content.
2. It is used to identify the frequency with which an idea is shared or spoken about
e.g., word unemployment, jobs, work is used in political speeches.
3. For content analysis data is collected form books, speeches, newspapers,
magazines, interviews, movies/documentaries, websites, social media posts, image
etc.
b) Grounded Theory
1. Grounded theory is a powerful qualitative analysis method which is used to
create a new theory using collection and analysis of data.
2. In 1967, Glaser & Strauss defines grounded theory as: “the discovery of theory
from data systematically obtained from social research”
3. Purpose of grounded theory is to develop new theory or theories.
4. Theory explains how a specific event/aspect of the social works.
c) Thematic Analysis
1. Thematic analysis is used to analyze qualitative data collected from interview or
transcripts. Researcher examines data, looking for pattern to find themes.
2. Thematic analysis is widely used to study ideas, opinions, knowledge, preferences,
experiences values, etc.
3. A 6-step process is used in thematic analysis: 1-familiarization with data, 2-
coding, and 3- generating themes, 4- reviewing themes, 5-defining & naming
themes, and 6-writing up.
Hint: Patient perceive about Doctor
d) Discourse Analysis
1. Discourse analysis focus on how people express themselves in different social
context.
2. It is about analyzing language used in conversation or speeches.
3. For example, when a doctor talk to a patient about a disease he use different
language as compare to when he talk with nurse or colleague doctor.
e) Narrative Analysis
1. Narrative analysis focus on the stories (case studies, interviews, testimonials etc.)
people tell and the language they use to make sense of them.
2. For example: customer stories are used to get better understanding of customer’s
perspectives on service quality of a company.
 3. Patient’s stories are used to study their perspective about health care system of a
country.

SAMPLING FRAME
- Sampling frame is defined as the list of all elements, members, cases or units in a
population from which sample can be drawn.
- Three things are important for sampling frame:
1. Sampling frame should include everyone in the target population.
2. Exclude anyone who is not part of target population.
3. Accurate information
4. A good sampling frame helps to draw accurate sample and promote generalizability of
research findings.
5. Examples:
- List of students in a university
- List of doctors in a country/state or city
- List of employees in an organisatin
- List of registered voters
- Telephone Directory
- List of club members
- Hospital patient registry
- Table of content in book etc