LECTURE 7 – PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT I

Prenatal development is the period from fertilization to birth and it includes both
embryological and foetal development. It is divided into three calendar months each,
called trimesters.
1. The first trimester is the most critical stage of development during which the
rudiments of all the major organ systems appear, and also during which the
developing organism is the most vulnerable to the effects of drugs, radiation and
microbes.
2. The second trimester is characterized by the nearly complete development of
organ systems. By the end of this stage, the foetus assumes distinctively human
features.
3. The third trimester represents a period of rapid foetal growth. During the early
stages of this period, most of the organ systems are becoming fully functional.

 EMBRYONIC PERIOD

 FIRST WEEK OF DEVELOPMENT

The first week of development is characterized by:

1) Fertilization
Of about 200 million sperm introduced into the vagina, fewer than 2 million reach the
cervix of the uterus and only about 200 reach the secondary oocyte. Fertilization usually
occurs in the Fallopian tube within 12 to 24 hours after ovulation.
 Sperm can remain viable for about 48 hours after deposition in the vagina.
 A secondary oocyte is viable only for about 24 hours after ovulation.
Thus, pregnancy is most likely to occur if intercourse takes place during a 3-day window
– 2 days before ovulation to 1 day after ovulation.

Sperm swim from the vagina into the cervical canal propelled by the whiplike
movement of their tails. It is then pushed towards the uterine tubes by uterine
contractions stimulated by prostaglandins found in the semen. Sperm that reaches the
vicinity of a secondary oocyte within minutes after ejaculation is not capable of
fertilizing it until seven hours alter. During this time, sperm undergo capacitation. This
is a series of functional changes that cause the sperm’s tail to beat even more vigorously
and prepare its plasma membrane to fuse with the oocyte’s plasma membrane. Sperm is
acted upon by secretions in the female reproductive tract that result in the removal of
cholesterol, glycoproteins and proteins from the plasma membrane around the
acrosome of the sperm.

The secondary oocyte is surrounded by a clear glycoprotein layer called the zona
pellucida. Surrounding this is a layer of granulosa cells that form the corona radiata.
The sperm must penetrate these two layers. One of the glycoproteins of the zona
pellucida – the ZP3, acts as a sperm receptor. Binding to this protein triggers the
acrosomal reaction where the digestive enzymes of the acrosome are released. These
enzymes digest a path through the zona pellucida as the lashing sperm tail pushes the
sperm cell onward. Only the first sperm cell that penetrates the entire zona pellucida and
reaches the oocyte’s plasma membrane fuses with the oocyte.

The fusion of the sperm with the secondary oocyte is called syngamy. This sets a series
of events that blocks fertilization by more than one sperm cell (polyspermy).
 Within a few seconds, the cell membrane of the oocyte depolarizes. This acts as
a fast block to polyspermy.
 Depolarization also triggers the intracellular release of the calcium ions which
stimulate exocytosis of secretory vesicles from the oocyte.
 The molecules released by exocytosis inactivate ZP3 and harden the zona
pellucida – events that constitute the slow block to polyspermy.

Once a sperm cell enters the secondary oocyte, the oocyte first completes meiosis II. The
nucleus of the fertilized ovum develops into the female pronucleus whereas the nucleus
of the head of the sperm develops into the male pronucleus. After this, the male and
female pronuclei fuse producing a single diploid nucleus that contains 46 chromosomes.
The fertilized ovum is now called a zygote.
 2) Cleavage of the Zygote

After fertilization, rapid mitotic cell divisions of the zygote called cleavage take place.
 About 24 hours after fertilization, the first division of the zygote begins. This is
completed about 6 hours later. Each succeeding division takes slightly less time.
 By the second day after fertilization, the second cleavage is completed and
there are four cells.
 By the end of the third day, there are 16 cells. The progressively smaller cells
produced by cleavage are called blastomeres.
 Successive cleavages eventually produce a solid sphere of cells called the
morula. The morula is still surrounded by the zona pellucida and is about the
same size as the original zygote.
3) Blastocyst Formation

 By the end of the fourth day, the number of cells in the morula increases as it
continues to move through the uterine tube towards the uterine cavity.
 On day 4 or 5, when the morula enters the uterine cavity, a glycogen-rich
secretion from the glands of the endometrium of the uterus passes into the uterine
cavity and enters the morula through the zona pellucida. This provides
nourishment for the development of the morula.
 At the 32-cell stage, the fluid enters the morula, collects between the blastomeres,
and reorganizes them around a fluid-filled cavity called the blastocyst cavity.
With the formation of this cavity, the developing mass is then called a blastocyst.
This is still the same size as the original zygote.
 4) Further Development
The blastomeres are rearranged further. This results in the formation of two distinct
structures:
 Inner cell mass – located internally and eventually develops into the
embryo
 Trophoblast – an outer superficial layer of cells that forms the wall of the
blastocyst. This will ultimately develop into the foetal portion of the
placenta.

On about the 5th day after fertilization, the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida
by digesting a hole in it with an enzyme, and then the blastocyst squeezes through the
hole. Shedding of the zona pellucida is necessary to permit implantation.

5) Implantation
The blastocyst remains free within the uterine cavity for about 2 days before it attaches to
the uterine wall.
 About 6 days after fertilization, the blastocyst loosely attaches to the
endometrium in a process called implantation. The blastocyst usually implants
either in the posterior portion of the fundus or the body of the uterus. As it
implants, it orients with the inner cell mass toward the endometrium.
The diagram below shows a frontal section through the endometrium of the uterus
and blastocyst about 6 days after fertilization.
 About 7 days after fertilization, the blastocyst attaches to the endometrium more
firmly, endometrial glands in the vicinity enlarge and the endometrium becomes
more vascularised.
 Following implantation, the endometrium is known as the decidua. The decidua
separates from the endometrium after the foetus is delivered.
Different regions of the decidua are named based on their positions relative to the
site of the implanted blastocyst.
 Decidua Basalis – the portion of the endometrium between the embryo
and the stratum basalis of the uterus. It provides large amounts of
glycogen and lipids for the developing embryo and foetus and later
becomes the maternal part of the placenta.
 Decidua Capsularis – the portion of the endometrium that is located
between the embryo and the uterine cavity
 Decidua Parietalis – the remaining modified endometrium that lines the
noninvolved areas of the rest of the uterus.

 As the embryo and later the foetus enlarges, the decidua capsularis bulges into the
uterine cavity and fuses with the decidua parietalis, thereby obliterating the
uterine cavity.
 By about 27 weeks gestation, the decidua capsularis degenerates and disappears.
In summary: