State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science

Class 12th
Comprehensive Study Material
for Political Science
(

1. Mr. M. Younis Malik, Director School Education Kashmir

2. Mtr. Suriya Bano, Principal, SIE, Kashmir
3. Mr. G. H. Reshi, Research Officer, SIE, Kashmir
4. Mr. Javid Ahmad, Lecturer, HSS Rohmoo
5. Mr. Nazir Ahmad Wani, Lecturer, HSS Pulwama
6. Mr. Mushtaq Ahmad Raina, Lecturer, HSS Surasyar
7. Mr. Ghulam Rasool Bhat , Lecturer, HSS Hafroo
8. Mr. Zahoor Mehdi, Lecturer, BHSS Hariganwan
9. Mr. Mohammad Ishaq Rather, HSS, Hardsharoo
10. Mr. Jalal ud Din Khan, GHSS Nagam
11. Syed Mohammad Farooq, HSS, Zachaldara
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
Class 12th

Preface

This study material has been prepared and developed as part of the vision and under the
mentorship of worthy Director, School Education, Kashmir, Mr. Mohammad Younis Malik. It is he
who wanted to provide a quality study material to the students so that the fashion of attending
the coaching centres by the students of higher secondary level is curbed to a large extent. Besides,
keeping in view the situation for the last few years wherein the Education sector has been badly
hit, the initiative will prove to be of great significance.

Accordingly, the worthy DSEK entrusted the said job to State Institute of Education,
Kashmir. A two-day workshop was immediately conducted in this regard on 9th & 10th of March
2020 wherein the best subject experts from the School Education Department were involved so
that a proper strategy and plan of action would be adopted to accomplish the said task.

It is expected that this study material shall be beneficial for students not only to gain a
thorough knowledge and understanding of the concepts but also develop their skills to be able to
relate their understanding of the subject to real life applications based on these concepts. It is also
expected that this study material enhances the process of knowledge acquisition and learning with
Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS). It shall be a supporting material not only for the annual
examinations but will also help them in cracking various competitive examinations like Civil
Services, NEET, JEE and other competitive examinations.

In case there is any omission, typing/printing mistakes, or any other error which might have
crept in inadvertently, the same is requested to be communicated at
[email protected].

We are thankful to the faculty members of SIE, DIETs and the Field subject experts
especially the ones who were practically involved in getting this document set and wish all the
best to all the stakeholders, especially the students of the valley.

State Institute of Education

Kashmir
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
Class 12th

CHAPTER 01 THE COLD WAR ERA IN WORLD POLITICS

CONTENTS

� Meaning and Definition of cold war.

� Causes of Cold War.

� Effects/Consequences of cold war.

� Arenas of cold war.

� Challenges to Bipolarity� NAM AND NIEO.

� Indians role during cold war

 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
Class 12th

INTRODUCTION
After the end of 2 nd world war in 1945, there emerged two strong powers on world map i.e. USA
AND USSR. With emergence of these two powers, power politics engulfed almost the whole world.
To be much accurate and precise the hostile relations between the two super powers from 1945 to
1991 has been marked as era of Cold War. This term was first coined by Bernard Baruch,
popularised by Prof. Lippman and officially declared by Winston Chorchill.
So the history of relations between USA and USSR from 1945 to 1991 is known as Era of cold War.

Meaning and Definition of Cold War

Cold War has been one of the major themes in international relations in the twentieth century. It
simply refers to the tense relations between USA and USSR from 1945 to 1991. It was a war of
talks. Cold war refers to the competition, tension, and series of conformations between two super
powers after the end of world war 2nd.It was propaganda war. It was a diplomatic conflict without
use of force.

� According of Pandith Nehru, “Cold war is brain war/nerve war.”

� According to KPS Menon,” It is war between two ideologies that is capitalism (USA) verses
Socialism (USSR) and vice versa.
� According to Fleming, “A war that was fought not in the battle field but in the minds of
men, one tries to control the minds of others.”

In short cold war is a war like situation. There is utmost preparation of war but in fact war is never
fought in the battle field.

Causes of Cold War

Although during world war 2nd USA and USSR fought together against Axis powers Germany,
Japan, Italy etc.” But once the war came to an end, their relations went from bad to worse.
Suspicion and doubt became visible resulting in their cold relation. It is said that seeds of cold war
were sown in the Russian Revolution of 1917 as USA was against the ideology which fallowed this
revolution. But the causes in light can be summed up as:-
� Ideological Differences
� Mutual Distrust
� Secrecy regarding Atom Bombs
� Truman Doctrine
� Marshall Plan
� Alliance Formation
� Fulton Speech
� Economic interests

1. Ideological Differences:-USA & USSR followed two different ideologies. USA advocated
Capitalism and liberal democracy while as USSR followed Socialism and communism. This
difference in ideologies led to tension in their relations.
2. Mutual Distrust:-After the end of 2nd world war both USA and USSR last trust on one
another. They stated suspecting one another resulting in distrust. This mutual distrust
resulted in bitterness and relations worsened.
3. Secrecy of Atom Bombs:-USA kept secret of Atom Bomb to its war alie USSR during 2nd
world war. This episode created wedge in their relations, resulting in cold war.
4. Truman Doctrine:-It was an American foreign policy to counter Soviet geo-political
expansion. USA would help any country threatened by Communism. In 1947 President
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
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Truman put forth a doctrine for containment of Soviet Socialism .This was a challenge to
USSR, so relations became sour and caused cold war.
5. Marshall Plan:-During 2nd world war it was Europe that was hit the most, So in 1947
Marshall USA Secretary of State put forward a financial plan to help Western Europe to
recover from ill effects of the war. This reconstruction Plan, being discriminately forced
Soviet union to formulate another plan namely Molotov Plan for the economic revival of East
Europe. This tussle led to the strained relation between two super powers USA and USSR.
6. Alliance Formation:-The USA and USSR formed alliance in such a way, resulting the division
of world in two military blocks. USA with its allies made NATO in April 1947 while USSR
responded by forming Warsaw Pact in 1955.This grouping boosted cold war.
7. Fulton Speech:-Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister added fuel to the already
existing tense relation between USA and USSR. In his speech at Fulton he made it clear that
for peace in Europe the Soviet baked communism is to be controlled and contained.
President Truman seconded his thoughts which further contributed to mistrust, fear and
suspicion.
8. Economic Interests:-The two super powers were very keen on expanding their sphere of
influence for gaining economic interests. This tussle and lust resulted in their rivalry.

NOW BE ABLE TO ANSWER

1) What is Cold War?
2) Define Cold War?
3) What resulted in cold war?
4) Ideological difference came in way between USA & USSR. Explain?

Effects/Consequences of Cold War

Cold war era is demarked from 1945 to 1991.This period witnessed interesting and decisive
impacts on international politics. These effects and consequences are as under:-
a. Bi-polarity.
b. Alliance formation.
c. Arms race/Arms control.
d. NAM.
e. Supremacy of Capitalism.
f. Unipolarity.

1. Bi-Polarity:-The cold war divided the world into two rival blocs. One blocK was led by USA
and another by USSR.
2. Alliance Formation:-Cold war forced both super powers to expand their sphere of
influence. This resulted in alliance formation like NATO/Warsaw Pact.
3. Arms Race/Arms Control:-It was effect of cold war that compelled the rivals, USA and USSR
to enhance their fourfold power. This resulted in arms race.
Again it was effect of cold war which forced both USA and USSR to go for arms control
as none of them could afford to initiate the hot war.
4. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM):-It was a big consequence of cold war that some countries
of the world decided not to join bi-polarity so third world countries decided to follow policy
of NAM. This movement helped them to have equal distance from both super powers.
5. Supremacy of Capitalism:-During cold war it was difference of ideologies that become
centre of conflicts. But at the end it was the USA ideology capitalism which led at the front. It
proved its supremacy by weakening the socialist ideology propounded by Soviet Union.
6. Unipolarity: It was infact, the shade of cold war which finally resulted in unipolarity.
Throughout the era of cold war both USA and USSR tried to weaken the other. This struggle
finally resulted in the end of Bi-polarity as USSR collapsed. This paying the way for
unipolarity.
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
Class 12th

In short cold war has ever-lasting effects; initially it resulted in alliance formation, latter give birth
to NAM and finally gave us a world of unipolarity.

NOW BE ABLE TO ANSWER

1) Cold war is what kind of war?
2) Explain the shadow of cold war?
3) What are major effects of cold war?
4) Cold war resulted in Arms race as well as Arms control. Explain?

Arenas of Cold War

As we know that cold war was the reflection of strained and tense relations between two super
powers USA and USSR. The period of cold war is denoted from 1945 to 1991. All though during
1962 to 1979, there come instances when both powers tried to deescalate the tensions. Major
agreements were signed like (I) LBT in August 1963 (ii) NPT in July 1968. SALT -I in May 1972 and
SALT-II in 1979 was signed. Despite these efforts the relations sometimes got utmost tense. So
when we talk about arenas of cold war we simply refer to the times where crises and war occurred
between USA and USSR but not cross certain limits. These are simply hot spots in cold war and can
be summed as:-

1. Korean Crises:-The two powers were poised for direct confrontation in Korea (1950--
1953) as Korea was divided into two parts, North Korea and South Korea. North Korea
followed Soviet ideology while South Korea followed ideology of USA. In 1950 North
Korea attacked South Korea, This war was apparently between two Korea’s but in reality it
was war between USA and USSR.
2. Cuban Missile Crises:-In 1958 in Cuba USA backed Govt. was replaced by a communist
revolution. In April 1961 Soviet Union doubted that USA sponsored stragty may topple
communist regime, sensing threat. USSR decided to convert Cuba into a Russian base. In
1962 USSR installed nuclear Missiles there. Since USA targets to USSR were so close that
US President John Kennedy ordered American warships to intercept Soviet ships heading
to Cuba. A clash seemed on cards. Fortunately good sense prevailed and direct war was
avoided.
3. Vietnam Crises (1954-1750):-The Vietnam war was long, costly and divisive conflict
between communist Govt. of North Vietnam against South Vietnam and its ally, The USA.
The conflict intensified by the on-going cold war between USA and USSR. Hence can be
termed as an arena of Cold.
4. Afghan Crises:-In 1979 Soviet Union invades Afghanistan. This war lasted up to 1989. This
was not liked by USA. So USA armed and financed Jihadi warriors as a response to USSR
action. Afghan crises went up to that extent that it looked that cold war may change into a
hot war.
To conclude, the Cold War Arena is the decisive and interesting feature of international politics. It
Infact revolutionised international relations.
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
Class 12th

NOW BE ABLE TO ANSWER

1) Cuban Crises almost pushed the world into another war. Explain?
2) There are some spots in cold war which created fear of real war. Discuss?
Activity

o See and collect information regarding

“Detente”
o Agreements and talks during cold war

Challenges to Bi-polarity (NAM & NIEO)

In real sense and practically there was no challenge to Bipolarity though it broke off its own.
During cold war still there were two minor challenges to it. One is from of NAM and 2nd from of
NIEO

Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

We know that cold war resulted in divided of world in two military blocks namely USA and USSR.
There were some countries of the world who did not want to join either block USA or USSR. They
tried to have equi distance from both blocks. They therefore, put forth the idea of NAM. This idea
of NAM was initially propounded by five great leaders of the world namely (I) Pt. Nehru of Indian,
(II) Joseph Borg of Tito of Yugoslavia,(III) Col. Abdul Nasser of Egypt (IV) Sukarno of Indonesia and
(V) Kwame Nkrumoh of Gana. The first NAM summit was held in 1961 at Belgrade. 25 states
attended and obtained its membership. At present it has 125 members and 25 observers.

� Principles of NAM
NAM principles are actually from “Paschal”.
(I) They are mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity, sovereignty.
(II) To settle disputes in a peaceful way.
(III) Not to interfere in international matters of states.
(IV) Mutual no aggression.
(V) Not to join any military alliance.

� Relevance of NAM
As we have read and understand that NAM was a result or effect of cold war. So this has created
two schools of thoughts related to its relevance.
One school of thought is of the view that since NAM is a product of cold war, since cold war has
ended. Thus NAM has become irrelevant. It has lost its importance. However the 2nd school of
thought holds the view, the ideology on which Nam is established is much relevant in modern
world. The situation and the circumstances recommend the implementation of NAM principles.
The world of today faces such problems and issues which NAM came address and solve. It can see
peaceful settlement of world issues like, terrorism, extremism drug and human trafficking, global
warming, restructuring and democratization of UNO etc.
In short NAM has a role to play. It is policy which could help in peaceful settlement of
issues and disputes confronting the present world. Nam is real sense does not mean to remain
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
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aloof or run away from international politics.It has to play a vital role to do way the political and
economic issues and problems faced by the world.

� NEW INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC ORDER (NIEO):-

NIEO stands for new international economic order. Since majority of the countries of the world are
least developed. The existing world economic order is not helping the poor countries either for
economic upliftment nor for eradication of poverty. It is also true without sustained development
a country is not free. It becomes victim of circumstances.

As the existing economic order favours the developed countries, there arose voice against it. The
idea of NIEO originated with the realization against disparities. The UN conference on trade and
development brought out a report in 1972 entitled towards a new trade policy for development.
Report proposed a reform in the world trading system. It recommended:-
a. Give the LDC control over their natural resources exploited by the developed countries.
b. Give them excess to western markets.
c. Give them greater role in international economic institutions.
d. Technology transfer e made easy and cheap.

In short underdeveloped and developing countries regarded the “Breton Woods” system as
unequal, unjust, unfair and exploitive.

The least developed countries LDC demanded the replacement of the existing economic system by
NIEO. This system is too based on justice, firemen and equality. For the same, NAM become a
pressure group. But as the casual for this new economic system was made in 70’s in many
international forums, the desired countries continue to struggle for its implementation even today.
But due to stiff resistance by the developed countries its implementation is a dream even today.

NOW BE ABLE TO ANSWER

1. What were challenges to Bi-polarity?
2. Is NAM relevant even today?
3. What are the principles of NAM?
4. LDC’s want a new economic order. Explain?
5. What is NIEO?
6. What in real sense NAM stands for?

Activity
o During cold war arms control
treaties and talks were hold.

� India’s Role During Cold War

As a leader of NAM India’s response to the cold war was twofold. At one level, it took particular
care in staying away from the two alliances. Second it raised its voice against the newly
decolonised countries becoming the part of these alliances. India’s policy was neither negative nor
passive. As Pt. Nehru reminded the world, NAM was not a policy of “fleeing away” on the contrary
India was in favour of actively intervening in world affairs to soften Cold war rivalries.
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
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Although sometimes India was also blamed that its tilt was towards USSR. Despite
following NAM ideology India played a remarkable role during cold war. It repeatedly tried to
activate those regional and international organisations which were not part of the alliances led by
USA and USSR.
In short India played and independent neutral and decisive role during cold war. Its
efforts resulted in forming NAM which resulted in Afro-Asian unity and that balances international
relations.

NOW BE ABLE TO ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS

� What is cold war? How did it originate?

� What is cold war? Explain its arenas?
� What were effects of cold war?
� Is NAM relevant even today?
� Third world countries desired for NIEO. Explain?
� What are challenges to Bi-polarity?
� Explain Marshall Plan?
� List causes of cold war?
� What is “Detente”? During cold war?
� Cold war resulted in both Arms race and Arm control. Discuss?
� What was India’s role during cold war?
� Cold war is considered as Brain War. Explain?
� Infact cold war was not ideological conflict but power struggle. Explain?
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
Class 12th

CHAPTER 02 DISINTEGRATION OF THE “SECOND WORLD”

AND COLLAPSE OF BIPOLARITY

CONTENTS

� Soviet Political and Economic System.

� Disintegration of Soviet Union.

� Impacts or Consequences of Soviet Disintegration.

� Account of Central Asian Stats.

� Names & Geographical location of Balkan States

� Shock Therapy & its Results/Features.

� India Relations with Russia.

� India Relations with Post-Communist Countries.

 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
Class 12th

Introduction
No doubt the world which we live in is one. But the philosophers have particularly divided in three.
Those are the First world, the 2nd world and the 3rd world. The first world headed by USA, 2nd by
USSR and the 3rd world countries have opted for NAM.
The 2nd world was the creation of the socialist revolution in Russia in 1917. This revolution
was inspired by the ideas of Socialism under this ideology the union of Soviet Socialist republic
was formed in 1922. This union survived up to 1991 and in December 1991 disintegrated and
collapsed. With disintegration of second world bi-polarity came to an end and uni-polarity took
birth.

SOVIET POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC SYSTEM

The great revolution of 1917 laid foundation of United Socialist Soviet Republic in 1922. This union
was made by the combination of 15 republics and 20 autonomous units. Since this union was
inspired by socialism, so the same ideas were followed. This union developed such a political and
economic system that was based on the ideas of communist. This system was in favour of:-

1. Establishing of an egalitarian society.

2. To oppose capitalism
3. To abolish concept of private property.
4. To believe in equal society.
5. To give primacy to the state.
6. Whole political system to centre one and only one political party i.e. communist party.
7. No opposition.
8. There was vast communication system
9. There was well developed industrial sector.
10. There was minimum standard of living for all
11. There was total state ownership which followed planned economic model.
12. There was least unemployment.

In short Soviet political system revolved round one political party i.e. communist party. There was
no space for opposition. There was planned economy. No concept of private property. Everything
was state controlled.

DISINTEGRATION OF SOVIET UNION:

Soviet Union disintegrated due to internal weakness of its political and economic system. There
was different developments which resulted in escalating the curses which finally resulted in
collapse of Second World. In real sense the soviet system failed to meet the aspirations of soviet
people .Thus collapsed on 25 of Dec. 1991.
The main reasons responsible for its disintegrations are as under:-
1. ECONOMIC STAGNATION:-Soviet Union used much of its economic resources in
maintaining and obtaining nuclear and military arsenal. So economy stopped to grow
since late 70’s. This lead to decline in agricultural productivity and import of food grains.
This resulted in economic degradation and in sense of instability among people.
2. SUCCESS OF CAPITALISM:-Citizen of USSR becomes more and more knowledgeable
about the economic advancement of West. They could judge the difference between two
systems. Seeing capitalism much progressive, desired a change. This desire for change
finally led to Soviet disintegration.
3. ADMINISTRATIVE AND POLITICAL STAGNATION:-Soviet system had become stagnant
both administratively as well as politically. This system becomes very bureaucratic and
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
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authoritative. This rigidness made life of its citizens very difficult. There was no democracy
and freedom of speech. Common people were isolated. Communist party was playing the
role of a dictator and seemed not to be accountable to its citizens. The harsh
administrative and political system resulted in its collapse.
4. Rise of Nationalism:-Soviet system was rigid. But once reforms were introduced, people
tested the ideals of democracy. This taste for democratic values of is raise at the
instituting of Nationalism. So protests started against the right system and finally resulted
in soviet disintegration.
5. INVASION OF AFGHANISTAN:-In 1979 USSR invaded Afghanistan. This gave a chance to
USA to help anti Soviet faces. As a result it met with heavy losses with men and material.
Finally Soviet Union was faced to leave Afghanistan. This defeat should USA and later
resulted in its collapse.
6. Role of Gorbachav:- Gorbachav, the last president of Soviet Union is deemed responsible
for Soviet disintegration. It is believed the he introduced reform like “Glasnost” openness
and perestroika economy retouring in hast. Since the prevailing system was not ready to
accept it, thus resulted in disintegration.
7. SUPERMACY OF RUSSIA:-Soviet Union was a confederation of various states. But Russia
was owning a dominant role. Other units were either ignored or oppressed. So this
alienation resulted in the fall of Soviet Union.
8. CONFEDRATION IN USSR COUNTITUTION:-Soviet Union was an umbrella of different
units. The constitution itself provided a choice to its allies to have a separate identity at
any time if they like so in future. This choice finally breaks Soviet Union.

In short the Soviet System become victim of its own drawbacks. Lack of democratic values,
shortage of accountability, ignoring the will people, down fall of economy etc. led to the
disintegration of Soviet Union.

NOW BE ABLE TO ANSWER

1. How would you explain Soviet System?
2. What was Soviet political and economic system?
3. Soviet System was responsible for its breakdown?
4. What are the main causes of Soviet disintegration?

IMPACTS OR CONSEQUENCES OF SOVIET DISINTEGRATION

� End of cold war
� End of Bi- polarity
� Unipolarity
� Supremacy of Capitalism
� Shock therapy on international policies.
� Promotion of New States
� Increasing role of UNO
We know that USSR came into existence in 1922 by union of different units. This union survived up
to 1991 and disintegrated due to its loopholes. Its disunion or collapse had different imparts on
international politics and relations. As mentioned and enlisted above were impacts, due to
collapse of 2nd world.
1. END OF COLD WAR:-We know that during 1945 to 1991 strained and tense relations
were between two giants USA and USSR, resulting in cold war era. But once Soviet Union
broke, hence race for power came to and end resulting in the end of cold war.
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
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2. END OF BI- POLARITY:-The disintegration of USSR left open only two possibilities either
USA will be sole super power or multiple power system may exist. Hence ended bi-
polarity.
3. UNIPOLARITY:-USA has dominated the world politics after disintegration of USSR. It has
now hegemonic character there are some alternative Centres of power but till date USA
has dominated on all fronts in international politics. It is clear from the present day
international politics that disintegration of USSR has paid way for unipolitry.
4. SUPERMACY OF CAPTALISM:-Once there was competition between two ideologies
capitalism and socialism, with passage of time capitalism as is clear from modern world
politics has gained field. It has proved its supremacy. On the other hand socialism has lost
its original ground. Due to its weakness have provided space to capitalism to rule almost
whole world.
5. SHOCK THEROPY ON INTERNATIONAL POLITIS:-With collapse of second world the
switch over from one ideology to other began necessity for over all development. This
transmission became order of the day as maximum socialist countries went for capitalist
ideology.
6. FORMATION OF NEW STATES:-Due to disintegration of Soviet Union many new states
emerged on world map. Number of new independent states were formed was part of
Soviet Union.
7. INCREASING ROLE O UNO:-Due to collapse of USSR single super power USA emerged.
To put this power under check and control role of UNO has increased.

BRIEF ACCOUNT OF CENTRAL ASIAN STATES:-

Central Asia is a core region of the Asian continent from the Caspian Sea in the West, china in the
east, Afghanistan in the south and Russia in the north. The major countries of central Asia include
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
These central Asian counties have vast hydro carbon resources and rich sources of oil.

Names and Geographical Location of Balkan States:-

The Balkans also known as the Balkan Peninsula is a geographic area south east Europe. The
countries know on Balkan are Croatia, bosma and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro,
Kosovo, Macedonia, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece and the European part of Turkey. This
region lies on the south eastern edge of the European continent. It lies between the Adriatic Sea
and Black Sea.

NOW BE ABLE TO ANSWER

1. What were results of collapse of 2nd world?

2. What were consequences or impacts of Soviet disintegration
3. Give a brief account of central Asian States?
4. What is geographical location of Balkan States?
5. Name different Balkan states?

SHOCK THERAPY AND ITS RESULTS/FEATURES:

Soviet Union disintegrated in 1991 due to different cause’s epically economic stagnation. So just
to overall the system the new states sought out a change. This change was from authoritarian
socialist system to a democratic capitalist system known as “Shock Therapy”. This was introduced
with the help of world bank and IMF under this system the newly formed republics were require to
make a total shift to capitalist economy, rooting out completely the structures developed during
Soviet System.
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
Class 12th

In short the countries Russia, central Asia and East Europe through Shock Therapy were required to
follow the economic and political system of Western countries. Each sector was guided and led by
capitalist ideology. So this is a model of transition from communism to democratic and capitalistic
system.

ITS RESULTS
The capitalist ideology being progressive but one introduced by the name of “Shock Therapy” did
not bring good results. It was a painful process. Its impact was negative. Its results were:-
� It brought ruin and disaster to economies.
� The value of Rabble declined. The inflation got so high that people lost their savings.
� 90% of industries were put to sale at low rates.
� Restructuring was carried out through market forces and not by govt. directed policies
which almost led to disappearance of entire industries.
� The old system of social welfare was destroyed by taking away desired subsides
� This privatization led to new disparities. Despite of these negative aspects, most of the
countries stated reviving their economies from 2000 as they exported oil, natural gas and
minerals.

FEATURES OF SHOCK THERAPY

� Countries were required to make total change from socialist economy to capitalist
economy.
� The countries were required to adopt private ownership of property.
� There should be privatisation of state assets and to establish co-operate ownership
patterns.
� Collective farming to be replaced by private farming
� Re-arrangements in trade, social and political relation with world.
In short shock therapy ruled out “third way” other than state controlled Socialism or Capitalism.

INDIA’S RELATION WITH RUSSIA

No doubt after disintegration of Soviet Union world order of relations changed. Despite being
follower and founder of NAM, India was quite often blamed to be an ally of Soviet Union. But after
the end of cold war the history of relations indicate that India till is towards USA, although it has
maintained good relation with Russian too. These relations are Infact rooted in a history of trust
and common interests. Both countries share a vision of multipolar world order.
India signed friendship treaty with Soviet Union in 9th august 1971.Russian respects that
treaty of friendship even today. More than 80 bilateral agreements have been signed between
India and Russia as a part of Indo Russian strategic agreement of 2001. India stands to benefit
from its relationship with Russia on issues like Kashmir, energy supplies , access to central Asia and
technology outputs while an India is the second largest arms market for Russia. Good relations
with India help Russian to balance china’s influence.

INDIA’S RELATION WITH POST COMMUNIST COUNTRIES:-

India shows good political, economic, social and cultural relation with all post-communist
countries’ Both Baltic and central Asia Republic have large sources of oil and natural gas, since
India is an oil importing nation, these countries are important for India. India has enter into
agreements with Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan for investments and partnerships in oil
fields.
These countries also share a lot of cultural heritage with India. They are also co-operating
with Indian on the issues of science and technology and space exploration.
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
Class 12th

To conclude, it is clear from the history of relation Indian has maintained good relation with
all the pest communist countries. But strongest relations are still those between Russian and India.
India relation with Russia is an important aspect of Indies foreign policy.

NOW BE ABLE TO ANSWER

1. What was Shock Therapy? What were its features

2. “Shock Therapy” had negative impacts. Discuss?
3. What do you know about India- Russian relation communist countries? Discuss?
4. What do you know about Soviet political and economic system?
5. What were causes responsible for soviet disintegration?
6. What were impacts of soviet disintegration?
7. Give a brief account of Central Asian States?
8. What is Shock Therapy? What are its features?
9. What were impacts of Shock Therapy?
10. Pen down relation between India and Russia?
11. Indian has good relation with almost all post-communist countries. Discuss?
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
Class 12th

CHAPTER 03 US DOMINANCE IN WORLD POLITICS

CONTENTS

� Hegemony & Its Causes.

� Elements or kinds of US hegemony & U.S.A.

� Constraints on US Hegemony.

� Different Operations Conducted.

� Operation Desert Storm or First Gulf War.

� Operation Infinite reach.

� Operation Enduring Freedom or 9/11 Attack

� Operation Iraqi Freedom.

� India’s relation with USA.

� Can we overcome US hegemony.

� Indo US Civil Nuclear deal 2008.

 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
Class 12th

Introduction
The end of cold war and disintegration of Soviet Union changed the shape and picture of world
politics and relations. After 1990 Bi- polarity came to an end as now, there is hardly a serious
competition to USA. USA at present is single handed dominating the world almost in each and
every sphere. Exploring the political, economic and cultural aspects throughout the world, it is in
one way or the other and coloured by US dominance. USA dominance is visible by its command
over world affairs. Sometimes it acts at its will to deal with international issues. So it is because of
US hegemony, we think of unipolarity world. USA is deemed and accepted as single super power.

Hegemony and its Causes:-

Hegemony
Hegemony reflects the power play of a nation it is dominance almost on all fronts as socio,
political, economic, military, cultural etc. Throughout world. It means supremacy and influence in
world politics. At present, in the history of international relations and politics, it looks that USA by
its power play worldwide has become hegemony. Directly or indirectly it plays a leading role to
settle the international issues and problems. Almost in every sphere it (USA) leads at front. It has
predominant position in international relations. It imposes its leadership on others by dominating
International politics.

Causes of U.S Dominance

After the end of cold war and this integration of USSR, USA sauced to dominate and influence the
world politics. There are some prominent causes for this dominance:-
I. MATURED POLITICAL SYSTEM:-USA has a best political system. It meets the demands
of each and every situation.
II. POLITICAL, ECONMIC AND MILITARY STRENGTH:-Exploring the political, economic
and military strength of world, it is America which leads at front. USA is much more
efficient than any other countries in the world resulting in its dominance.
III. IT’S POWER SHOW:-Whenever situation demanded USA by its actions proved a
dominant power.
IV. Collapse of 2 nd world: After disintegration of USSR, there remained no serious
competitor to US. Hence resulted in its dominance
In short at present USA is sole hegemonic worldwide. It has proved it by its worldwide influence
and actions.

Elements or Kinds of Hegemony and U.S.A Position:-

Hegemony is multidimensional concept its various kinds are as under:-
Hard Power
It indicated military and technological superiority. USA by its technology can target and reach
anywhere in the world. Its military might today is both absolute and relative. It has so much
military capabilities that can reach any point on the planet accurately. No power today can
remotely match them. The operations initiated by USA throughout the world are examples of USA
as a hard power. Killing of Osama Bin Laden on 02/05/2011 at Abotabad Pakistan is a flame
example of USA dominance as a hard power.

STURCTURAL POWER
It is to understand world economics order. In globalisation world economy needs a dominant
power to support its creation and existence. Here again USA is playing a dominant role in
flourishing world economy. It has its influence on world economic institutes like World Bank WTO
and IMF. The US share in world economy is about 28% and in world trade is 15% respectively. The
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US economic ideas are followed through the world like MBA, free trade etc. In short world-wide
economic institutions are Infact product of American hegemony.

SOFT POWER
Soft power refuses dominance in cultural and ideological fields. USA here two has proved a
hegemonic. People feel pride by accepting US culture and ideology. People are adopting more
and more US made life style. Despite of their own styles, People in large numbers are using jeans,
cold drinks, fast foods, berating rose days, valentine days, new tea parties etc.

To conclude it is clear from the above writings that USA by its worth and virtue has proved itself a
hegemonic. It has a dominant role in world politics and in international relations. Due to its
different capabilities it is ruling the world directly or indirectly.

Constraints on US Hegemony
At present the US hegemony is in a formidable position and is very difficult to overcome. However
there are some factors which might act as a constraint upon us hegemony:-
� CHECKS AND BALANCES:-This is an institutional mechanism operating within USA. The
power of the President to use military can be checked by congress.
� FREEDOM OF MASS MEDIA:-Open nature of American society and freedom of mass
median plays a vital role as a constraint on us hegemony. The intellectuals can expose the
real intensions of US policy and can help in restricting it to use military power anywhere.
� NATO:-It is an alliance formed by USA to fulfil its interests. So in order to fulfil his world-
wide interests, US will never want to annoy his alliance partner’s. So it is also possible that
its allies in the NATO sometimes will be able to moderate the exercise of US hegemony.
� INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS:-The organizations like Human Rights Watch,
Amnesty International etc. publish reports about exercises committed by USA. Hence play
role of a checker or as a constraint on hegemonic nature of USA.

DIFFERENT OPERATIONS CONDUCTED BY USA

OPERATION DESERT STORM OR IST GULF WAR:-
In august 1990 Iraq attacked a small country Kuwait. Whole world including UNO at first appealed
Iraq to withdraw and let Kuwait free. Unfortunately all diplomatic efforts failed to persuade Iraq for
withdrawal. UNO treated Iraq as an aggressor and allowed use of face to liberate Kuwait.

So a coalition force of 660000 troopers from 34 countries invaded Iraq, This war was called as
“FIRST GULF WAR” Iraq was defeated. This operations duly sanctioned by UNO was code named as
“Operation Desert Strom”. Under this operation Iraq was forced to withdraw from Kuwait. Under
US command Kuwait was freed from Iraq occupation.

OPERATION INFINITE REACH

This operation was self sanctioned by USA. Bill Clinton ordered a military action under code name
“Operation Infinite Reach” In 1998 terrorist outfit called Al Qaeda attacked US embassies in
Nairobi (Kenya) and Dares Salaam (Tanzania) with bombs. So US in order to finish those
responsible for bombings attacked terrorist targets in Afghanistan and Sudan by crude missile, this
missile action against terrorists is known as Operation Infinite Reach.

OPERATION DURING FREEDOM OR 9/11 ATTACK

9/11 is considered the deadliest attack on humanity. Thousands were killed in USA and a pledge
was made to fight against terrorism till it ends. A fight against terrorism under code name
“Operation Enduring Freedom” was launched.
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On 11 September 2001a group of 19 terrorists took control of four American commercial aircrafts
and dashed them into the important buildings in USA including world Trade Centre. The attacks
almost killed 3000 people. This attack was considered the brutal attack on use since its formation.
After this deadly attack use acted swiftly. The US president George W. Bush launched on operation
under code name “Operation enduring freedom” to curb world-wide terrorism and crush terrorists.
This operation was considered as a part of global war on terror. USA attacked Al Qaida in
Afghanistan which was supported by Afghan led Govt. of Taliban. Taliban was dethroned and new
democratic regime led by Hamid Karzai was established.
In short 9/11 is considered “Very Surprising and Unusual to the contemporary world as a super
power USA was attacked.

OPERATION IRAQI FREEDOM

On March 19, 2003 the US launched an invasion on Iraq under code name “Operation Iraqi
Freedom”. More than 40 other countries joined in the US led “Collection of Willing” after UNO
refused to give its mandate to the attack. US blamed Iraq for developing weapons of mass
destruction (WMD), hence launched an attack.
Since no evidence of WMD was found in Iraq, it is suspected that invasion was motive by an aim of
controlling Iraqi oil fields and to install US friendly Govt. in Iraq by dethroning Sodom regime. USA
was successful In obtaining its main object but is not able to control civil war in Iraq till date.

NOW BE ABLE TO ANSWER

1. What do you understand by hegemony?
2. Causes which determine U/S dominance?
3. What are different kinds with which hegemony can be proved.
4. What are constraints on US hegemony?
5. What do you know regarding different operations launched at different times?
6. What is 9/11? How USA reacted to it?

INDIA’S RELAIONS WITH USA

After obtaining freedom from British rule, Indian after 1947 followed NAM policy. During cold war
era India posed to have equal distance from both powers. But it is clear from history of relations
India’s tilt was towards USSR. During cold war India’s relation with US were surely cold. But after
the end of cold war India modified its foreign policy. The process of liberalization, Indo-US
diaspora and technological revolution brought two countries closer to each other. In kargil conflict
US asked Pakistan to with draw its troops. September 11, 2001 terrorist attack on us brought two
countries further closer to each other.

The two countries signed important nuclear deal in 2008. In Nov. 2010 President Osama visited
India and inked trade deals of 10 billion us dollars. India is 12th largest trading partner of US. India
and USA also signed a bilateral agreement on science and Technology Co-operation in 2005. On
1st March 2006 President Bush made another diplomatic visit further expand relations.

Indian US relations touched extreme height during recent visits of PM Mode’s visit to US in
September 2019 marked by attendance in the “Howdy Modi” event in Houston and now by the
visit of US President “Donald Trump” on 24 and 25 February 2020 with block-buster event at
Matera Stadium in Gujarat. The two leaders decided to raise India us ties to the level of a
“comprehensive global strategic partnership. The two leaders inked memorandums of
understanding including one in the energy sector, talks on major trade deals besides
comprehensive global strategic partnership security and defence got boost.
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In short Indo-US relations are growing very fast. Both share common ideology regarding the world
issues. Due to the changing scenario of international politics and relations India and US succeeded
to make good relations which were inaugurated y Indo-US nuclear treaty and it is expected that
relation will grow at greater extent in future.

CAN WE OVERCOME US HEGEMONY:-

We know that bipolarity lasted for less than five decades. Bipolarity ended with the disintegration
of Soviet Union. We are now living in a unipolar world, where USA has proved to be a Super
power. Times will prove that how long this hegemony will last. At present it seems that there is not
any vibrant power to challenge US power and hegemony. International politics is that politics
which is without government. Although there are some international organisations which check
the world order. But to be honest these international rules are not so much effective to check and
control any unlawful activity world-wide. These are some strategies which can to some extent
check US hegemony. They are:-
� BANDWAGON STRATEGY: According to this strategy, it is good to extract benefits of
hegemony rather going against it. To gain high economic growth co-operation is required
in the field of trade, technology transfer and investment. This can be achieved by working
with the hegemonic.
� HIDE STRATEGY: This means to keep safe distance from the hegemony. Many big actors
like china, Russia and Europe union is different ways are seeking to stay below the radar, as
it were but they do not want to antagonise the hegemony.
� MEDIA AND NGO:- Scholars, believe that challenge to US hegemony may come from non-
state actors. The non-state actors like media and NGO’s can critics and resist hegemonic
nature of USA.

In nutshell USA at present is a hegemon as proved by its acts and actions throughout the world.
It’s hegemonic nature can be checked if there will be balance of power. Since that is not available
so in global village the resistance will be only option available.

NUCLEAR DEAL 2008:-INDIA US CIVIL

The 123 agreement signed between USA and India is known as Indo-US civil Nuclear Deal. The
frame work for this agreement was given on July 18, 2005 the joint statement by Man Mohan
Singh and George W. Bush. This deal took three years to get completed. The agreement was
signed by then foreign minister of India Mr. Pranab Mukherjee and US Secretary of state
Condoleezza Rice on oct.10 2008. This agreement consists of 22 pages and 17 articles. The
agreement will remain in force for 40 years. The purpose of the agreement is to enable full civil
nuclear energy cooperation between India and USA. This agreement would help to address the
problems of energy deficit which tells upon India’s growth rate. The agreement does not hinder
Indian military nuclear programme and provides for uninterrupted supply of fuel.

NOW ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS

1. What is hegemony how can it be showed?
2. What are different kinds of hegemony? Explain with examples?
3. USA is playing as hegemony. What are constraints on its hegemonic nature?
4. What is operation Desert Storm or Ist Gulf War?
5. Write short note on Operations Infinite Reach?
6. What is 9/11? What was reaction of USA?
7. What do you k know about indo-USA relation?
8. Write a note on Indo-USA civil nuclear deal?
9. Can we overcome US hegemony? Discuss?
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CHAPTER 04 ALTERNATIVE CENTRES OF ECEONOMIC &

POLITICAL POWER

CONTENTS

� Assessment of China as an economic power.

� Creation & Expansion of European Union.

� ASEAN.

� Relation of India with China.

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Introduction
At present we are living in a unipolar World in which USA is playing headman’s role. USA is
leading on all fronts. But some states individually and some combinations are progressing in such
a way that it is hoped that there developing powers can prove themselves as alternative Centre of
economic and political powers.

At present China is developing at a fast rate and is considered as an alternative Centre of

economic power. European Union and ASEAN organization too are not behind. They too can be
put in the category of alternative Centre of economic and political power as is proving by their
worth and virtues.

India too has shown its capability, thus is considered as an alternative Centre of economic and
political power.

Assessment of China as an Economic Power?

China becomes independent state in 1949. Its economy was initially based on Soviet model. But it
did not work up to the expectations as per China’s population growth. Therefore during Seventies
Chinese leadership took major policy decision for a change. China ended its political and
economic isolation with world. It in 1972 established relation with USA. Premier Zhou Enlai
introduced the modernization in agriculture, industry, science and technology and Military in 1973.
By 1978, the then leaders Ding Xionping announced the “Open Door” policy and economic
reforms in China.

China adopted the changes but gradually. It did go for shock theropy but step by step. The
privatization of agriculture in 1982 was followed by privatization of industries in 1998. Trade
barriers were eliminated only in special economic zones where foreign investment was allowed to
set up enterprises. Today China has become most important destinations for foreign direct
investment in the world. China has large foreign exchange reserves that now allow it to make big
investments in other countries. China’s economy is continually growing at that rate, that it is
believed that thus would become the largest economy of the world by 2040.

The integration of China’s economy and the interdependencies that this has created has enabled
China to have a considerable influence with its trade partners. Hence its outstanding issues with
Japan, The US, ASEAN and Russia have been tempered by economic considerations. It hopes to
resolve its differences with Taiwan by integrating it closely into its economy. Its investments and
aid policies are increasing that project it as a global player in developing economies.

To conclude China’s economic trump since 1978 is posing China as a great power. China has a
fastest growing economy since the reforms began there. The strength of economy, population,
landmass, resources regional location and political influence adds to its power in a significant way.
At crucial stages, it has got the capability and capacity to overcome any kind of deadlock or
stagnation. This is because of the strength of China, it is deemed to be an alternative economic
and political power against USA.
Creation & Expansion of European Union?

After the end of bi-polar structure in world politics it was expected that unipolarity will dominate
too long. But after 90’s it become clear that alternative Centre’s of political and economic powers
could limit USA dominance. One such example as Alternative Centre of economic and political
power can be put forth as “European Union”.
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Evolution
Before getting its name as “European Union” in 1992, it has passed a variety of stages.
Its evolution is given below:-
� To overall European economy USA extended financial aid under Marshal Plan in June-5-1947.
� Under Marshal Plan an organization of European Economic co-operation was established in 1948 to
Channel aid to western European states.
� In 1949 “the council of Europe” for political cooperation was established.
� In April 1951 six west European countries France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Neither land &
Luxmburg signed treaty of pairs establishing “ECSC” European coal and Steel community.
� In 1957 on March 25 these six countries signed the treaties of Rome establishing “EEC” European
Economic community and (EAEC) European Atomic Energy Community.
� In 1973 European community came into light.
� In June 1979 First direct election to European parliament was held.
� In June 1985 the “Schengen agreement was held to abolish the border controls among European
community members.
� And finally on the 7th Feb 1992 the treaty of Moastrisht was signed to Establish “European Union”.

Objectives of European Union

European Union was formed in 1992 under treaty of Mastrisht by 28 member states of European.
This Union has a parliament which works for the development and prosperity of European region.
The main objectives of this union are as under:-
� To become most powerful economic and political organization.
� Equal protection to its members.
� Joint security.
� Co-ordinate for obtaining goals of union.
� To settle disputes to bring consistency in all round development.
� To share information regarding update knowledge.

In nutshell it is the result of these objectives which has become the world’s biggest economy. Its
currency “Euro” is now in a position to challenge this dominance. European Union also exercise
political and diplomatic influence. It has two permanent members in UNO’s Security Council. This
power in UNO has enabled European Union to influence the decision making in world affairs. More
over European Union combined armed force as are the 2nd largest in the world. It has its own flag
and anthem, founding date and currency. It has a common market and has said no to borders.

This all has made European union a super national organization. Thus can play an
aggressive as well as progressive role in economic, political and social issues of the world. It
certainly can act as an alternative Centre of power against USA hegemony.

NOW BE ABLE TO ANSWER

1. Assess China as an alternative Centre of power?
2. It is said “China will be largest economy by 2040” Explain?
3. Introduction of Modernization helped China to grow. Discuss?
4. What do you know about evolution of European Union?
5. European Union is 2nd largest economy of world. Explain?
6. European Union due to its objectives has become strong. Discuss?
7. European Union has great influence on world. Explain?
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ASEAN (Association of South East Asian States)

Before and during 2nd world war was Asian Region suffered economically a lot due to the
colonialism. Latter the region has to confront with the problem of nation building. Since NAM &
Bandung conference were in effective in establishing convention for informal co-operation and
interaction. So South Asian nation worked out for establishment of an association for South Asian
nations namely ASEAN. It was established on 8th August 1967. Five founding members are
Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and Philippines signed declaration at Bangkok (Thailand).
This declaration led to the formation of an organization “ASEAN” with the passage of time other
countries like Brume, Darusalam, Vietnam, Loas PDR, Burma and Cambodia joined this Association.
India, China & Japan are dialogue and regional partners of ASEAN.

Aims and Objectives of ASEAN

The aims and objectives of ASEAN are as under:-
� To accelerate economic growth through social progress and culture development.
� To promote regional peace and stability based on rule of law and the principles of UNO.
� To solve disputes peacefully.
� To work for non-confrontation and cooperation.
� To promote trade and commerce in region.
� To have mutual respect for independence, sovereignty, equality and territorial integrity of
all nations.
� To integrate the region with world economy.

In its 12th summit 2003 the leaders of the association affirmed establishment of ASEAN community
of three pillars

� The ASEAN Security Community.

� The ASEAN Economic Community.
� The ASEAN Socio Culture Community.

IMPORTANCE OF ASEAN
Along with the fast growing economic with world ASEAN has broadened its objectives beyond the
economic and social sphere. As mentioned above in 2003 ASEAN agreed to establish ASEAN
community comprising of three pillars.

The ASEAN Security community is there to see peaceful solutions to the outstanding territorial
disputes by 2003 ASEAN had several agreements with which members states promised to up held
peace, neutrality, co-operation and respect for national differences and sovereign rights. In 1994
ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) was formed to carry out the coordination of security and foreign
policy.

The ASEAN Economic community is there to create a common market and production base within
ASEAN states and to aid social and economic development in the region. It will also like to
improve the existing ASEAN disputes settlement mechanism to resolve economic disputes. It has
focused on FTA (Free Trade Area) for investment, labour and services.

The ASEAN socio culture community helps this association for development of culture and social
progress.
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ASEAN economy though being smaller than US, EU, and Japan but it is growing much faster than
these. This progress has helped ASEAN to have its influence both in its region and beyond. It is
rapidly growing into a very important regional organization. It has been able to end the
Cambodian conflict, the east timor crises. It meets regularly to discuss East Asian co-operation. The
current economic strength of ASEAN is of such worth that attracts other countries. India too has
signed FTAS with some countries of ASEAN.

In short ASEAN is becoming a decent organization which not fulfills the aspiration of its member
states but beyond that it plays a significant role. Its strength lies in its policies of interaction and
consultation with member states, dialogue partners and with other non-regional organization. This
association provides a platform where Asian countries and major powers can discuss political and
security concerns. All this has marked ASEAN as an alternative Centre of power.

NOW BE ABLE TO ANSWER

1. Write a note on ASEAN?

2. What are main aims and objectives of ASEAN?
3. ASEAN is proving to be an alternative Centre of power. How?
4. ASEAN is an all-round organization. Explain?
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India’s changing relation with China

India and China are considered two giants of Asia. They are also close neighbor but the history of
relation reveals that there are ups and downs in their relations.

Though both countries after obtaining freedom from foreign rule started with a positive note India
was first to recognize China as an independent state. On first April 1950 diplomatic relation were
established. In 1954 bilateral agreements were signed.

Signing of Panchsheel in June 1954 was an historical event. There was a popular slogan “Hindu,
China Bahi Bahi” But this did not lost long from 1957 the relation took an ugly shape. A military
conflict over a border dispute marred the hope that these two giants of Asia would shape the
future of developing world and of Asia particularly.

There were indifference arising from the Chinese takeover of Tibet border dispute resulted in a full
scale war in 1962. India suffered a lot which had long term implications for India China relations.
Diplomatic relations between the two were downgraded until 1976.

Afterword’s Chinese policies become more pragmatic and less ideological. So both countries
decided to set aside the core issues of dispute but to work for improving relations.

Now the relations have a strategic as well as economic dimension. Leaders from both sides have
frequent visits to have bilateral agreements both have taken measures to contain conflict and
maintain peace and tranquility. Many agreements on cultural exchange and co-operation in
science and technology were signed. Many border posts have been thrown open for trade and
commerce.

At international level both India and China have adopted similar approach for WTO etc. They show
common concern over issues of global warming etc.

In short the relations between the two countries have shown up’s and downs. Although both
countries almost from mid-seventies have put their relation on a progressive track. But still there
are some core issues confronting each other. The Chines involvement in Pakistan is of great
concern for India. Recent stand over J & K of China has annoyed India border issue is still core
issues between India and China. Despite of these hindrance’s both India and China are trying to
improve their relation day by day.

NOW ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS

� India and China are trying to improve relations. Explain?

� How would you asses India China relations?
� What core issues confronting India and China?
� How would you assess China as an Alternative Centre of economic and political power?
� How was European Union organized?
� What are main objectives of European Union?
� What do you know about ASEAN?
� Discuss Indo-China changing relations?
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Chapter 5. Contemporary South Asia

After reading this chapter you should be able to understand the following learning
objectives.

1. South Asia in the post-cold war era.

2. Democratization and its reversals in Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal.
3. Ethnic conflicts in Sri Lanka.
4. Impact of economic globalization in the region.
5. Conflicts and agreements between the region.
6. Efforts of peace in South Asia.
7. India`s relation with its neighbours.

Introduction: South Asia is an area of many internal strife’s and global conflicts. This region
provided space to super powers during the cold war period. This region has a series of conflicts
pertaining to border, water sharing, insurgencies, ethnic conflicts and resources which made the
region quite turbulent. At the same time the region need to cooperate with each other so that this
region can develop and prosper.

South Asia a Brief Sketch: India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan Maldives and Nepal are the states which
are surrounded by Great Himalaya`s in the north and Bay of Bengal, Indian ocean and Arabian sea
in the south east and west, which makes this region a distinctive social, linguistic and cultural sub-
continent. Some Analysts include Afghanistan and Myanmar with this region due to
undefined/unmarked boundaries in the east and west. China’s influence is there but it is not
included in this region.

Here we are concerned with the above mentioned seven states constituting a geopolitical space
but diversified in every sense. India and Sri Lanka are the only two states in this region which are
able to practice democracy since their independence. The whole region is house of internal strife’s
and global conflicts. Which has resulted in instability of governments, changing powers from
elected governments to monarchs/dictators. Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan are its examples,
However the political scenario of Bhutan can be justified as constitutional monarchy since 18th of
July 2008.

Bhutan once the suzerainty of British Raj the present monarch system was established. Likewise,
the island Maldives established its system through a referendum approved a constitution. Which
was amended, 1970, 72, 75, 97 and again 2008.

Let`s discuss briefly the socio –political scenario of this region.

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Indian Democracy

India: The 2nd populous and the 7 th largest country of the world has attained its independence
from British rule on 15th of august 1947.Since its inception it has adopted the parliamentary type
of govt. with bicameral legislature. J. L Nehru as its 1st premier and Dr. Rajendra Prasad as its first
president. During the 1950`s India started holding periodical elections with multi-party system and
proved its success till date. Except the constitutional crises during 1975.The successive govts have
strengthen the democratic institutes and made India as the largest democracy of the world.

Keeping its position strong in terms of demography it has fought several wars like 1947-
48,1965,1971,1999. Pakistan propagated militancy from its soil to relegate Kashmir from India
since 1989, which became the root cause of cold relations between the two. The attack on Indian
parliament on 13 December 2001, attack on Taj hotel in Mumbai on 26-11-2008 and attack on
Indian forces convoy at Pulwama on 14-02-2019 are the examples of rivalry between the two. India
fought war in 1962 with china. It also sent its IPKF to Sri Lanka to curb the ethnic conflict, likewise it
has soft borders with Nepal. It stopped

Tamil insurgents to invade Bhutan. Maldives and India have the bilateral annual exercise 14-day
joint military trainings since 2009.

Showing its concern India has signed several agreements with in the south Asian region under its
Panchsheel Programme, Tashkent, Shimla and Agra summit with Pakistan and peace agreement
with rest of its neighboring states. It has also signed socio-eco and cultural treaties with the south
Asian countries. To maintain its status as the founder of (NAM). It remained neutral during cold
war era although signing treaties of friendship with USSR. Its cooperation and mutual trust has
resulted in formation of SAARC in 1985.

Pakistan Democracy/Military Rule

Pakistan: Pakistan came into being on 14th of august 1947 after two nation theory propounded by
Mohammad Ali Jinnah. Since then there have been a tussle between military and Democratic
governments. After the framing of constitution general Ayoub khan took over the administration in
the year 1958 and later got himself elected as the president of Pakistan. During this period the
Indo-Pak war 1965 and Tashkent agreement was signed. The military rule was established under
general Yahya khan replacing general Ayoub Khan on 31st of March 1969. Under him the East
Pakistan broke away on the question of ill treatment to Bengali language and culture. This region
later emerged as Bangladesh since 1971.After Bangladesh crises, elected government of Zulifikar
Ali Bhutto came into power in Pakistan from 1971-77. During his tenure the famous Shimla
agreement was signed between Indian premier Indira Gandhi and her Pak counter per Zulifikar Ali
Bhutto. Bhutto was later removed by Gen Zia-ul-haq in July 1977 who was executed on 4th April
1979.The military rule of Gen Zia was replaced by elected government of Benazir Bhutto in 1988.
Zia died in an air crash 17-08-1988.The successive elected government was formed by Nawaz
Sharif. Nawaz Sharif’s elected government was replaced by another coup of Gen Parvaiz Musharraf
in 1999. Musharraf later in 2001got himself elected as president of Pakistan. During the period of
Nawaz Sharif Kargil war was fought between India and Pakistan, in the year 1999, and Lahore
declaration on 21 Feb 1999 followed by Agra summit on 14-16 July 2001 were made during this
period. On 25th of march 2008 democratic government was established in Pakistan but at a huge
cost of democracy as Benazir Bhutto was assassinated on 27-12-2007 in an election relay at Liaqat
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National Bagh Rawalpindi (Punjab). Pakistan Tehrik Insaaf party founded by famous cricket star on
25 April 1996 boycotted 2008 elections. This government was followed by another democratic
government (PMLN) under the leadership of Nawaz Sharif. And PTI emerged as the 2 nd largest
party in Pakistan. On 5th of July 2018 after the completion of term fresh elections were hold and
PTI became the ruling party of Pakistan under the leadership of Imran Khan.

The factors which are responsible for conflicts between government/military in Pakistan are
as follows;

a) Indo-Pak war made military groups more powerful.

b) The military rule in Pakistan is the protector of US and western interests in the region.
c) The social dominance of military, clergy and landowning aristocracy is also a factor.
d) The role of political parties and their corrupt practices is responsible for rift.
Areas of conflict between India and Pakistan.

a) Safety of places of worship.

b) Safety of abducted women.
c) Transfer of military assets.
d) Transfer of moveable property.
e) Division of cash.
f) Balance of undivided India.
g) Division of river water.
h) Dispute of Jammu and Kashmir
Agreements between India and Pakistan

1) Indus water treaty 1960.

2) Tashkent agreement 1966.
3) Shimla agreement 1972
4) Lahore Bus Yatra 1999.
5) Agra summit 2001.
6) Track II diplomacy.
7) Cricket channel.

Monarchy and democracy in Nepal.

Nepal: Nepal is a land locked Hindu kingdom in south Asia

It was monarchy since long period of history. In the recent past it has developed into
constitutional limited monarchy and now from 2008 as a republic, during this period the political
parties and the common people have struggled for more open and responsive governments.
There had been growing movements for democracy in Nepal under its pressure the elections were
held in 1959 in which Nepali congress secured electoral victory, but it could not have lost long as
king Mahindra dismissed the elected government in 1960 and imprisoned the elected members.
Since then the hide and seek game between pro -king and democratic forces is there. With the
passage of events, the king Barindra Bir Bikhram Shah Dev accepted the demand for a new
democratic constitution in 1990.In the wake of pro-democratic movement. Maoists also spread
their influence against monarch and ruling elite. In 2002 the king abolished the parliament and
dismissed the government under the massive pre democratic protests the king was forced to
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restore the parliament. It was in April 2008 elections for constituent assembly were held and
Maoist emerged as big political force. Monarchy was abolished on 28th of May 2008 and Nepal
emerged as Republic with Ram Baran Yadav the congress leader as its president. Major parties
such as Communist party of Nepal (Maoist) Communist of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist) (CPNUML) and
Nepali congress agreed to write the constitution to replace the interior constitution. Ram Baran
Yadav as its president and Para Chanda (Maoist) as P.M. The later resigned in 2009 due to
opposition for integration of former rebel fighters into national Army as such Madhav Kumar was
named as new P.M. Who quitted under Maoist pressure in 2011, in which Sushil Kumar the leader
of Nepali congress was elected as P.M. after securing coalition support. At present the P.M of
Nepal is Khadji Prasad Oli and president is Bhidya Devi Bhandari.

Points of agreement between India and Nepal;

a. Allow their citizens to travel and work without passport and visas.
b. India is the largest aid giver to Nepal to provide financial and technical assistance in areas
of trade, scientific cooperation, common natural resources and electricity generation.
c. The citizens of Nepal are allowed to serve in all subordinate services in India except IAS and
IPS.

Ups and downs in Indo Nepal relations

During 1950 India and Nepal signed friendship treaty covering two broad dimensions, i.e. natural
security concerns and mutual socio-cultural and economic interactions. India allow Nepali citizens
to work in all govt. services except three top services i.e. IAS, IPS and IFS, however the decades of
1960 and 1970 saw some disturbances due to dismissal of elected Govt.by king Mahindra and
distancing Nepal from India which was fueled by China to

appease the Nepal. King Barindra carried forward the policies of his father after whose death in
1972. However, Indian premier Indira Gandhi visited Nepal followed by her counterpart king
Barindra who signed the treaty of trade and transist 1978.Pakistan ISI activities against India
became a concern for India. In 2002 king Barindra and his family members were assassinated
which created anti India demonstration and provocation but behaving in responsible manner
tension was released. The visit of Nepali president on 16 feb 2010 and signing of various accords
and various memorandum of understandings has opened a new area of cordial relation between
the two. Nepal shares a border of 1850 kilometers with Indian five states- Skim, West Bengal,
Bihar, Utter Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Narindar Modi visited Nepal twice in 2014 and his
counterpart K.P. Sharma visited India twice in 2016. In view of 18 th SAARC summit and first by
BRICS-BIMSTEC leaders’ summit in Goa. Modi paid visit to Nepal in May and August 2018.
However, Nepali P.M. K.P Sharma visited India on 30-31 may 2019 in swearing-in ceremony of
prime minister Narindar Modi.

Challenges to democracy in Nepal

Following are the challenges to Nepal democracy

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a) Framing of written constitution acceptable to all sects of society.

b) Armed threat by Maoists.
c) A sizable population and big landlords are supporting monarchy.
Struggle Between Democracy and Military in Bangladesh

In terms of population Bangladesh is world’s 8th country however in terms of landmass it is 92nd
country of the world. Bangladesh is a sovereign state which came into being on 16 December
1971. Its drafted constitution declares it as democratic, secular and socialist country. In 1975 the
constitution was amended from parliamentary Government to presidential Government Sheikh
Majib-ur-Rehman who was assassinated on 15 august 1775, the founder of Awami league and
Bangladesh. Zia-ur-Rahman (Lt. General) abolished all parties except his own party (BNP) and won
elections in 1979. He too was assassinated on 03-05-1981 and Lt. Gen. H.M Ershad became the
ruler of Bangladesh. He was later elected as president of Bangladesh but resigned in 1990.
Elections were held in 1991. Since then late 2006 Bangladesh has multiparty democracy. However,
growing instability, widespread corruption and the growing strife between (A. L and BNP) led the
imposition of emergency in 2007. In 2009 the interior government finally held elections in which
Sheikh Hussain of (A.L) won the landslide Victory. Hussaina abolished the caretaking system. In
2014 Awami league won elections by default as BNP denied to take part in elections. The recent
past elections were held in 2018 in which (A.L) maintain its power and Jayati party emerged as the
main opposition party securing 22 seats.

Issues and agreements between India and Bangladesh

Issues

a) Farakha Barrage
b) Distribution of ganga waters.
c) Large scale influx of Chakma refuges.
d) Ownership of new Moore island in the Bay of Bengal.
e) Transfer of Teen Beegha area to Bangladesh
Agreements between India and Bangladesh

a) Friendship, cooperation and peace treaty for 25 years19-03-1972 also known as Indira -
Mujibs Treaty.
b) Arrangements on sharing ganga waters during Janta party rule.
c) Establishment of SAARC in 1885.
d) Return of Teen Beegha Corridor to Bangladesh on 26-06-1992.
e) Agreement on sharing of ganga waters for 30 years-1996.
Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka. (Ceylon)

The democratic socialist republic of Sri Lanka previously known as Ceylon, is governed by an elected
president and legislature. It came into being from British colonial rule on 4th of February, 1948. It is a small
island country in the south of India in Indian ocean, it shares maritime boundary with Indian state Tamil
Nadu. In terms of population it is 57th country of the world. The two ethnic groups i.e. Sinhalese and Tamils
compose the entire population of this country. The Sinhalese consisting about 74% of population trace
their ancestor to Aryan from Eastern India. However, Tamils migrated during the colonial rule as laborers for
the development of coffee, tea and plantation trace their root to Dravidians of Tamil Nadu.

After its independence it started creating a new state on the basis of language and religion. It was rejected
by Tamils who demanded a federal state in Sri Lanka. By 1977 a strong demand for separation from Sri
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Lanka was made by Tamils. The agitation gradually started taking militant shape. The Tamils in 1983 got
organized under Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam (LTTE) under the leadership of Velupillai Prabhakaran. The
conflict ended on 17th may 2009 with defeat of Tamil Elam and death of Prabhakaran. The elections are held
through PR system for 225 members for a period of five years. The elections were held in 2015 in which
Sirisena got elected. And on 16 November 2019 Sri Lanka held the presidential elections in which
Maithripala Sirisena’s term ended and Gotabaya Rajapaksha won the elections. So it is right to say that
democracy is prevailing in Sri Lanka.

Relations between Sri Lanka and India

After independence of Sri Lanka in 1948. It opted for Non Alignment as its foreign policy and democratic
government to run the country. Despite of friendly relations there have been occasional tensions between
the duo. Sri Lanka adopted neutral posture in respect of Chinese aggression on India in 1962, and also
Indo-Pak wars of 1965 and 1971 the main area of tension in the states of Tamil in Sri Lanka. In Sri Lanka a
sizeable population is of Indian origin. Tamils who were asked to seek their citizenship of Sri Lanka in 1949
and 23 lakh Tamils were granted Indian citizenship only a less number were granted Sri Lankan citizenship.
The outstanding dispute regarding status of Tamil ministry in Sri Lanka developed into major conflict
between Tamils and Sinhalese in course of time an agreement was concluded between India Sri Lanka in
July 1987 calling upon India to send Indian peace keeping force (IPKF) to maintain peace and normalcy in
parts of Sri Lanka. However, the (IPKF) were called back by 1989 but violence remained unabated and indo-
srilanka remained strained. The defeat of LTTE in May 2009 and complete control of Sri Lanka on her
territories have opened a new course of relation between duo.

India and Bhutan

The Bhutanese democracy has been marked by active encouragement and participation reigning Bhutanese
monarchs since the 1950`s. beginning with the large reforms such as the abolition of slavery and
culminating in the enactment of Bhutanese constitution. The first elections in Bhutan began in 2007 and all
levels of government had been democratically elected by 2011. These include Bhutan’s first ever national
assembly elections. It has a bicameral legislature with four registered parties since 2007 i.e. (PDP) people’s
democratic party, 2) (DPT) Druk Phuensum Tshogpa, 3) (BKP) Bhutan Kuenyam Party, 4) (DNT) Druk
Nyamrup Tshogpa besides other unregistered parties. The government of Bhutan is constitutional
monarchy since July 2008. The king of Bhutan is head of state. There are 20 states in Bhutan. It is a small
country surrounded by Himalayas. It is sandwich between India and Tibet east of Nepal and north of
Bangladesh.

King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wang Chuk is the present king of Bhutan.
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Relations with India.

1) India doesn’t have any hostility with Bhutan.

2) India is involved in many hydro-projects in Bhutan.
3) India is principle provider of development aids to Bhutan.
4) Bhutan weeds out terrorist and Gu ariellas operating from North East India.

India and Maldives

Maldives is an island nation in the Indian ocean formed by a chain of 1200 coral island grouped into 26
atolls south west of Sri Lanka and India. It has a mixed economy system which includes a variety of business
of fiscal freedom combined with centralized economic planning and government regulation. Maldives has a
history of political protests. Its first democratically elected leader Mohamad Nasheed was elected to office
in 2008. That ended decades of autocratic rule by Maumoon Abdul Gayoom. The present system of election
in Maldives is they elect a national level head of state the president directly for a term of 5 years. It has
multiparty system. Its assembly (Majlis) has 88 members. Three types of elections are being hold here i.e.
local council, parliamentary elections and presidential election. During 2008 democratic alliance formed the
government under the leadership of Mohammad Nasheed. The progressive party of Maldives won elections
during 2013 under the leadership of Abdullah Yamon. At the present Ibrahim Mohammad Solih, the leader
of (MDP) Maldivian democratic party is the president of the state since 2018.

Relations between India and Maldives

India and Maldives share maritime border relations have been friendly and close in strategic, economic and
military cooperation.

Trace out the formation of SAARC.

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was established in December 1985 at Dhaka by
seven South Asian countries viz India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Maldives.
Afghanistan was included in it in 2007 at its 14th summit which held in New Delhi. It is an
economic organization meant for the development of South Asian countries. It was established
primarily for cooperation in Agri-Rural development, Science and technology, culture, health,
population and control terrorism. SAARC agreed to replace SAPTA with SAFTA which was in vogue
since December 07 1995 on Jan 6, 2004 a 12th SAARC in Islamabad in order to increase the level of
trade and economic cooperation among the SAARC nations.
Objectives

The main objectives of SAARC are as under.

1) To provide welfare to the people of South Asia.

2) To accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region.
3) To promote and strengthen collective self-reliance among these countries.
4) To contribute to mutual trust, understanding and solution to each other’s problems.
5) To promote active collaboration and mutual existence in various fields.
6) To strengthen cooperation in international forums on matters of common interest.
7) To strengthen cooperation with other developing countries.
8) To cooperate with international and regional organizations with similar aim and purpose

NOW YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

Long Answer Type Questions.

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1. What is South Asia? Describe the nature of polity and difference among South Asian states?
2. Discuss the nature of polity and military role in Pakistan?
3. Examine the role of military in Bangladesh?
4. Discuss the Monarchy and Democracy in Nepal?
5. How far is it true that democracy is prevailing in Sri Lanka?
6. Examine the wars and agreements between India and Pakistan?
7. India is friendly with Sri Lanka. Elaborate your answer with suitable examples?
8. What are the major issues between India and Bangladesh?
9. SAARC is the outcome of cordiality between South Asian nations. Discuss?
10. India has got an upper hand in South Asia, Comment?
11. Briefly discuss the emerging hostility between India and Pakistan?

Short Answer Type Questions.

1. What is South Asia?

2. Examine the role of military in Pakistan?
3. Bangladesh has overcome from military rule. Comment?
4. Is Nepal a democracy? Elucidate.
5. Briefly discuss SAARC a forum facilitating economic cooperation among the south Asian
countries.
6. What are the main disputes between South Asian Giants?
7. What type of government is there in Bangladesh?
8. Define the topography of Maldives?
9. Comment on India Bhutan relations?

Very Short Type Questions.

1. List the problems between South Asian countries?

2. Bangladesh and Pakistan have witnessed same kind of rule since their emergence. Comment?
3. What is the cause of ethnic conflicts in Sri Lanka?
4. Name any two political parties of Bhutan?
5. What type of government is in Maldives?
6. What is SAARC?
7. When Bangladesh became an independent country?
8. What do you mean by SAFTA and SAPTA?
9. What is the official language of Bangladesh?
10. Discuss Indo Nepal relations?
11. Which agreement is known as Indira-Bhutan accord?
12. Mention any two agreements between India and Pakistan?
13. J&K is the bone contention between India and Pakistan. Discuss with recent developments?
14. How many islands are there in Maldives?
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CHAPTER 6 International organization in a

Unipolar world

Learning objectives:

After studying this chapter, you should able to understand;

1. Establishment of UNO
2. Need of International/Governmental/NGO`S
3. Types of international organizations
4. Objective and purpose, aims/principles of UN
5. Structure/functions
6. Reform/restructuring of UN in future
7. Jurisdiction of UN
8. Rise of new international organization
9. UN in a unipolar world
10. UN peace-keeping operations
11. Role of India in peace keeping operations
12. India`s stand in the UN reforms
13. Obstacles in the way of India to join as 6th permanent member of UNSC.
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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Introduction
The outbreak of 2nd world war (1939-45) between allied powers and axis powers resulted in failure
of league of nation which was created earlier after the end of world war 1ST (1914-1918). 2nd world
war came with a challenge for the world for establishment of an organization ensuring the
maintenance of peace at global level. This trial resulted in the formation of UNO on 24-10-1945.
Its establishment lead to bipolar system and emergence of cold war era (1945-91) with the end of
cold war and collapse of Soviet Union led to the emerge of new global order hegemonised by the
USA. It led to a demand for restructuring of the various international organizations, especially the
UN to meet the new challenges posed by US hegemony. The demand to restructuring and reform
the UN security council has been the most important part of this process.

India also has diversified role in the changing environment. Although there are variety of global
organizations like UN, IMF, WHO, WTC, ILO etc. but in this chapter we will discuss the formation of
UNO and its organs in detail.

Need of International Organizations

Dag Hammarsk Jold, “The UN was not created to take humanity to heaven, but to save it from
hell”.

The need/purpose of UN is summarized as follows:

1. It deals with war and peace.
2. It fosters countries to cooperate for better living condition.
3. It provides peaceful methods of conflict resolution.
4. It deals with eradication of diseases.
5. It deals with the problem of global warming, greenhouse effect and rising of sea levels.
6. It controls the miss use of global commons.

Types of International Organizations

1. Inter-governmental organizations.
2. Non-governmental organization.
3. Multinational enterprises.

Discuss the origin, objectives, purpose and principles of UNO

Origin:

The United Nations Organization (UNO) is the organization of the world, which represents the great scope
of humanity and peace and prosperity. It came into existence after the end of 2nd world war 1945. On April
25 to June 26-1945, the San Francisco conference was held which was attended by 50 nations and signed
the UN charter. Poland later accepted and signed the charter as the 51st member. Its headquarter is in New
York USA. The UNO functions through six principle organs. The General Assembly (UNGA), The Security
Council (UNSC), The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), The International Court of Justice (ICJ), The
Trusteeship Council and The Secretariat.

Objectives and purpose

The main objectives/aims of the UNO are briefly given as follows;
1. To ensure peace for succeeding generation.
2. To maintain faith in fundamental rights.
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3. To establish justice and respect for international obligations.

4. to promote social progress and better standards of life.
5. To prevent wars.
6. To ensure the international cooperation in solving disputes of socio-eco-cultural and
humanitarian character.
7. To develop friendly atmosphere among the nations based on mutual respect for
principle of equal rights.
8. To be at the Centre to facilitate the agreed common goals.

Principles
The main principles of UNO are as under:
1. It is based on the principles of sovereign equality of all its members
2. Its members will fulfill the good faith in the obligation in accordance with UN charter.
3. The non-members of UN to settle disputes peacefully.
4. It will not interfere in domestic affairs of its members
5. The members shall refrain from posing the threats of force against territorial integrity of
other states.
6. The member states to give assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the charter.

Structure of UN
There are 193 sovereign states as the embers of UNO. The UN performs its activities through six organs.
These include following;

1. UNGA: The United Nations General Assembly is the world parliament with 193 members. Each
state sends five members to UNGA but has one vote only. Its annual session is held once
annually in the month of September. It supervises the role of General Assembly in the relation
to other organs of UNO. It also coordinates the policies and activities of the specialized
agencies like ILO, IMF and WHO.

Functions
1. To elect new members and Secretary General.
2. To elect non-permanent members of the Security Council, members of Economic and Social
Council and Judges of ICJ.
3. To maintain international order and discuss matters concerning with UN charter.
4. It exercises the financial powers. The expenditures are borne by the members as advised by
UNGA.

2. UNSC: - The United Nations Security Council is the executive organ of the UNO. It is entrusted
with the responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. Originally it was
constituent of 11 members in whom there were five permanents and six non-permanent
members. Since 01-01-1966 its membership was increased to 15 including five permanents I.e.
USA, Russia, Britain, France and China. The ten non-permanent members are elected by
(UNGA) for a term of two years and are eligible for immediate re-elections. It meets twice a
month. Its permanent members have veto power i.e. right to reject a resolution, which is also
called the rule of “Great Power Unanimity”.
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Functions of UNSC
The main functions of Security Council are:

1. Maintaining peace and settle disputes peacefully.

2. To discuss, investigate and make recommendations on matters of international peace and
security.
3. It is described as the “enforcement arm” of the UN, as it decides the measures to restore
peace and security.
4. It initiates the actions against the aggressor states.
5. It takes part in the elections of Security General, the judges of ICJ and can recommend the
suspension of any member for violating the UN charter.

3. ECOSOC: Economic and Social Council has 54 members elected by the (UNGA). Its 18 members
get retired every year. The members are elected for three years’ term. Its main function is to
promote social, economic, cultural, educational cooperation between members.

Functions
1. To find solutions of International Economic, Social, Cultural, Educational and Health matters.
2. To prepare draft conventions for submission to the General Assembly with respect to matters
within its competence.
3. It makes recommendations for the purpose of promoting respect to Human Rights and
Fundamental Freedom to all people.
4. It calls for International conferences on matters under its jurisdictions.
5. It helps the Nations in their development plan.
6. It coordinates the appropriate steps to obtain regular report from specialized agencies.

4. Trusteeship Council: It has 14 members to look after areas liberated from japan and Germany
after 2nd world war with decolonization, its importance has declined. However, 5 permanent
members are entrusted in its functions.

Functions
a. To see the trust territories are administered by responsible government in accordance to
wishes of masses.
b. Considers reports by the administering authority.
c. Examines reports, visit the territories.
d. Makes efforts for advancement in promotion of moral, social and educational advancement.

5. International Court of Justice: - The (ICJ) is the judicial organ of the UNO. It has 15 judges,
who are elected by the (UNGA) and (UNSC) for a term of a nine years. The 5 judges of ICJ
retire after every 3 years. It has a permanent seat at Hague, but it can meet elsewhere also
whenever desired. It elects president and vice president for a term of 3 years. It takes all
decisions by majority of judges present. In case of tie the president has a casting vote. Its
decisions are binding only on parties to disputes and only for case and not in other cases.

Functions
1. To settle disputes between member states.
2. It hears and decides disputes on the basis of international law, UN charter, international
treaties, customs and traditions.
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3. The General Assembly can ask for legal advice on any issue from the ICJ.

Composition and Function of the UN Secretariat

6. Secretariat: The secretariat is the administrative organ and headquarter of the UNO. The
Secretary General is recommended by UNSC and elected by UNGA. Secretary General is the
chief administrative officer of UNO. Its headquarters is at New York USA and its branch offices
are at Geneva, Vienna and Nairobi.

Its functions are as follows:

1. It calls the meeting of the various organs of the UNO.
2. It enforces the decisions taken by the various organs of the UNO.
3. It maintains the records of the proceedings of the UNO.
4. It prepares annual report of each organ of the UNO and presents it to the UNGA
5. It runs the working of the UN smoothly and efficiently.

Reform of Structure and Processes

UN General Assembly in 1992 in its deliberation on reformation passed a resolution with the
following three components

1. The UNSC longer reflects the reality of the contemporary world

2. The decision of UNSC reflecting western interest and values are hegemonised by big five.
3. UNSC doesn’t have equitable representation

The growing demand for reformation led the UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan to initiate an enquiry into
how could be UN formed. Different criteria were proposed for permanent and non-permanent membership
in UNSC. Now a new member should have:

1. Major military power.

2. Big economic power.
3. Major contributor to UN budget.
4. Populous country.
5. Possessing human rights and democracy.

The above mentioned suggestions had some validity. As these suggestions have its impact in the countries
fulfilling the criteria and some opposed it saying these as disadvantages.

In nutshell, we can summarize the demands for reformation as under:

1. At its inception, the UN had most European and North American members. With the
conclusion of new Asian, African and Middle East countries under developed countries, some
new problems and aspirations emerged, hence, the security council need to accommodate
these countries their problems and aspirations.
2. The veto powers given to five permanent members has become an obstacle in handling the
issues. As they have become autocratic now.
3. The security council is the constituent body of 15 members, which cannot represent the whole
world.
4. The economies of Afro-Asian nation are at high pace, who are playing now a great role in
world politics. Hence these Afro-Asian countries need to be represented.
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Reforms needed in UNSC

1. The membership of Security Council should be increased. More representations should be
given to Afro-Asian and Latin American developing countries
2. Permanent membership of the Security Council should be increased.
3. It is demanded that India, Germany, Japan. Brazil and Nigeria should be made permanent
members of Security Council.
4. The (Veto Powers) should be abolished or it should be restricted.
5. The voting rules of UNSC should be changed. All decisions should be made by majority of the
non-permanent members.

Jurisdiction of the UN
Since the membership is a serious issue and UN completed 60 years of its existence in 2005. As the
heads of member countries met and agreed to take the following steps to make the UN more
effective.

a. To create a peace building commission.

b. International community should protect the people facing the brutal atrocities by their state
governments.
c. To establish H.R.C (operational since 2006)
d. To sign the agreements to achieve millennium develop goals.
e. To condemn terrorism in all its forms and manifestations.
f. To create fund for democracy.
g. To agree to windup the Trusteeship council.

The contentious issues agreed and most of the members are still in developing stage and it is
unrealistic to except solutions from them. The jurisdiction of UN has to increase, and only time will
determine how it should be.

Rise of new International Organizations and NGO`S

NGO`s: - The phrase (NGO) non-government organization came into use with the establishment of
UNO. By NGO we mean that organization which is directly part of the organization of the
government. The NGO`S can be defined as “any international organization that is not formed by
the international treaty”. The NGO`s presently operate virtually in every part of the globe. These
mainly deal with humanitarian issues and sustainable development. International Red Cross and
Red Crescent movement is the world`s largest groups of the humanitarian NGO`s.

Red Cross/Red Crescent society

It is an international society for relief and suffering in time of war or disaster. It was found in 1863
an advocacy of J.H Dunant. An important meeting was held in Geneva which was attended by 14
countries. These 14 countries adopted the Geneva convention which provided for neutrality of
personal treating wounded on the battle of Gettysburg. Over 100 Red Cross societies exist now. It
was awarded Nobel Peace Prize in 1917,1944 and 1963.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

International Monetary fund: - The IMF was established in 1945 to oversee the financial
institutions and regulations that act at international level. However, it started to promote,
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depreciation etc. it has 184 members, but do not have equal voting rights, the top 10 countries
have 55% votes. With USA alone bearing 17.4% voting rights. The other nine are Italy, Canada,
Russia, Saudi Arabia and China, Japan, Germany and France. It has board of governors, executive
director, and managing director. Its headquarter is at Washington USA. Its main functions are as
follows;

Functions
� Exchange stability.
� Eliminating BOP Disequilibrium.
� Stabilize economies.
� Credit Facilities.
� Maintaining balance between demand and supply of Currencies.
� Maintenance of Liquidity.
� Technical Assistance

World bank: - world bank was carved out after the end of 2nd world war in 1945. Its main
objectives are the development of the developing countries. It provides loans and grants to its
member states for the development of education, health agriculture and rural development,
irrigation and rural services. It protects the environment by enforcing and establishing regulations.
It develops infrastructure in terms of roads, urban connectivity, regeneration of electricity. It
provides loans and grants for good governance, free from corruption and develops legal
intuitions. By the loans and grants it exercises the greater influence over the economies and
policies of developing nations.

World Trade Organization

WTO: - The WTO was founded on 1-1-1995 as a successor of General Agreement on Trade and
Tariff (GATT). It is based in Geneva and its underlying principle is to create an international
environment that enables the free flow of goods, services and ideas. It has full time representatives
from member countries. And has 150 members. All decisions in it are taken unanimously but the
major economic powers such as USA, the E.U and Japan have managed to use it to advance their
own interests. WTO countries together account for 90% of the world trade. The WTO has acquired
the universal character but the developing countries often complain of non-transparent procedure
and are mostly governed by big powers

International Atomic Energy Agency

IAEA: - The International Atomic Energy Agency was created in 1957. It came into existence to
enforce the US president Dwight Eisenhower`s “Atom for peace” proposal. It aims to promote the
peaceful use of nuclear energy and to limit the use of military purposes. IAEA teams regularly
inspect nuclear facilities all around the world to verify the civilian reactors are not put to use for
military purposes.

Human Rights Watch: - It is an important international NGO involved in research and advocacy
of human rights all around the globe. It is the largest US based international NGO. It draws the
attention of global media to human right abuses. It helps in building international coalition like
campaigns to ban landmines, to stop the use of child soldiers and establish the international
criminal court.
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Amnesty International: - It is an international NGO, which was established on 28th of May 1961. It
perceives the human rights to be interdependent and indivisible. It has more than 2.2 million
members, supporters and subscribers in over 150 countries. Despite, the fact, the governments are
not always pleased with the reports since their reports play a significant role in research and
advocacy of human rights. It has won the noble prize for peace in 1977.

The UN in a unipolar world: After the collapse of the former USSR, the USA emerged as the sole
super power of the globe. The role of UN in this unipolar world changed. The UN cannot easily
check the US power. Its military and economic power allows it to ignore the US or any other
international organization. Secondly the US has unmatched financial power and is single largest
contributor to the UN. In addition to US`s veto power it can stop/removes that which finds its
against its interests. The role of UN in balancing the international relations is not more effective.
However, it cannot be ignored that the UN has served to bring the US and other countries on a
common table to discuss over various issues of the world. Despite the fact, that it is impossible to
balance the US power, but the UN does provide a space within which arguments against US
attitude and policies are heard and compromises and concessions can be shaped. Therefore, the
UN is still needed, inspite of the hegemony of USA so people and governments will have to find
ways of supporting and using the UNO.

UN Peace keeping-operations
UN peace keeping-operations has not been used in its charter. These have evolved during 1950`s
and disputes/conflicts between states or communities within the state. Operation here refers as
activities which are done to establish peace in international sphere. So for about 40 operations
have been organized by UN. Its main objectives can be summarized as;
1. Maintenance of world peace and security.
2. Fastening cordial relations between states.
3. Promotion of international cooperation in social, economic, cultural and technical fields.
4. Promotion of respect for human rights.
5. Harmonization of interests of different nations into a common interest.

Role of India in peace keeping operations

India`s contribution has been in maintaining peace in Africa and Asia despite taking part in four
continents. India is the 2nd largest contributor of troops in UN. It is one brigade of troops stand
arranged by UN for participation in UN peace keeping operations in Korea, Middle East and
international control commission for Indo-China, Congo, Yemen, Cyprus military observer group
on Iran-Iraq border, Iraq-Kuwait observer mission, Namibia, Mozambique etc. India has not only
provided armed forces in the UN-peace keeping operations but has also mastered the techniques
of negotiation and diplomacy at the UN. India risked the lives of its soldiers for the Nobel causes
to strengthen the UNO.

India`s role in the UNO

India is one of the first signatories of UN charter among its 51 members. Since then it is playing a
vital role in the functions of UNO which is briefly discussed as under;

a. India was in the forefront in solving the Korean crises by UN, authorized by (UNGA).
b. Adoption of Non-Alignment policy by India was greater support to UN.
c. India followed the objectives of the global disarmament based on the principle of the
universality, non-discrimination and effective compliance.
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d. India played a significant role in the UN peace keeping operations in Korea, Middle East,
Vietnam, Cambodia and France, Congo, Cyprus, Yemen, Namibia and Mozambique.
e. India played its role in ending the wars of independence of various Afro-Asian nation countries.
f. India opposed colonialism and called for combating it.
g. India helped UN in organizing an informal Afro-Asian group and has represented their views in
UN.
h. India supported the UN declaration of human rights in 1948 and inclusion of fundamental
rights in its constitution.

Obstacles in the way of India to permanent seat of the (UNSC)

India has been demanding the permanent seat in the UNSC but there are certain hindrances in its
way which are as follows
1. India`s troublesome relations with Pakistan. And Pakistan’s opposition to India`s inclusion as
sixth member of UNSC.
2. India`s nuclear capabilities are opposed by some states which advocate Pakistan’s support will
make India more effective.
3. The demands of inclusion by Brazil, Germany, South Africa and South America are also
obstacles in its way to have permanent seat in UNSC.

Now you should be able to answer the following questions.

Long Answer Type Questions
1. Discuss the functions of UNO in detail.
2. What are the various organs of UN? Discuss?
3. What are the aims/objectives/principles/purposes of UN?
4. Elucidate the functioning of UN?
5. India`s claim to UNSC permanent membership is justified, comment?
6. Describe the suggestions for reforming the UN with special reference to Security Council.

Short Answer Type Questions

1. Discuss the evolution of UN.
2. Discuss the need of international organization.
3. What are various types of international organizations?
4. What are the various agencies of UN?
5. What are obstacles in the way of India to became the permanent member of UNSC?
6. What do you mean by peace keeping operations?
7. Discuss the India’s role in peace keeping process.
8. Suggest the reformations need in UN?
9. Discuss the importance of UNGA, UNSC and ICJ?

Very Short Answer Type Questions

1. What is veto power?
2. How is US hegemony a challenge to UN?
3. Name any two UN peace keeping operations?
4. Define Amnesty International and Human Right Watch?
5. How many members are there in UNGA and UNSC?
6. Why should India get permanent seat in UNSC?
7. What are the functions of Trusteeship Council?
8. Explain the nature of ICJ?
9. When was WHO and WTO formed?
10. Name the present Secretary General of UN.
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Chapter No. 7 Security in the Contemporary World

After studying this unit, you should be able to understand the following in detail:

Learning objectives
� Security, Notions of Security/External, Internal.
� Traditional Security, viz Disarmament, Arms Control and CBM ‘s, Balance of
Power, Deterrence, Alliance and Compensation.
� Non-traditional Security, Human Security, Global Security.
� New Sources of Threat.
� Terrorism, Human Rights, Global Poverty, Migration and Health Epidemics.
� Cooperative security;
Role of UN and other NGO ‘s.
Security strategy and India, strengthening the military capability, strengthening the international
norms and institutions, internal security, economic growth.

Introduction
Security
The term security has different meanings at different levels. For a layman it refers to freedom from
threat to his/her existence and way of life. In international relations we find inclusion of all those
threats which forms the “core values” of a country. Core values include the big, small and potential
threats. Different societies since their inception have different notions of security. The notions of
security can be divided under two heads:
A. Traditional security,
B. Non-traditional security.

A. Traditional: This concept of security is related to the national perception of security from
another state. The major External source of this danger is another state, which by threat of military
action challenges the core values of sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity. The main
components of Traditional Security are Balance of Power, Alliance Building, Defense and
Deterrence.
Another important concept of traditional security is related with Internal security of a state. When
state cannot be secure, if there is violence or threat of violence inside its borders and it cannot
afford to face violence outside its borders. The European countries mostly faced the threats to
their security from outside and third world countries faced threats of their security within their
borders.

Balance of Power
Balance of power means an equilibrium or a certain amount of stability in power relations, in this
stage the same country maintains its powers, regulates relations without outside interference.
According to Lord Castlereagh, “Balance of Power prevent anyone of them from becoming
sufficiently strong to impose its will upon rest”.
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Methods of balance of Power

States can maintain balance of power by following methods;
1. Compensation,
2. Alliance
3. Intervention and non-intervention
4. Divide and Rule
5. Buffer State or Zones
6. Armament and Disarmament
7. CBM`s
1. Compensation: - It is also known as territorial compensation it usually begins the
annexation or division of the territory of the state whose power is considered turbulent for
the balance. This method was used by the France, the UK and Italy for the domination of
Ethiopia and by Britain and Russia in 1917 through Anglo-Asian treaty for dominating them.
2. Alliance: - It is the combination of nation states to strengthen the mechanism of balance of
power by making suitable military pacts, arrangements to enhance their own power in order
to acquire the strategic goals. However, an alliance almost leads to establishment of
counter alliance by the opponents.
3. Intervention and non-intervention: - Intervention is a forcible interference into the
internal affairs of a state by other to achieve its desired goals. However, non-intervention
means deliberate non-action in a particular situation which is considered to be the harmful
to the other competing opponent.
4. Divide and Rule: - It has been a time honored policy of weakening the opponents. It is a
tool practiced by such nations who try to make opponents week by keeping them divided.
5. Buffer State or Zones: - These are areas which are weak but possess considerable
strategically important status between two or more strong powers. Its major function is to
keep the two powerful nation apart and thus minimizes the chance of clash and hence to
keep the maintenance of balance.
6. Armament and Disarmament: - Armament refers to the acquirement of arms for securing
the favorable position in power politics. Its acquisition has posed a threat to the world
peace and stability i.e. balance. Consequently, its opponents advocate for disarmament and
arms control as an ideal device for maintenance of peace and strengthening security.
7. CBM`s: - Confidence Building Measure is traditional method of security, in which countries
share their information and ideas with their rivals. They share their military intensions and
plans. It is a way of demonstrating that they do not wish to launch a surprise attack. They
even share the information about the type of forces they possess and the places where the
such forces are deployed. This is a process to make sure that rivals do not fight over
misunderstanding and misperceptions.

Balancer or Third Party Laughing Balancer refers to a nation or group of nations which remains
a loaf from the policies of the two rivals or the opponents, or plays the role of balancer or the
“Third Party Laughing” normally the balancer remains away from both the parties but when it feels
any party becoming unduly weak resulting into a threat to balance, the balancer joins it and helps
in the restoration of balance.

Military Alliance and Its Objectives

It is a strategically mechanism agreed by a group of nations to strength their capabilities to deter
or defend a military attack. It is based on the collection/combination of nations concluding
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military or security pacts or treaties aimed at augmenting their own strength vis-à-vis the power of
their opponents.

Its objectives are as follows;

1. To provide collective security against attacking country.
2. To increase/strengthen the power of its allies.
3. To maintain the balance.

B. Non-Traditional Concepts/Notions of Security

After world war 2nd a new dimension of security came forward, known as Non-Traditional Notions
of Security. It includes a wide range of threats and dangers effecting the condition of human
existence. It is not concerned with the security of state but the security of individuals or
communities or whole mankind. The major threats under this notion are Terrorism, Health
Epidemics, Global Poverty, Migration, Human Rights and Environmental Degradation etc. it is also
called Human Security or Global Security.

Difference between Traditional Security and Non-Traditional Security

Traditional Notion
� It is related with security of state from wars and international disturbances.
� It targets the military of the state.
� Threats by military or aggressions by other states or groups of states.
Non-Traditional Notions
� It is related with security of individuals, communities and whole mankind.
� It targets the individuals or human existence.
� Threats like environmental degradation, terrorism, global poverty, violation of human rights,
epidemics are its notions.

Cooperation as Traditional Notion of Security.

Cooperation is an important concept of Traditional notion of security. The respectable nations of
the world now agree with wars only in situations of self-defense or to protect other people from
genocide. The combatant must not use the extreme means i.e. avoid killing and hurting the
citizens, unarmed and surrendering forces, wars should be limited and qualitative. Its other forms
are Disarmament, Arms Control and Confidence Building.

Difference between Disarmament and Arms control

Disarmament
� It aims at to liquidate or destroy the existing weapons.
� It refers to reduction of war material and personnel in accordance of international
agreements.
� To give up biological weapons (BWC) convention (1972) and CWC (1992).
� 155 states opted for BWC and 181 states opted for CWC.

Arms control
� It aims at an agreed and desired regulation of the future production/use of armaments.
� It refers to regulate the use of arms which may be permitted and enforced the observance
of prohibited actions.
� ABMT (1972) to restrict ballistic missile as defensive shield, to launch a nuclear attack NPT,
SALT-I, SALT-II and START are its examples.
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Human Security: The term security refers to freedom from threats and protection against threats.
The human security refers to protection of individuals and communities instead of the protections
of states. The protection of the citizens from the foreign attack is also component of human
security but the protection of the state doesn’t always mean the protection of individuals. Since in
the last one century more people were killed by their own governments, thus Human Security
implies “the protection of communities and individuals from internal violence”.

Global Security: The perspective on global security emerged in 1990`s because of global threats
like global warming, terrorism, health epidemics, like AIDS, bird flu, COVID-19 etc. In global
security the threat imposed to one country is deemed the threat for whole world. For instance,
global warming has risen sea level by 1.5-2.0 meters it would flood 20% of Bangladesh, inundate
most of Maldives and threaten over half the Thailand’s population. Likewise, the COVID-19 has
emerged from china and has spread over 180 nations so for. In this context it is a problem of
global nature and needs cooperation at International level.

New Sources of Threats

The Non-Traditional Notions of Threat: Both Human Security and global security focus on the
changing nature of Threats of Security. New sources of threats are as under;
Terrorism, Human Rights, Global Poverty, Migration and Health Epidemics.

Terrorism and its components: the term “Terrorism” was initially coined to describe the reign of
terror, the period of French revolution from 5 September 1793 to 27th of July 1794, during which
the revolutionary government directed violence and harsh measures against citizen suspected of
being enemies of the revolution. Now it has emerged as organized political violence faced by
international community in contemporary world. It has been posing serious threats to the security
of several states and has emerged as a threat to unstable the peace and security at global level. As
a concern of non-traditional concept of security since 1980`s, a big challenge to the capability of
human kind is to keep terrorism limited and under control. It refers to an organized political
violence deliberately targeting civilians without any discrimination. The international terrorism
involves people of the territory of more than one state. The classic case of terrorism involves
hijacking planes, or planting bombs in trains, cafes, markets and other public places but since 9/11
attack in USA and 26/11 Mumbai attack terrorism has become more of a global security concern.

Characteristics/Components of Terrorism are as under;

� It is an organized, planed and deliberate use of violence to fulfill political interests.
� It is an unlawful, inhuman and unconstitutional activity.
� It is undemocratic and has no faith in human values.
� It is indiscriminate use of violence against civilian and armed forces.
� It is tool of blackmailing the government to accept unlawful demands of terrorist groups.

Human Rights: Human Rights is an issue of human security which include three types of rights:
Political, Economic and rights of colonized people or ethnic and indigenous minorities. Generally,
rights are defined as claims of individuals recognized by the society and enforced by the state
without which anyone can in general seek to be at one’s best self. However, the term human rights
are broader than the term rights. It includes the social recognition of a human being as a
conscious, self-respecting human individual, which are the natural and essential conditioned of
happy and prosperous living of all the people of the world. Human Rights and freedoms got
acceptance as the objective of creating common minimum standards and freedoms for all the
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people of the globe. The most steps in this direction of promoting, encouraging and a movement
in favor of human rights was taken by adopting the universal declaration of human rights in
December 1948 by the UNO. However, its condition is worse in major parts of the world. Since
1990`s developments such as Iraq`s invasion in Kuwait, the genocide in Rwanda and Indonesian
military`s killing of East Timor have led to a debate whether are not should UN intervene to stop
human rights abuse.

Declaration of Human Rights by UN

The UN general assembly adopted the universal declaration of Human Rights on 10-12-1948 at
Palais de chaillot, Paris. The declaration represents the first global expression of rights to which all
human beings are inherently entitled. It consists of 30 articles which have been elaborated in
subsequent international treaties, regional human rights instruments, national constitutions and
laws. The international Bill of Human Rights consist of universal declaration of Human Rights, the
international convenants on economic, social and cultural rights and the international covenant on
civil and political rights and its two optional protocols. In 1966 the General Assembly adopted the
two detailed convents, which complete the international Bill of Human Rights, and in 1976 after
the convenants had been ratified by a sufficient number of individual nations. The bill came into
force to international law.

Migration and Difference between Migrants and Refugees.

Migration refers to leaving ones’ homeland voluntarily in search of employment or better living
facilities. Generally, the developing countries are facing lot of unemployment and poverty which
forces its people to explore the avenues of employment from developed Northern countries
through migrations. However, the refugees are those people who leave their country due to the
fear of war, political prosecutions or natural calamity. The main difference between the two is,
migrants leave their country willingly and refugees flee forcibly. The international community
accepts the refugees but not migrants.

Global Poverty: - The Global Poverty is the serious threat to the contemporary world and is
severe source of insecurity. The world population is increasing rapidly and it is estimated that it
may touch from 7.8 billion to 10 billion in next 25 years. The major portion of it is situated just in
six countries__ china, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Nigeria and Bangladesh. The population of
developing countries in increasing rapidly while as population of developed countries is stable.
The richer sections of the world become richer day by day and poor regions get worse day by day.
Half of the world`s population (nearly 3 billion) lives on less than two dollars a day. The GDP of
about 48 poor countries of the world is less than the combined wealth of world`s 8 wealthy
persons.

Health Epidemics: The Fetal diseases/Health Epidemics are posing severe threat to human
security. It includes HIV-AIDS, bird flu, swine flu, severe acute respiratory syndrome, (SARS)
coronavirus (COVID-19) rapidly spreading across countries due to migration, tourism, business and
military operations. It is estimated that approximately 37.9 million people are effected by HIV-AIDS
through the globe out of this over 2/3 belonged to Africa and half of the rest to South Asia.
Similarly, the spread of pandemic coronavirus has effected 1million people globally and about
50,000 people died throughout globe. The old disease like Malaria, Tuberculosis, Dengue Fever
and Cholera have become drug resistant and treat them has become difficult day by day. The
epidemics in animals have resulted in economic repercussions due to ban on diseased animals in
supply to the developed countries. The failure of country in controlling any health epidemics
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results in its bad effects on the other countries. These health epidemics are posing severe threat to
the existence of humankind. These need to be controlled by the cooperative efforts of all the
countries of the world.

Cooperative Security as an important Notion of Non-Traditional Security.

The cooperative security needs cooperation instead of confrontation. The military forces can be
used combating terrorism or enforcing human rights but it is difficult to control the epidemics or
to alleviate poverty and entry of refugees forcibly. In this regard cooperative measures will be
more effective to combat the non-traditional threats of security.
The cooperative measures may be bilateral, multilateral, regional or global. The nature of
threat will determine the nature of cooperation and willingness of the states to response. It may
also involve some national and international organizations like the UN, WHO, World Bank, IMF etc.
the NGO`s like Amnesty International, the Red Cross Society etc. have also a great role to control
the threats of this notions. It may also involve the use of force as last option and that too under
international code and by the international community.
START-I: - Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty-I was signed by Soviet president Gorbachev and
American president George W. Bush (senior) in Moscow on 31 July 1991 called for reduction and
limitation of offensive arms.

START- II: - Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty-II. On 3RD January 1993 American president G.W.
Bush (senior) and Russian president Boris Yeltsin signed a treaty in Moscow on the reduction and
limitation of strategic offensive arms.

India`s security strategy (Traditional and Non- Traditional)

India has faced both traditional and non-traditional threats to its security, which emerge from both
internal and external/outside of its borders. To culminate those, it took several steps for security
which are as follows:
� India has developed her military capabilities to counter her hostile nuclear neighbours like
china and Pakistan. India has been involved in conflicts with Pakistan in 1947-48, 1965,1971
and 1999 and with China in 1962.
� Another feature of its security strategy has been to strengthen the international norms and
institutions to protect its security interests, for this purpose India has been supporting Afro-
Asian solidarity, non-discriminatory, non-proliferation and universal disarmament and is in
forefront in the UN peace keeping operations and cooperative security.
� Another important threat to Indian security is from the internal separatist elements like in
the areas of Nagaland, Mizoram, Punjab and Kashmir. India has been giving up to meet out
these security challenges, which seek to break away from India.
� Finally, India is developing the economy in such a way that the mass citizens are lifted out
of poverty and reduce huge economic inequalities. The schemes like MGNREGA, IAY,
PMGSY, AAY etc. have been devised to combat the unemployment, poverty and economic
inequalities.
Despite the fact, India’s effort to combat the external and internal threats are not sufficient as India
is still regarded as a poor country with millions of people are living without basic minimum
facilities like, food shelter and clothes.
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Now should be able to answer the following questions

Long Answer Type Questions
1. What do mean by Security. Discuss its internal and external aspects?
2. What is the Non-Traditional Concept of Security? Explain?
3. What is Cooperative Security. Discuss?
4. What are New Sources of Threat. Explain?
5. Use of Cooperative Security is justified. Explain?
6. Discuss the Security Concerns of India. What are its Traditional and Non-Traditional forms?
Explain with the support of examples.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. What is Global Poverty?
2. Explain Human Security?
3. What is difference between Disarmament and Arms control?
4. What is Military Alliance? Explain with examples?
5. What do you mean by Balancer or Third Party Laughing?
6. What is a Balance of Power? How could a nation achieve it?
7. What is meant by Health Epidemics? Give examples.
8. How are Human Rights a threat to security?
9. Explain CBM`s?
10. Write a short note on peace-keeping force in respect of India’s contribution.

Very Answer Short Questions

1. What is Security?
2. What do you mean by External Security?
3. What is Internal Security?
4. Write a note on Disarmament?
5. What do you mean by Arms control?
6. Define Global Security?
7. How does Global Poverty Effect Security?
8. Differentiate between Migrants/Refugees.
9. What do you mean by Defense?
10. What is Deterrence?
11. Name the Traditional Notion of Security?
12. What is Alliance Building?
13. What is CBM?
14. Name any two sources of threat.
15. Explain Terrorism?
16. What are the core values of a country?
17. What is Migration?
18. Define Cooperative Security.
19. Mention two Notions of Non-Traditional Security.
20. Name any two Health Epidemics.
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Chapter 8 Globalization

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will be able to understand:

� Meaning and Definitions of Globalization.

� Causes/Circumstances leading to Globalization.
� Positive and Negative manifestations of Globalization.
� Difference of Opinion, Anti-Globalization movements.
� India`s stand resistance to Globalization.
� Criticism to Globalization.

Introduction:
Globalization: It is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies and
governments worldwide. It has grown due to advances in transportation and communication
technology. With the increased global interactions comes the growth of international trade, ideas
and cultures. It begun in 1970`s and got wide publicity since 1990. The term Globalization has no
universally accepted definition. To some it is multi-facet phenomena impacting on social,
economic and political spheres of human experience. Others believe that it refers simply the
increasing interconnection of markets of different countries largely on account of liberalization of
trade, capital investment and diffusion of services across the world.

Anthony Gidden’s, “Globalization means intensification of worldwide relations which link distant
localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and
vice-versa” in fact the term Globalization to flow of many kinds like flow of ideas, flow of capital,
flow of trade, flow of technology. The most crucial factor is worldwide interconnectedness and
sustained as result of constant flow.

Causes/Circumstances of Globalization
The causes and circumstances responsible for Globalization are as under:
� Revolution in the information technology has enhanced the speed of the Globalization, i.e. flow
of ideas, capital, goods and transportation etc. are outcomes of information technology.
� Exports by developed countries to developed countries as the former is in search of markets
and later in search of sophisticated commodities.
� The world economic organizations are interested in Globalization.
� The Globalization doesn’t emerge merely because of improved communication and willingness
of the people but by reorganization of its interconnectedness.
� Collapse of communism and the end of cold war.
� Growth of MNC`s and efforts of developed countries to make the world as single market
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� Rising debts on developing countries by IMF and W.B compels LDC`s to follow the path of
disinvestment and Globalization.

Positive and Negative manifestations

Positive consequences: - The Globalization has some positive impacts results on the life of state
and individuals. Which can be discussed under three categories:
1. Political impact: The contemporary globalized world doesn’t reduce the capability of the
state. The Primacy of state is still unchallenged basis of political community, as the enhanced
technology boosted the state to be more informative about its citizens. Which make states
more powerful than earlier practices.
2. Economic impact: Economic Globalization has an important role in shaping the world politics.
It is closely linked with international institutions like IMF and world bank; both these
institutions play a major role in determining the economic policies all around the world. The
moderate supporters of Globalization believe that Globalization has led to increased
dependence and interactions between government business industry and people all across the
world. It is the only source and it alone has the potential to attain the sustainable development
its challenges can be responded intelligently without accepting it uncritically. It can be made
more a more effective through an increase in global level understanding and efforts.
3. Cultural impact: Besides political and economic impacts it has even the culture. The
supporters of the Globalization believe that it would be a mistake to assume that the cultural
consequences of Globalization are only negative. The change in cultures is natural as such the
cultures are dynamics. Sometimes the external influences simply enlarge our choices and
sometimes they modify our culture without overwhelming the traditional. It makes each culture
distinctive and unique as cultural exchange in never a one-way process.

Negative Consequences: The negative consequences of Globalization can be discussed under

following three categories.
1. Political impact: Its negative impacts has resulted in the erosion of the state sovereignty and
the capacity of the state governments. As the states have now shunned the welfare functions
and are confined to maintenance of law and order and security of its citizens. The entry and the
role of MNC`s all over the world lead to reduction in capacity of governments to take decisions
on their own.
2. Economic impact: It has created the intense division of opinions all over the world. Those who
are concerned about social justice are worried about the extent of state withdrawal caused by
process of economic Globalization. It is pointed out the benefit of Eco-Globalization will
benefit a meager section of society in the world. So it needed to be halted as such it results in
the economic ruin for the weaker countries, some economists call economic Globalization as
“re-colonization” of the world.
3. Cultural impact: The advocates of cultural impact believe that the Globalization shall lead to
the fear that this process poses a threat to the cultures in the world. As it leads to the rise of
acculturation, assimilation of pre- dominant culture, which in real sense mean the imposition of
western culture on the rest of the world. This is dangerous not only for the poor countries but
for the whole world as it leads to shrink the rich cultural heritage of the entire globe.

India`s stand/respond to Globalization

Globalization generally refers to flow of capital, commodities ideas and movement of people
across the borders. India in this sense was concerned with it several centuries back in history.
However, India responded to the contemporary Globalization in 1991.
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In 1991 responding to the financial crises and the desire for higher growth rates, India embarked
on a programme of economic reforms that has sought increasingly to de-regulate various sectors
including trade and foreign investment. Although in beginning India was not too active in its
acceptance but due to external pressure for repayment of liabilities it took steps towards
liberalization in 1991. The process of Globalization come forth with several changes in the policy
of India, like dismantling the early licensing system, removal of tariff on imports, abolition of
industries, by setting up the securities and exchange board of India, foreign joint venture bank
came to be permitted to undertake and expand their operations. In addition to this several steps
were taken to public sectors enjoyed monopoly.

Globalization: Difference of Opinion (INDIA)

India`s resistance to Globalization can be summed up as follows:
1. The hue and cry by leftist parties and other forums in India against economic liberalization,
demanding the interests of the formers, labors, artisans etc. and against the entry of MNC`s in
India.
2. Another resistance came from rightist wing in India. The rightists particularly resist the T.V
channels, celebration of various western festivals, like birthdays valentine day the western dress
code.
3. Another group who showed resistance against Globalization in India, are small scale
industrialists and rural cottage industries. They resist the free flow of goods and commodities
from the developed countries which have become a major threat to the small scale industries
and rural cottage industrial workers. The rural cottage industrial workers have been left
unnoticed by the government and their conditions are worsening day by day.

Defense: - The process of globalization is defended on the following grounds:

� Globalization removes unnecessary controls and facilitates market forces to determine their
line.
� It has reduced the dependence of countries on foreign aid and agencies like IMF and W.B.
� It has bought transparency in the license permit raj system.
� It has led to increase in exports, and balance in foreign trade.
� It has attracted foreign investment and encouraged competition.
� It has created a system of accountability and benefited concerns.
� It has upgraded the technology and given access to states to the global market.

Criticism/ Resistance to Globalization

The Globalization is being resisted all over the world on the following grounds;
� The leftists oppose it on the basis of existing inequalities between rich and poor. As
Globalization is supporting capitalism.
� It has created disparity between developed and developing nations.
� It has led to the reduction of welfare measures, reduction in subsidies essential commodities
and full in real wages.
� Exploitation of developing states by MNC`s least attention towards poverty, reduction,
Human Rights and labour standard
� Culturally there is domination of western values and cultures.
� Leading of protectionist regimes and economic imperialism through WTO by developed
states over developing ones.
� (WSF) World Social Forum resist Globalization on the grounds of Human Right`s
environmental degradation and unemployment in developing countries.
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� It has reduced the sovereignty of the state and destroyed the indigenous industry.
� It has reduced the importance of social science and emphasis on market oriented courses.

Now you should be able to answer the following exercise

Long Answer Type Questions
1. What is Globalization, discuss circumstances and causes leading to Globalization.
2. Explain positive and negative concepts of Globalization?
3. Examine the, political, economic and cultural implications of Globalization.
4. Suggest the grounds to defend Globalization.
5. Discuss the India’s resistance to Globalization.
6. Discuss the role of Globalization with the changing role of developing states.
Short Answer Types Question
1. Describe the meaning of Globalization?
2. Why has there been resistance to Globalization.
3. Give three negative effects of Globalization
4. Write three positive effects of Globalization.
5. What has been India’s approach to Globalization?
6. How has technology contributed to Globalization?
7. Give two cultural consequences of Globalization.
8. What is protectionism?
9. Give two examples that leftist oppose Globalization.
10. Give two examples in favour of Globalization.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

1. What are the causes of Globalization?
2. What definition has been given by Antony Giddens about Globalization?
3. What do you mean by acculturation?
4. Give one political consequence of Globalization.
5. Give one example of cultural heterogeneity.
6. Give one factor leading to rise of Globalization.
7. Give one reason as to why Rightists oppose Globalization.
8. How is small scale industry effected by Globalization?
9. What is India’s approach towards Globalization?
10. Write one reason to support Globalization.
11. Why did India adopted the path of Globalization?
12. Give two economic impacts of Globalization.
13. What do you mean by Globalization?
14. What is assimilation?
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CHAPTER 9 Environment and Natural Resources

After reading this chapter you should be able to under the following

Learning Objectives:
� Meaning of environment
� Different treaties, agreements among countries.
� Division of North South.
� Environmental issues, factors, solutions.
� Global commons.
� Common but differentiated responsibilities.
� Common property resources.
� Source of Geopolitics.
� Different movement.
� Indigenous people.
� Indian Standard on Environmental issues.

Introduction: The term “environment” refers to the natural setting around an object. It refers to
an ecological awareness that concerns itself with rectifying and sustaining the planet during its
current challenges. The key aspect of natural resources is that they dedicate the survival of humans
and other life forms of earth. These resources include, land, rocks, forests (vegetation) fossil fuels
animals, (fish, wildlife, domestic animals). Water (oceans, lakes, streams, seas and rivers) minerals,
sunlight and air. Thus in common parlance the term environment means everything whether biotic
or abiotic which surrounds an object is called its environment.

The contemporary environmental issues

The contemporary world is facing the following issues:
1. Barrenness of Agricultural land: The cultivable land is decreasing and substantial part of
agricultural land is losing fertility, gross land has been overgrazed and fisheries have been
overharvested water bodies have suffered depletion and pollution resulting in reduction of
food grains.
2. Water pollution: According to (UNDP) United Nations Development Programme 2.6 billion
people have no proper sanitation and 1.2 billion people do not have safe water resulting in the
death of more than 3 million children every year.
3. Deforestation: Natural forests which are essential for stabilizing climate, moderate water
supplies and harbor a majority of planets diversity on land__ are being cut down and people
are being displaced. Loss of biodiversity has led to destruction of certain species which live in
that particular habitat.
4. Ozone depletion: A rapid decline in the total amount of ozone in earth`s stratosphere, which is
commonly referred to ozone hole poses a real danger to ecosystem and human health.
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5. Coastal pollution: The coastal pollution has increased due to urban sewage, drilling, and
shipping of crude oil, industrial effluents like chemicals, heat, etc. and radioactive wastes. Most
ocean pollution begins on land based activities. If it goes unchecked, it will lead to further
deterioration of marine environment.
6. Global warming: A gradual increase in the overall temperature of earth’s atmosphere
generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of Carbon Dioxide,
methane CFC`s, Hydro floro carbons and other pollutants.

Define the nature and establishment of following:

1. The club of Rome,
2. UNEP.
3. Earth summit.
4. Global North.
5. Global South.
6. Agenda 21.
7. Sustainable Development.
1. The club of Rome: - The club of Rome was founded on 7th of April 1968 in Rome Italy. Its
headquarter is in New York (USA). It consists of current and former heads of state. UN
bureaucrats, high level politicians, diplomats, scientists, economists and business leaders from
around the Globe. It is also called Global Think Tank. It came with a book in 1972 called “Limits
to the Growth”. This book dwelt upon the dramatic depletion of earth`s resources against the
steady increased in world population.

2. UNEP: United Nations environmental programme (UNEP) was founded in June 1972 in Nairobi
(Kenya) as a result of the Stockholm conference on human environment. It is the coordinating
body for the United Nations Environmental Activities. It is also known for assisting developing
countries in implementing environmentally sound policies and practices.

3. Global North: Global North refers to the developed societies of Europe and North America,
which are characterized by established democracy, wealth, technology, advancement, political
stability, aging population, zero population growth and dominance of world trade and politics.
The north south divide is a socio-economic and political division of earth popularized in the
late 20th century. Generally global north includes G8 countries. USA, Canada, UK, all member
states of EU, Israel, Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Australia, New Zealand and four of the five
permanent members of UNSC.

4. Global South. Global South refers to developing countries of Africa, Latin America and Asia
and Middle East. It is home of (BRIC) Brazil, Russia, India and China and South African countries.
The south largely corresponds with the third world and eastern world. These are generally poor
developing countries with younger, more fragile democracies heavily dependent on primary
sector and frequently share a history of past colonialism by northern states.

5. Earth Summit: The conference held at Rio-De- Janerio Brazil (June 3-14, 1992) to reconcile
worldwide economic development with protection of the environment. The Earth Summit was
largest gathering of world leaders in history, which was attended by 117 heads of states and
representatives of 178 nations. By means of treaties and other documents signed at the
conference most of the world nations accepted to follow the pursuit of economic development
in ways that would protect the Earth`s Environment and non-renewable resources.
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6. Agenda 21: It is a non-binding actions plan of UN with regard to sustainable development. It is

the product of Earth Summit held at Rio-De- Janerio Brazil. It is the action agenda for the UN,
other MNC`s and individual governments around the world that can be executed at local,
national and global levels. It was published on 23-04-1993. The (21) in Agenda refers to 21st
century. The main objectives among others are adopting and implementing policies
concerning with issues such as recycling, energy efficiency, conservation and rehabilitation of
damaged landscapes.

7. Sustainable Development: Sustainable development is that development that meets the

needs of present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. It is also called Brundtland report e.g. using recycled materials or renewable resources.

Define Global Commons, Their Exploitation and Protection

The global commons are those resources which are not owned by anyone but are rather shared by
community. These areas therefore need common governance by international community. These
are also called (res communis) humanitatis Roman law-common heritage of mankind. The global
commons include the earth`s atmosphere, Antarctica, the ocean floor and outer space.

Exploitation and Pollution of Global Commons

The Global Commons are mostly exploited by the developed countries by the way of emission of
toxic gases from the industries and the means of transport. The high sea is mostly used for the
navigation of commercial ships, warships, passenger ships, boats etc. The sea floor is polluted by
these ships as such these are driven by diesel power. The outer space is being exploited for the
more and more information purposes and new satellites are being sent out the outer space which
has made outer space a hub of satellites and rocket wastes. The developed countries pollute the
environment by their nuclear experiments.

Factors responsible for Environment Pollution

The main factors responsible for environmental pollution are as under:
Population: The rapid increase in the world population has been a major threat to environment. It
has been posing severe threat s such more people need more food and for that purpose more
land is needed. For which more land, forests need to be cleaned which causes dissertation of land.
Deforestation and Soil Erosion: The cutting of trees leads to soil erosion which causes droughts
and floods. So this is an important factor of environmental pollution.
Industrialization: Rapid industrialization has caused environmental pollution. The emission of
greenhouse gases from the industries have severely damaged the ozone layer, the discharge of
the industrial wastes in the water resources causes water pollution and industrialization have been
one of the cause of the global warming.
Means of transport: Another important factor in environmental pollutions is means of transport
which is responsible for emission of greenhouse gases and increase in the noise which is
increasing day by day.

Protection of Global Commons

Various steps have been taken to protect the global commons, like the 1959 Antarctic treaty, 1987
Montréal protocol and the Antarctic protocol in 1980`s.The ozone whole was discovered which has
revealed the opportunity and dangers inherent in tackling global environmental problems. The
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history of outer space as a global common shows that management of these areas is thoroughly
influenced by North South inequalities. Regarding the earth`s atmosphere and the ocean floor the
major problem is the technology and industrial development.

Common but Differentiated Responsibility

This is an argument between north and south. It was accepted at Rio summit in 1992 known as
(CBDR) as a principle within the (UNFCCC) that acknowledge the different capabilities and differing
responsibilities of individual countries in addressing the climate change. (CBDR) is principle of
international environmental law establishing that all states are responsible for addressing global
environmental destruction yet not equally responsible.

Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol known as Kyoto Accord is an international treaty among industrialized nations
that sets mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions. The greenhouse effect is the warming
effects of sun on greenhouse gases, such as corbandioxide that act to trap this heat in our
atmosphere. The framework pledges to stabilize greenhouse gas connections at a level that
prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with climate system. A total of 192 countries have
signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol 1997.

Common Property Resources

Common property resources (environmental) our natural resources which are owned and managed
by a community or society rather than by an individual’s its examples include irrigation system,
Fishing grounds, pastures, forests, water or the atmosphere.

Sacred Groves
Certain societies respect and worship a particular tree which they have preserved from time
immemorial sacred groves are the forests of god or goddesses i.e. the Mundas and the senthals of
chotanagpur region worshiping Mahur and Kandamba trees.

Environment Movements
The governments as well as conscious voluntary groups have launched diverse, vibrant and
powerful social and environmental movements across the globe to control the endangered
environment. These movements have given long term perspectives on what should be done and
what should not be done for the survival of individual and collective lives. These also aim at their
attribute towards protection of ecological diversity. Examples of such movements are as
follows:
1. Pro-Forest Movement: Clearance of forests by third world countries, depletion of grand
forests has led to the rise of forest movement in the south especially in states like china, India,
Mexico, Malaysia, Brazil, Chile, Continental Africa etc. all these movements face enormous
pressure to fight for ecological conservation. Chipko movement is an example of this
movement.
2. Movements Related to Mining: over extraction of earth, over use of chemicals, pollution of
land and water ways, clearance native negotiation, displacement of local communities. As a
member of MNC`s have opened their networks in the south with the onset of the global
economy. The MNC`s criticize that there has been the misuse of mineral industries. (WMC)
western meaning corporation Australia and Philippines are its examples.
3. Anti- Dam Movement: Anti-Dam Movement rose whenever, a mega dam is built in a country.
These are pro-river movements for more sustainable and equitable management of river
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systems and river valleys. First such movement began in early 1980`s in the north (Australia) to
save franklin river and its surrounding forests. Such movements were seen in Turkey, Thailand,
South Africa, India, Indonesia and China. Tahri Dam and Narmada Bacha Andholan (NBA) are
its examples.

World Wildlife Fund (WWF)

On 20th of December 2013 UNGA at its 68th session proclaimed 3rd march- the day signature of the
convention on international trade in endangered species of wild flora and fauna in 1973 as UN
worldwide life day to celebrate and arise the awareness of the world wide animals. In Africa
campaign have started against ivory trade. A battle is on in India to protect Bengal tigers in
Philippines organization are fighting to protect eagle and our birds.

Resource Geopolitics
Resource geopolitics means who gets what, when, where and how. The western powers have
always thought about the control over resources to regulate the relationship of trade, war and
power and Centre of this relationship have been maritime navigation and over sea resources.
During the cold war era, the global north undertook a number of strategies to ensure smooth flow
of resources. They deployed their military forces near exploration sites and along sea-lanes of
communication. They even helped in establishing friendly governments in resource producing
states.
After the disintegration of erstwhile USSR, the security of supply continues to bother the west. This
includes the radio- active minerals, oil and water. The geopolitics focused on.

Oil: oil is supposed to be the most portable and indispensable fuel of the 20th century. The wealth
generated by oil has led to the several political struggles. Central Asia and west Asia popularly
known as gulf region contributes 33% of oil production at global level. However, it contributes
64% planets reserves and is only region to satisfy rising demands of oil. Saudi Arabia with ¼ of
world`s reserves followed by Iraq. USA, Europe, Japan, India and China are the largest consumers
of oil are located at a distance from gulf. It is argued by critics that USA conquered Iraq to get a
control over its oil reserves.

Water: water is another most relevant resource in global politics. Regional differences and
security of fresh water has become another bone of concentration during 21st century. Some
proponents have predicted possibility of a violent war over this life sustaining resource. States
sharing river waters can dispute over downstream pollution, excessive irrigation or construction of
Dams.

The dispute between Israel, Syria and Jordan over Jordan and yarmuck rivers (1950 and 1960)
Turkey, Syria and Iraq over building of a Dam over Euphrates river are the examples of this
uprisings.

Indigenous People/Problems/Rights
Indigenous people are communities and nations who are native to particular area. The UNO
defines indigenous people as composing the descendants of people who inhabited the present
territory at the time when persons of different culture or ethnic origin arrived there from other
parts of the world and overcome them. In other words, the indigenous people are those who have
a distinct identity and communities as yet. The indigenous people occupy areas in central and
south America, Africa, India and South Asia. There doesn’t seem to be one definitive definition of
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indigenous people, but generally indigenous people are those people who have historically
belonged to a particular region or country, before its colonialization or transformation into a
nation state, and many have different- often unique- cultural, linguistic, traditional and other
characteristics to those of dominant culture of that region or state. The indigenous people in India
are called Tribals.

Problems and Rights

Despite their cultural differences, the various groups of indigenous people around the world share
common problems related to protection of their rights as distinct people. Indigenous people
around the world have sought recognition of their identities, their ways of life and their right to
traditional lands, territories and natural resources yet throughout the history, their rights have
been violated. Indigenous people are arguably among the most disadvantaged and vulnerable
groups of people in the world today. The international community now recognizes that special
measures are required to protect the rights of the world’s indigenous people. During 1970`s
growing international contacts among indigenous leaders from around the globe across a sense of
common concern and shared experience. The world council of indigenous people was formed in
1975. However, the indigenous throughout the world face a number of problems in relation to
their identity, rights etc.

Indian Stand and Environmental Issues

On the principle of common but differentiated responsibility India was pioneered the idea that the
major responsibility of limiting greenhouse effect rested with the developed states since they have
accumulated it over a long time period. India calls it unfair to impose restrictions on itself when its
per capita carbon emission norms in 2030 are likely to be less than half of the world’s average of
3-8 tonnes in 2008.

However, India an active participant through participation in number of programmes for instance
India`s national auto fuel policy, makes uses of clearer fuels for vehicles mandatory. The energy
conservation act (2001) electricity act (2003) are aimed at improving energy efficiency. And Eco-
Friendly technology to overcome its needs without harming the environment.

Now you should be able to answer following questions

Long Answer Type Questions
1. What are the environmental concerns at global level?
2. Describe the efforts done to resolve the environmental issues.
3. What do you mean by sustainable development?
4. Describe exploitation and protection of global commons.
5. What do you mean by common but differentiated responsibilities?
6. Define, common property, resources and sacred groves?
7. Describe the factors responsible for environmental pollution.
8. What is the environment movement? Support your answer with three movements.
9. Write a short note on world wildlife fund?
10. Discuss resource geopolitics.
11. Who are the indigenous people? Discuss their problems and rights.
12. Write a short note on Indian stand about environmental issues.
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Short Answer Type Questions.

1. What environmental issues are faced by the contemporary world?
2. Define following in brief.
a. The club of Rome.
b. UNEP
c. Earth Summit
d. Global North
e. Global South
f. Agenda 21
g. Sustainable Development
h. Kyoto Protocol
3. What factors are responsible for environmental pollution?
4. What are global commons?
5. What do you mean by (CBDR)?
6. What are common property resources?
7. What do you mean by sacred groves?
8. Write a note on pro-forest movement.
9. How is mining responsible for environmental pollution?
10. Discuss anti-dam movement with reference to India.
11. What do you mean by (WWF)?
12. Discuss geopolitics with regard to oil and water.
13. Who are called indigenous people?
Very Short Answer Type Question
1. Define environment.
2. What is full form of UNDP, UNFCC, UNEP, BRICS and CBDR?
3. Why Agenda 21 is suffixed with “21”?
4. Name three countries each of global north- south.
5. When was first earth summit held?
6. What is meant by sustainable development?
7. Write any three global commons.
8. Write any two steps to taken to protect global commons.
9. What do you mean by greenhouse effect?
10. When was ozone whole discovered?
11. Where is Kyoto?
12. Define common property resource.
13. Name any two sacred trees.
14. Write any two factors responsible for environmental pollution.
15. What is the full form of (NBA)?
16. Chipko movement is a pro-forest movement. How?
17. Where is Franklin river?
18. What is full form of (WMC)?
19. Which animal in India is about to extinct?
20. Is oil and water for a resource of Geopolitics.
21. Where are Tribals living in the India.
22. When was energy conservation act passed in India?
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Chapter No. 10 Nation Building and its Problems

Prepared by: Mushtaq Ahmad Rania
Lecturer: HSS Surasyar
E-mail I.D: m.mushtaqma@gmail .com

Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will be able to understand:

� Nehru’s approach to nation building.

� Factors that led to partition.
� Consequences of the partition of India.
� Refugee resettlement a complicated problem.
� Organization and reorganization of states.
� Political conflicts over language.

Introduction
India achieved freedom from British rule on 15th Aug 1947, and had two goals to achieve, to
establish democratic form of government and to work for socially disadvantaged groups. The
country had three broad challenges in the process of nation building to maintain unity since India
spoke different languages and followed different cultures and religions. Second goal is to develop
democratic practices in accordance with the constitution. The third goal is to develop effective
polices for economic development and removal of poverty.

The partition between India and Pakistan led to severe consequences. Large scale communal
violence and the influx of millions refugees from Pakistan brought with them lot of problems.
There were as many as 565 princely states. They had an option to join either India or Pakistan or
Remain Independent. The states reorganization commission was setup in 1953 to look into the
redrawing of boundaries of states. On the bases of its reports, the states reorganization act was
passed in 1956.

Challenges on the eve of independence:

After Independence India face three main challenges to nation building. These are as:
� Accommodation and Unity: The first Challenge India was to Shape a nation that was
united as well as accommodative of the diversity in our society. India consists of people
having different languages, cultures, religions and different customs. The biggest problem
before the Indian leadership was to bring to unity as well as preserve the diversities in India.
� Establishment of Democracy: The second challenge was to establish democracy were
people enjoyed the right to vote along with the fundamental rights. The real challenge was
to develop democratic practices in accordance with the constitution.
� Development and well being: The third and important challenge was to provide for
development and well being of all sections rather than a few. Principal of equality to all with
special protection to socially, economically, culturally disadvantaged groups. The real
challenge was to remove poverty and unemployment.
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Nehru’s approach to nation building:

Nation building as a multi-dimensional process required a new approach. The first need was to
develop a sense of collective consciousness among people so that the nation recovering from the
pit falls of partition and refugee migration could give social security to its citizens.
After independence India started the task of nation building under the guidance of first PM
Jawaharlal Nehru. Nehru got an opportunity to translate his social and political ideas into practice
with the help of state power.

He adopted good features from both ideologies of socialism and capitalism in economic
development of the country. Nehru was clear in his mind that only industrialization would liberate
the Indian Masses from poverty. His introduction of planned economy initiating raped and large
scale industrialization, development of science and technology and strengthening of parliamentary
democracy based on the ideals of secularism and socialism. Democratic parliament and economic
planning were the main pillars of Nehru’s efforts at nation building. He adopted a centralized,
political, administrative and judicial system. He adopted non alignment as one of the basic
features of foreign policy of India.

Factors that led to partition or causes of partition:

By the time 1947 partition of India, Hindu Muslim relations had already been deteriorated
significantly making the partition inevitable. British Raj policy aimed at dividing Hindus
and Muslims to further their interests. It can be said that the seeds of the partition of the
India were sowed in the partition of Bengal (1905) when the provinces was divided on
religious bases. The main causes of the partition are as under:
� Jinnah’s attitude: - Adamant attitude of Muhammad Ali Jinnah was also responsible for
the partition of India. He refused to listen to the nationalist appeals short of the creation of
Pakistan. He launched “Direct Action” for the achievement of Pakistan.
� British Policy: - The political competition between congress and Muslim league and the
British Policy of divide and rule led to the partition of India and creation of Pakistan.
� Communal Riots and Disorder: - Communal Riots and disorder was one of the big factors
for partition. There occurred killings in Calcutta, Bihar etc. this led to the congress to the
conclusion that the partition was better than the killings of innocent citizens.
� Influence of Lord Mountbatten:- The lord Mountbatten, the lost British Governor general
was to a great extent responsible because he moulded the congress leaders like Nehru
and Sardar Patel for partition.
� Failure of the Interim Government:- The Interim Government could not control the law
and order situation, this was a big factor which changed the nationalist outlook on the
partition of India.
Consequences of the partition of India or Legacy of partition of India:
Unfortunately the reality of partition “14-15 August” and the mass migration that came
with it was nothing like they had imagined , millions of Muslims were living in India and
Millions of Hindus and Sikhs found themselves in the land of newly created Pakistan and
they would have to move. This movement along religious lines, creating overwhelmed
refugee crises on the newly constituted dominions. Following are the main
consequences of the partition of India.
1 Transfer of population: - The first legacy was the tragic transfer of population. The lacks of
people were forced to leave their homes and move across the borders. They were attacked,
killed and looted. In the name of religion people of one community killed the people of other
community.
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2 Problem of Refugees: - The people who crossed the border found that they had no home. It
was a serious problem. It was estimated that about 10-12 million people were forced to
migrate across the borders. The government took many years to solve it.
3 Problem of minorities: - even after migration about 12% Muslims lived in India. The biggest
problem before Indian government was how to deal with Muslim minorities and other religious
minorities.
4 Division of properties and financial assets: Partition doesn’t only mean the divisions of
lands but also the division of properties and financial assets. The partition also saw the division
of the British Indian army, the Indian civil services, the railways and central treasury.
5 Problem of the Princely States: - There were as many as 565 princely states at the time of
independence; they had an option to join either India or Pakistan or to remain to independent.
Most of the princes were willing to remain independent, it was the biggest problem before the
Indian leadership.

Factors which determine nation building

Nation building is a multi-dimensional concept and involves the active participation of its
citizens in various walks of life. Nation building aims at the unification of the people with the
state so that it remains politically stable and viable in the long run. A strong and powerful
nation is build on dedication and hard work of citizens and some amount of smart planning on
the part of the government.
According to Pye, “Nation building refers to the processes were by people transfer their
commitment and loyalty from smaller tribes, villages or party Principalities to the large central
political system”.
Factors responsible for nation building:
� Unity and Integrity: The unity and Integrity are contributing in a combined manner to the
nation building. Both Unity and national Integration play a vital role for solid foundation of
nationalism, secularism, socialism and democracy.
� Spread of Education: education is a vital component for nation building. Education is path
way for nation building. Education gives the people skills they need to help themselves out
of poverty.
� Mass Media: Mass Media plays an important role in nation building. The Media has a
distinctive role to play in bringing communal harmony which in turn will preserve the
secular fabric of a democratic country.
� Good Leadership: Committed, dedicated and devoted leadership is also responsible for
nation building.

Challenge of Refugees and Resettlement

The partition of India on the basis of religion led to the crises of resettlement of refugees.
There was tragic transfer of population. The lacks of people were forced to leave their homes
and move across borders. Over five million Hindus and Sikhs left west and East Pakistan to
India, while six million Muslims went to Pakistan. The people who crossed the borders found
that they had no home. For lakhs of people independence means life in refugee camps. They
travelled to the side of new borders by all sorts of means, often by foot. Even during their
journey they were often attacked and killed. The refugees had left behind their assets and
needed help to rehabilitate and resettle. The costs of human suffering were enormous. The
political leadership had never expected that partition would result in such a massive population
exodus. The state made large scale efforts to support and rehabilitate these migrants.
Refugee’s problem was so serious that the government took many years to solve it. On the
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eastern side of the border, refugee migration was for labour and took place much later. It was
complete exchange of minorities which cast desk shadow on the joy of independence.

Nation and Nation State

A Nation is a group of people who share the same culture, history, language or ethnicity. The
word nation is derived from the Latin word Natio which means Birth or Race. Therefore nation
means a group of people having common origin, language, culture and territory. According to
Leacock, “A Nation is a union of men having racial or Ethnographic significance”. A Nation
state is a system of organization in which people with common Identity live inside a country
with firm borders and a single government. A nation state is a sovereign state of which most of
its subjects are united also by factors which defined a nation such as language or common
descent.

Integration of Princely States:

The first challenge India faced after independence was the integration of princely states. India
had 565 princely states. Sardar Patil the iron man of India negotiated with the princes. Since
these states were spread throughout India, it was not easy task to take them in good faith and
accede. Sardar Patil used the patriotic fervor of the princes to get their instrument of accession
signed. However the integration was not as smooth as it had been expected. The Maharaja of
Kashmir joined when Pakistani forces attacked Kashmir. Nawab of Junagarh and Hyderabad
joined after the use of force. Similarly threats were used to free Goa and Pondicherry.
� Accession of Hyderabad: The Muslim ruler of Hyderabad titled Nizam was unwilling to
accede to India. Nizam wanted an Independent state for Hyderabad. Hyderabad had a
substantial fighting force called Raizakars and the Nizam also expected the British help
through Pakistan. But India was also determined to seek its accession to India. India did not
agree that c Hyderabad may remain as a separate Independent state within the boundaries
of India. The government of India took place action against Hyderabad on Sep.13.1948. The
forces of Hyderabad surrendered on 17 Sep.1948. Subsequently the Nizam signed an
instrument of accession, joining India.
� Accession of Junagarh: Junagarh was a princely State of British India, located in what is
now Gujarat. The people of Junagarh revolted against the Nawab who was conspiring with
Pakistan against India and faced him to flee to Karachi and the Muslim dewaan Shah Nawaz
Bhutto was left with no alternative except invite government of India to look after the
administration of that state on 10th Nov.1949. After this government of India Plebiscite on
20th Feb.1948 and majority of the people voted for India, as a result it became part of India
20th Feb.1948.
� Accession of Kashmir to India: Kashmir was a princely state. On August 15.1947, the ruler
of J&K Maharaja Hari Singh did not join any of the new dominions India and Pakistan. To
delay the accession was with a view to realize the dream of an independent Kashmir. On
20th Oct.1947, the tribesmen from Pakistan advanced towards the summer capital of the
state. To save his life Maharaja Hari Singh left the valley on 25th Oct. 1947 and went to
Jammu. He appointed Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah emergency administrator. On 26th
oct.1947, the Maharaja Hari Singh sent an Instrument of accession signed by him for the
acceptance by the government of India and thus J&K became part of India. The accession
was on three subjects’ defense, external affairs and communication. This relation was
governed by Article 370 which was giving special status to Jammu and Kashmir.
On 5th Aug.2019, the government of India revoked the special status, granted under Article
370 of the Indian constitution to Jammu and Kashmir.
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� Accession of Manipur: The ruler of Manipur namely Maharaja Bodhachandra signed and
instrument of accession with Indian government on the assurance that internal autonomy of
Manipur would be maintained. The elections in Manipur were held in June 1948, Manipur
became a constitutional Monarchy. Besides Congress, all parties were opposed to merger
with India, this created lot of differences in the legislative assembly. The Indian government
without consulting the legislative assembly persuaded the Maharaja to sign the Instrument
of Accession in 1949, which caused lot of resentment in Manipur, which is still alive in the
state.

The States Reorganization commission

After independence, political movements for the creation of new linguistic based states
developed. In 29 Dec.1953, Jawaharlal Nehru appointed the states reorganization commission.
The commission was headed by the retired chief justice, Fazzal Ali. The Commission in its
report accepted that the boundaries of the states should reflect the boundaries of different
languages. On the basis of its report the states reorganization act was passed on 31th
Aug.1956, and came into effect 01 Nov.1956, which led to the creation of 14 states and 06
union territories. Each states has its regional languages as its official language.

Recommendations
� Proper attention should be given to cultural and communicative needs of the other
communities speaking different languages.
� Linguistic minorities should be well protected.
� Attention should be paid to the development of other regional languages besides Hindi.
� English should be the medium of instructions in universities and higher training institutions.
� The idea of one language, one province should not be promoted.

Jammu & Kashmir reorganization act 2019

The Jammu & Kashmir reorganization act 2019 is an act of parliament of India. It contains
provisions to reconstitute the Indian administrated state of Jammu & Kashmir into two Indian-
administered union territories, one to be called Jammu and Kashmir and other Ladakh on 31th
Oct.2019. The bill for the act was introduced in the Rajya Sabha on 5th Aug.2019. The bill was
passed Rajya Sabha the same day and was passed by the Lokh Sabha on 6th Aug.2019. It
received the president’s assent on 9th Aug.2019.

Political conflicts over language

Independence brought linguistic divisions and regionalism in Indian politics. Linguistic
agitation for creation of states started with Telangana movement in 1953. Potti Sreeramula
took a fast unto death demanding for creation of an Andhra state. After his death Telugu
speaking districts of Madras were separated to create the state of Andhra Pradesh. Pt.Nehru In
1953 appointed the states reorganizations commission for the reorganization of states on
linguistic lines. Thus in 1956, 14 states and 06 union territories had been formed on the bases
of language. On 1st May 1960, Bombay was divided into Gujarat (Gujrati) and Maharashtra
(Marathi). The demand for Punjabi Sabah in 1966 led to the division of Punjab into parts Punjab
(Punjabi) and Haryana (Hindi). Factor of violence throughout India forcing the central
government to continue English, Hindi and other 22 regional languages recognized by
schedule-VIII as official language.
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Learning Outcomes
After learning the chapter you should be the answer the following questions:
� Describe Nehru’s approach to nation building?
� Discuss the causes of Partition?
� What are the factors that led to the Partition of India?
� What were the consequences of the Partition of India?
� Describe the legacy of Partition?
� What were the major challenges India faced at the time of Partition/Independence?
� What are the factors which determine nation building?
� Write note on integration of states?
� How was Hyderabad integrated into India?
� How did Manipur integrate with India?
� Describe the accession of Kashmir with the union of India?
� How was Junagarh integrated into India?
� Write note on states reorganization commission and its recommendations?
� How did language evolve into a political controversy?
� What is J&K reorganization act 2019?

Objective Questions:
� Nation building is a:
Ans: Multi Dimensional Concept
� Who was the founding father of Non-Alignment:
Ans: J.L Nehru
� When was states reorganization commission formed:
Ans: 1953
� When did states reorganization commission came into effect:
Ans: 01.Nov.1956
� Who signed the instrument of accession and when:
Ans: Maharaja Hari Sing on 26th Oct.1947
� Who played a prominent role in the integration of princely states:
Ans: Sardar Patel
� Which state was the first created on the bases of language:
Ans: Andhra
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CHAPTER-11 Era Of One Party Dominance.

Prepared By (Mushtaq Ahmad Raina, Lecturer HSS Surasyar)

E-mail: [email protected]

Learning Objectives: - Students will be able to Understand:-

� Nature of Congress dominance at National Level.
� First three General Elections.
� Uneven dominance of congress at state level.
� Coalition nature of congress.
� Emergence and role of opposition parties.

Introduction
Despite all odds, India decided to choose the democratic path of nation building after getting
independence. Our leaders did not see politics as a problem rather saw it as a means to solve the
problem. The biggest test before Indian leadership was to install a democratically elected
government of the country. The election commission of India was set in 1950 with SUKUMAR SEN
as the first chief election commissioner. Elections are essential for modern democracies. The first
general election was held in 1952, second in 1957 and third in 1962. Congress dominated the first
three general elections. Pt. Nehru became the first PM of the country.

ONE PARTY DOMINANCE :- ( Definition).

The one party dominant state is a system of majority rule where one political party has
successively won election victories by a large majority and is therefore the dominant ruling party,
which does not have to form coalitions with other smaller political parties.
Nature of Congress dominanace at National Level.
The Indian National Congress dominated the first three general elections held in 1952, 1957 and
1962 by winning almost three fourth seats in the Lok Sabha. It success was the result of the
following reasons.
� Oldest Party:- The congress party is oldest party and was established in 25thDec. 1885 by
A.O.Home.
� Strong Organization:- Compared to the opposition, the congress had a well-knit
organization across the country since the freedom struggle which helped the party to
maintain its dominance.
� Charismatic Leaders: - The party was led by charismatic leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru. The
other leaders of the party were well known figures and very popular among the people.
� Legacy of National movement:- the congress party had inherited the legacy of the
National Movement of India as a party which had brought independence for the country.
This was the main reason for its countrywide popularity.
� Weak Opposition:-The opposition parties were weak and divided. Many of them had been
formed just after the independence. The congress had “the first of the block advantage”.
After the first general election the largest opposition party was the communist party of
India with only 16 seats in the LokSabha.
� First Past the Post System of election:- This system of election also helped the congress
to maintain its dominance. The party never got popular votes but managed to win more
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seats than its proportional share of votes as majority got divided among different
opposition parties.

The first three general Election or Congress dominance in the first three general Elections
As far the first three general elections are concerned, “Rajni Kothari writes, no one was sure how
the ruler and illiterate masses would respond to this wholly new ceremony in the relationship
between government and society.” However the respond was great. The congress won the election
under the leadership of Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru. The Indian party system was one party dominant
system. Several political parties participated in the elections but the congress dominated the scene
at the center as well as in states before 1967. The first three General elections were held in 1952,
1957 and 1962. In 1952 election congress got 364 seats out of 489 around 45% vote share. The
communist party got only 16 seats. In the state election the congress secured big victory in all the
states except Travancore Cochin (Kerala). In 1957 election congress got 371 out of 494 seats. The
communist party of India got 27 seats. In the state like Kerala a coalition led CPI formed the
government in 1962 elections, congress got 361 out of 494 seats. Communist party of India got
only 29 seats. Despite existence of opposition, congress was the dominant party. Rajni Kothari
coined the term “one party dominance” for this phase of India.

Uneven dominance of Congress at State Level

There is no doubt that congress dominated at the national level, but its dominance at the state
level was uneven due to the existence of a large number of political parties. In madras, congress
party could only save its government due to separation of Andhra Pradesh. However in 1954 CPI
government was brought down and president’s rule was imposed. After the 1954 assembly
elections in Travancore, Cochin, PEPSU and Andhra, congress could not maintain majority but later
congress got majority in PEPSU.

In 1957 general elections congress got majority in Andhra Pradesh Madras but failed to do so in
Orissa and Kerala. In J and K, NC donated from 1952-1967. Linguistic reorganization of states led
to the separation of Telugu speaking areas of Madras as Andhra Pradesh. Malabar was Separated
from Madras. It helped congress to get majority in these states.

Coalition nature of Congress

The congress party one of the oldest party in India dominated by English speaking upper caste
and upper Middle class. With the passage of time its leadership passed into the hands of diverse
groups. The civil disobedience movement widened its base. All types of people with diverse
interest became the members of congress party. Peasants and Landlords, industrialists and
workers, urban and villages, capitalists and poor, upper casts and lower casts all became members
of congress. The coalition nature of congress tolerated and managed to strike a balance between
all the factions.
� Principle of accommodation:- The party accommodated various ideologies within its fold.
The revolutionaries, radicals, moderates and extremists all existed within the party fold.
Despite differences regarding the polices, programmes and methods within its fold party
managed to build consensus.
� Principle of Tolerance:- The coalition character of the congress party allowed it to avoid
any extreme position and strike a balance an almost all issues. The party showed greater
tolerance for difference of opinion and ambitions within it. This allowed the group who
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were not happy with the position of the party to remain within the party and fight the other
group rather than leaving the group.
Emergence and Role of the opposition:
After independence there was no national party besides congress. The opposition parties had
small representation in the legislature but they play a crucial role maintaining the democratic
character of the system. Since opposition had no separate identity. Many leaders who left congress
failed to mobilize votes.
Before 1967, the opposition was weak and divided, while the congress got 45-48% votes and 70-
75% seats, no single opposition got more than 10-12% votes or 5% seats. The political parties to
be recognized after congress were communist party of India, Bhartiya Jana sang (BJS) in 1951
founded by Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Swatantra Party in 1959 idealizing capitalism, certain
regional parties also emerged but were not of much significance. In 1952 election there were two
socialist parties, Socialist Party and Kissan Mazzdoor Sabha.
In 1960, and 1970, these political parties played an important role.
� They were helpful in maintaining the democratic character of the system.
� They offered a sustained but principle criticism of the programme of the congress party.
� They kept the ruling party under check and helped in changing the balance of power
within the congress.
� They helped in grooming young leaders who played a crucial role in giving shape to the
future of the country.
� They kept a watchful eye on the government activities by criticizing it on the floor of the
house through press and the public meeting.

Major opposition Parties

The Socialist Party
Socialist party traces its origin to pre-independence days. The congress socialist came an existence
in 1934 by a group of young leaders who wanted a more radical and egalitarian congress. In 1948,
the congress amended its constitution to prevent its members from having dual membership. This
forced the socialists to form a separate socialist party in 1948. The socialists believed in the
ideology of democratic socialism. They criticized the congress for favoring capitalists and
landlords and by ignoring the workers and peasants. Jayaprakash Narayan, Ashok Mehta, Ram
Manhorlohia were some of the prominent socialist leaders.

Communist Party of India:-

The communist party was founded in 25 Dec. 1925 at Kanpur and M.N.Roy played a vital role in its
foundation. The communist party of India advocated socialism as a solution to the problem of the
country. The party was banned in 1934 and the party worked within the fold of the congress. In
1957 it become the first non-congress party to form government in Kerala in 1964 under the
leadership of A.K. Gopalan founded the separate party called the communist party of the India
(Marxist). Both CPI and CPM under the banner of left front got power in westBengal and Kerala.
They even won over 60 seats in 2004 Lok Sabha elections.
Policies and Programmes:-
� To provide equal opportunities for all particularly women and thee weaker section of the
society.
� To protect and encourage small scale industries/cottage industries.
� To fight for right to work as a fundamental rights.
� It claims to be champion of the works and the peasants.
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Bhartiya Jana Song (BJS)

The BJS was founded by Dr. Shuama Prasad Mukhrjee in 1951. It traces its roots to
RashtriyaSwayamSevak Sang (RSS) and Hindu Mahasabha before independence in 1977. It merged
with several other parties to form the janata Party.
Agenda of BJS
� It is focused on the idea of one country, one culture, one nation.
� It believed that the nation could become strong, progressive and modern only by following
Indian culture and traditions.
� It even called for the reunion of India and Pakistan in Akhand Bharat.
� It opposed to grant any concession to the culture and religious minorities.

Swatantra party
Swatantra party was founded in august 1957. It was led by old congressmen like C.Rajgopalachari,
K.M.Munshi and Minoomasani.
Agenda
� The swatantra party did not believe in state involvement in the control of economy. It
believed that only individual could lead to prosperity.
� The Party gives priority to the basic needs i.e. food, housing, and clothing.
� The party believed in social justice and equality of opportunity for all people without any
discrimination.
� The party opposed cooperate farming and state trading.

Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP):-

The Bartiya Janata party was created in 1980, but its origin lies in the Bharatiya Jana Sang formed
in 1951 by Shyama Prasad Mukherjee. In the 1984 general election, it grew in strength on the back
of the Ram Janam Bhoomi Movement. In 1998 election, BJP led coalition Known as the national
democratic Alliance (NDA) formed government under PM AtalBihari Vajpayee last for year. In 2014
general election, NarendraModi led to a landslide victory. As of 2019, general election BJP won 303
seats under the leadership of (PM) Narendra Modi. Today it is the largest political party in terms of
representation in the parliament and state assemblies.
LEARNING OUTCOME
After learning the chapter you would be able to answer the following Questions:-
� Discuss the first three general elections for the loksabha elections?
� Describe the nature of congress dominance at the national level. What are the factors which
helped it?
� What is one party dominant system? Discuss the factors which helped congress to remain as
a dominant political party?.Describe the coalition Nature of congress?
� Describe the uneven dominance of congress at the state level?
� Discuss the role of opposition in India?
� Write note on socialist party.
� Write note on communist party of India.
� Write note on Bharatiya Jana Sang (BJS).
� Write note on BhartiyaJanataParty (BJP).

Objective Questions:
� 1947-1967 period is called:
Ans: Congress System
� The first general elections were held in:
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Ans: 1952
� Who became the first PM of India:
Ans: J.L Nehru
� The communist party of India was formed in:
Ans: 1925
� When was congress party formed:
Ans: 1885
� Era of one party dominance is related to:
Ans: Congress
� Bhartiya Janta Party was formed in:
Ans: 1980
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CHAPTER-12 Politics of Planned Development

Prepared By (Mushtaq Ahmad Raina, Lecturer HSS Surasyar)

Learning objectives
In this chapter you will be able understand:-
� Planning and five year plans.
� History of politics of planned development in India
� Expansion of state sector and rise of new economic interests.
� Famine and suspension of five year plans.
� Green revolution.
� Political fallouts of the green revolution.

Introduction
After the achievement of od independence in 1947, the government of India decided to follow the
path of planning for the rapid development of the country. India inherited a crippled economy
with a peasantry steeped in poverty and a stagnant agriculture. In 1950, the planning commission
was set up prepare a plan for the most effective and balanced utilization of the country’s
resources. The central objective of planning in India was to imitate a process of development
which will rise level of standard and open out to the people new opportunities for a richer and
more varied life. The launching of the first five year plan in 1951 marks the beginning of the era of
planning in our country. It was believed that every country would go through the process of
modernization as in the west, which involved the breakdown of traditional social structures and
the rise of capitalism and liberalism.

PLANNING:-
Planning the process of thinking about organizing activities required to achieve a desired goal.
Planning includes the plan, the thought process,action and implementation. Planning means in
advance, what to do, how to do, when to do and who should do.
The planning commission of India defined planning as a way of organizing and utilizing resources
to maximum advantage in terms of defined social ends.

Objectives:-
� Increase in standard of living.
� It helps in the proper utilization of economic resources.
� It helps for the fulfillment of the basic needs of the society.
� It helps in the removal of social problems like illiteracy, poverty, backwardness etc.
� It helps in the attainment of fixed goal in a definite time period.
� It helps to increase production on one hand and employment on the other hand.
� It helps to reduce the economic inequality.
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HISTORY OF POLICIES OF PLANNED DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

In India the importance of planning was recognized even before the independence. In 1938 Indian
national congress established a national planning committee under the chairmanship of J.L. Nehru
and the government established a planning and development board in 1944. After independence,
the planning commission was established on March 15, 1950 and national development council in
1952.

OPTIONS OF PLANNING IN INDIA AT TIME OF INDEPANDANCE

At the time of independence there were two options of planning and leadership of India was
having different opinions regarding the adaptation of any one of the them. One model of the
development was the liberal capitalist model and other was the socialist model. Many Indian were
in favor of soviet socialist model, these include the communists, thesocialists end even the
congress leaders like Nehru. There were few supporters of the American liberal capitalist model.
There were debates for the industrializationpreferred on the agriculture and the others supported
for the development of agriculture and in particulars alleviation of rural poverty. However there
was a consensus on the one point that planning could not be left to private hands and there was a
stress on the planned economy.

COMPOSITION AND FUNCTION OF PLANNING COMMISSION OF INDIA

The planning commission was an institution in the government of India, which formulated India’s
five year plans, among other functions. The planning was formed in 15 march 1950 by the
resolution of the government of India with prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru as the chairman. Its
composition changes according to the time and desires of the government. The first planning
commission consisted of chairman, a deputy chairman and five members. Later it was composed
of political and nonpolitical members of nearby 10 to 12 members. On 1st January 2015 planning
commission has been replaced by NITI- Aayog.
FUNCTION
� To make an assessment of the material, capital and human resources of the country.
� To formulated a plan for the most effective and balanced utilization of country resources.
� To define priorities and stages of plan and propose the allocation of resources.
� To indicate the factorsthat tend to retard economic development.
� To make necessary recommendation regarding economic conditions, current policies,
measures and development programmes.

NITI-AAYOG:-
NITI- National Institute for Transforming India Aayog-Committee:
National institute for transforming IndiaAayog (NITI-Aayog) has been formed on 1st January 2015,
that replaces the planning commission instituted in 1950. The NITI-Aayog is designing strategic
and long term policies and programmes for the government of India and also provides relevant
technical advice to the center and states.
The governing council of NITI, with prime minister as its chairman, comprises chief misters of all
states and Lt. Governor of union territories (UTs) and also a vice chairman nominated by the prime
minister. Also the temporary members are selected from leading universities and research
institutions. These members include a chief executive office, four ex-official members and two
partime members.
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First Five year Plan (1951-1956):

K.N.RAJ PLAN:-
The first Indian prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru presented the first five year plan to the
parliament of India drafted by an economist K.N.Raj. The first five year plan was launched in 1951
which mainly focused in the development of primary sector. The document of first five year plan
reads that agriculture, irrigation and power must have top priority.

The Major Aims of first Five Year Plan Was:-

� To increase food production.
� To utilize available raw materials.
� To correct the disequilibrium caused by 2nd world war and partition.E.g. Influx of refugees,
sever food shortage and mounting inflation.
� To build economic overheads such as roads, railways, irrigation, power etc.
� To reduce inequalities in income and wealth.

Second Five Year Plan (1956-1961):-

“Mahalanobis Strategy.”:
The second five year plan is based as so called Mahalanobis Model. The second five year plan was
launched on 1st April 1956. It was drafted by a team of economists and planners under the
leadership of P.C. Mahalanobis. The total amount allocated in public sector under the second five
year plan in India was Rs. 4800crores. This plan focused on the development of the public sector
and rapid industrialization.
Objectives and Properties:-
� Its emphasis was on economic stability.
� To achieve heavy industrialization like building steel, heavy chemicals, machine tools etc.
� To create employment opportunities.
� To build strong capital base.
� To increase production and technological capability of the economy.
� Besides, the industrial policy of 1956 emphasized the role of public sector and accepted the
establishment of a socialistic pattern of the society as the goal of economy policy.

Difference between First Five Year Plan and 2nd Year Plan:
The major differences are as:-
� The first five year plan laid stress on the agricultural sector including investment in dams
and irrigation. While the second one laid the stress on the industrialization.
� The first plan laid stress on the patience in achieving the goals of development. While as
second plan laid stress on quick structural transformation by making changes
simultaneously in all possible directions.
� The second plan was based on 1928 soviet model of “Feldman”. While as the first plan was
based on “Harrods-Dommar Model”.

Third Five Year Plan (1961-1966):

The third five year plan (1961-1966) aimed to achieve self-reliance in food production and
industry. It aimed to develop agricultural economy along cooperative lines and diversify the rural
economy including non-agricultural activities like fish, poultry, animal husbandry, dairy forming
etc. But the indo china war 1962 and indo-pak war1965 etc. exposed the weakness of the country.
These conflicts shifted the focus towards defense production. These wars also led to inflation and
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the priority was shifted to price stabilization. However many cement and fertilizer plants were also
build. Punjab began producing an abundance of wheat.

List of five year plans of India:-

i. First five year plan- 1951-56 (base on Harrod-Domer Model).
ii. Second five year plan- 1956-61 (Based on P.C. Mahalanobis Model)
iii. Third Five year plan- 1961-66 (Called Gadigil yojna)
iv. Three annual plans- 1966-69 (Plan holiday).
v. Fourth five year plan- 1969-74 stress on employment, Poverty alleviation (Garibi-Hatao).
vi. Fifth five year plan- 1974-78 (this plan was prepared by D.P.Dhar).
vii. Annual Plan- 1978-180 (Rolling Plan).
viii. Sixth five year plan- 1980-1985
ix. Seventh five year plan- 1985-1990.
x. Annual Plans- 1990-1992.
xi. Eighth plan- 1992-1997.
xii. Ninth plan- 1997-2002 (focus was growth with justice and equality).
xiii. Tenth five year pla- 2002-2007.
xiv. Eleventh five year plan 2007-2012
xv. Twelfth five year plan 2012-2017

Plan holiday:
The balanced growth strategy of third five year plan, however led to the low growth rate, high
inflation and balance of payment crises. This poor performance of third five year plan, led to the
suspension of the fourth plan. It forced the government to have “Annual plans” for the next three
years (from 1966-67, 1967-68 and 1968-69). The period was called as “Plan holiday” by critics. The
main reasons for plan holiday were the war, lack of resources and increase in inflation.

Famine and Suspension of Five Year Plans

In 1960’s the agricultural situation of our country went from bad to worse. The years 1965-67
witnessed severe drought. The war with Pakistan and china led to the recession in the economy.
With these threats the famine of north India (1966-67) caused a severe threat to economic
planning in India. It caused dangerous situation for the food security in India. Bihar faced crisis in
1967 which raised its death rate.
The famine and the crisis led to drastic change in the country’s strategy of planned development.
The five year plans were put on hold. This period was described as plan holiday and these were
three annual plans for the period (1966-69).

Nehruvian Model of Planned development

Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India was the most influential leader and was quite
influenced by Russian experience of planning. It made foundation of heavy industry as the key
stone of Indian economy and aimed to reduce dependence on foreign aid. This model was
popularly known as Nehruvian Model of planned development.

Green revolution:
Green revolution in ordinary sense means the great increase in the production of food grains (rice
and wheat) due to the introduction of high yielding varieties to the use of pesticides, and to better
management techniques. M.S swminathen has been called the father of green revolution in India
for his role in introducing high yielding verities of wheat in India.
The agriculture situation in India went from bad to worse in 1960s, due to severe food drought in
many parts of the country. This resulted severe food shortage in the country. To cope up this
problem the government of India offered high yielding variety hybrid seeds, fertilizers, pesticides
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and better irrigation at highly subsidized rates, which resulted increase in the agriculture products
in India. This increase in the agricultural products is popularly known as the green revolution in
India.

Positive Consequences (Economic Effects):-

� It increased the production of major cereals, e.g. wheat and rice.
� It changed the crop pattern in India.
� It increases the growth of local manufacturing sector.
� It made India self-sufficient in food.
� It increases the productivity of food grains in India from two tons per hector in 1960s to six tons
in 1990s.
� It also resulted in the government more attention on the farmers and the agriculture sector.

Negative consequences of green revolution:-

� It led to the concentration of wealth in the hands of top 10 percent of rural population.
� It had widened the gap between poor peasants and small formers and rich landlords.
� It had proved beneficial to the medium category peasants.
� It increases the polarization between classes and regions like northern states i.e. Punjab,
Haryana, UP who became agriculturally rich but other remains backward.

Major Political fallouts of the green revolution

The major two political fallouts of the green revolution are:-
� Important fallout of the green revolution was that in the many parts, the severe differences
between the poor peasantry and the landlords produced conditions favorable for leftwing
organizations to organize the poor peasants.
� Secondly, the green revolution also resulted in the rise of what is called the middle peasants
section. These were with medium size holdings, which benefitted from the change and soon
emerged political influential in many parts of India.

Major outcomes of development in India:-

There were three major outcomes:-
� Economic Foundation:- Planned development laid foundations of India’s economic growth,
mega-dams like Bhakra Nangal and Hirakud for irrigation and power generation came up.
Heavy industries in sectors of steel, oil refinery, manufacturing units were started. Much of
the economic progress came due to these foundations.
� Land reforms :- the most important development was in the field of land reforms. The
colonial legacy of zamindari system was abolished. This bold act released land from the
clutches of a vested class having little or no interest in agriculture. It even reduced the
capacity of land landlords to dominate politics.
� Green revolution: - the introduction of high yielding verities of seeds after 1965 and the
increased use of fertilizers, hybrid seeds and irrigation led to the green revolution, which
provided the increase in food production need to make India self-sufficient in food grains.

White Revolution:
The white revolution in Gujarat was started by Verghese Kurien known as the “Milkman of India.”
He launched the Gujarat cooperative milk and Marketing federation Ltd., which further launched
“Amul”. Amul is a dairy cooperative movement involving about 2.5 million milk producers of Gujarat.
The Amul success was a unique role model for rural development and poverty alleviation. It was
popularly known as white revolution.
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Mixed Economy:
A mixed economy is a system where in both public and private enterprises occur. A mixed economic
system is a system that combines aspects of the both capitalism and socialism. A mixed economic
system protects private property and allows a level of economic freedom in the use of capital, but also
allows for governments to interfere in economics activities in order to achieve social aims.
Expansion of state sector and rise of new economic interests:
There are broadly many sources of revenue of states. Tax revenue and states own share in revenues.
Grants from the central government and non-tax revenue including forests, irrigation, government
enterprises, departmental receipts etc.
Sales tax is now biggest source of revenue. Under Indian constitution, the states were empowered to
levy a tax on sales and purchase of goods. State excise revenue is derived from manufacture and sale
of intoxicating liquors, drugs etc.
Stamps revenue is derived from the sale of judicial and commercial stamps. The registration fee is
charged when documents relating immovable property are registered. The land revenue was the most
important source of state revenues particularly in states of Bengal. UP, Tamil nadu and Punjab. In 1938-
39 total tax revenue was Rs. 59 crores.

LEARNING OUTCOME:-
After learning the chapter you will be able to answer the following questions.
� What is planning? What are its objectives?
� Trace out the history of politics of planned development India.
� What were the options of planning in India at the time of independence?
� Discuss the composition and functions of the planning commission of India.
� Write short note on NITI-Aayog.
� What ws the first five year plan? What are its objectives and priorities?
� What was second five year plan? What are its objectives?
� Difference between first five year plan and second five year plan?
� Define plan holiday?
� How did famine results in suspension of five year plan?
� What was the Nehruvian Model of development?
� What was the green revolution? Mention positive and negative consequences of green revolution.
� What are the two political fallouts of the green revolution?
� What were the major outcomes of the planned development in India?

Objective Questions:
� First five year plan started from:
Ans: 1951
� Who is the called the father of Green revolution, who received the Nobel Prize in 1970:
Ans: Norman Borlaug
� Who is called the father of Green Revolution in India:
Ans: M.S Swaminathan
� The planning commission of Indian was setup in the year:
Ans: 1950
� When was the name of planning commission changed to NITI-AAYOG:
Ans: 1st Jan 2015
� Which plan is based on P.C Mahalonobis:
Ans: 2nd five year plan
� Which economy India followed:
Ans: Planned economy
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
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Chapter 13 India’s External Relations

Prepared by: Mushtaq Ahmad Rania
Lecturer: HSS Surasyar
E-mail I.D: m.mushtaqma@gmail .com

Learning objectives: -
In this chapter you will be able to understand:

� Nehru’s foreign policy

� Factors responsible for India’s foreign policy
� India Sino-war of 1962
� Indo-pak war of 1965 and 1971.
� India’s nuclear programme
� Shifting alliances in world politics

INTRODUCTION
Immediately after independence, India faced the two challenges of welfare and democracy. India
started participating in the world affairs as an independent nation, with the overall context like the
legacy of many international disputes left by British, pressures created by partition and poverty
alleviation. India decided to conduct foreign relations with an aim to respect the sovereignty of
other nations and to achieve security through maintenance of peace.
Nehru was the chief architect of the India’s foreign policy with the objectives of preserving
sovereignty of India, protection of territorial integrity and promotion of rapid economic
development hence India adopted NAM to stay away from military blocks.

Foreign Policy (Definition)

Foreign policy or foreign relations refer to how a Govt. deals with other countries. We also call it
foreign affairs policy. Foreign policy includes such matters as trade and defense. The Govt. chooses
its foreign policy to safeguard the interests of the nation and its citizens.

Nehru’s Foreign Policy

Nehru played a decisive role in the evolution of India’s foreign policy. He was the main architect of
India’s foreign policy, with the objectives of preserving sovereignty of India, protection of
territorial integrity and promotion of rapid economic development. Nehru pursued the dream of a
peaceful world by advocating the policy of non-alignment.
Nehru in his speech said, “We believe that peace and freedom are indivisible and the denial of
freedom anywhere must endanger freedom elsewhere and lead to conflict and war”. Nehru
established contacts between India and states in Asia and Africa by convening conferences on
Asian relations, Indonesia freedom Struggle (1949), and decolonization process and engaged in
Bandung conference in 1955 with newly independent Asian and African nations.
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Objectives of Nehru’s Foreign Policy

The main objectives of Nehru’s foreign policy are given as under:
� To preserve the hard earned independence and sovereignty.
� To protect the territorial integrity.
� To promote rapid economic development
� To maintain and encourage international peace and security
� To have friendly relations with neighboring countries
� To solve international disputes peacefully

Major Principals of Indian Foreign Policy or Nehru’s Foreign Policy

The main principals of India’s foreign policy are as:
� Non-alignment: Non-alignment is the main characteristic of India’s foreign Policy. This
policy helped India to not align any of the power blocks but at the same time it helped
India to participate actively in the world affairs to promote international peace, harmony
and cooperation.
� Anti-imperialism and colonialism: India opposed imperialism and colonialism in every
part of the world. India supported the movement for independence in Indonesia and other
countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
� Anti-Racialism : India has been always opposed to racial discrimination, which it proved in
opposing the policy of apartheid in south Africa.
� Support for the UN: India has activate supported the UN in promoting world peace by
reducing the cold war tension, working on disarmament and participating in peace keeping
operations.
� Promotion of world peace : India has promoted the world peace, favoured cooperation in
social, cultural, scientific and economic fields and insisted on peaceful settlement of all
disputes
� Panchsheel: the five principles of peace co-existence known as the Panchsheel treaty. They
were first in an agreement accepted by china and India in 1954. These five principles are :
1) Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty
2) Non aggression on each other
3) Non interference in each other’s internal affairs
4) Peaceful settlement of disputes
5) To promote world peace

Factors responsible for India’s foreign Policy or Main determents of India’s foreign Policy
India’s foreign policy is determined by a number of factors some of the important factors
which influences the foreign policy of India are classified into internal and external factors:
� Geographical location: the geography of India, including climate, location in relation to
her land masses and water ways etc. also influences India’s foreign policy. A natural frontier
in the form of Himalayas in the north and Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal on
the three sides has influenced its foreign policy.
� History and culture: the historical links with the British was responsible for India remaining
in the wealth of nation. India’s culture values such as peaceful co-existence, mutual respect,
tolerance, neutrality are reflected in India’s foreign policy.
� Economy: India’s foreign largely depends on her economic strength. A weak nation can
never have an effective foreign policy. To secure technical assistance from super powers by
following the path of non-alignment. India was also able to get much needed assistance
from the USSR, the US and the European countries.
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� International Issues: India had to adjust to the constraints and compulsions of changing
equations among nations on international relations. International issues like cold war,
military alliances, nuclear weapons, military aid to countries etc were taken into
consideration when the country’s foreign policy was formulated.
� International economic system: A developing country like India had to depend on
international monetary institutions like World Bank, IMF, and other developed nations to
meet her developmental inputs.

Sino-India war of 1962 or causes of Sino-India war 1962

The primary cause of 1962 war between India and China was a serious border conflict emerged in
border areas like Himalayas, ladakh, Tibet and Thagla which were exclaimed in disputed areas.
China refused to accept the sanctity of the “Mcmohan line” separating India from china in the east.
It also claims over Akasai chin and Arunchal Pradesh. The Tibetan spiritual leader The Dalai Lama
fled Tibet and was given reception and asylum in India and also when China started deploying
their troops in Aksai Chin, Indian soldier’s opposed Chinese presence in the region which trigger
the conflict.

Chinese troops crossed McMahon in NEFA in the eastern sector on September 8, 1962 and
occupied huge part of Indian Territory. Nehru called Indian army to repulse the attack. Chinese
launched a massive attack on October 20, 1962 and invaded in Ladakh and across the McMahon
Line in the then North East Frontier Agency (Now Arunchal Pradesh). By 25th October Chinese were
inside about 16 miles of McMahon Line. In fact Chinese by November 16 crossed Bomdila and
reached the plains of Assam. The entire Ladakh region claimed by china was also captured by
them. In the end China retained actual control of the Aksai chin region. The war claimed about
2000 lives, in a harsh conditions of the Karokoram Mountains,14000 feet above the sea level. India
approached US and Britain for military assistance. The Soviet Union remained neutral. Suddenly on
21 November 1962 the Chinese announced unilateral cease fire. The China war tainted India’s
image at home and in the international arena.

Major Disputes between India and China:

There are two major issues between India and China:
1) Issue of Tibet: In 1950 china took over control of Tibet by force. India expressed
protest, but later clarified after signing the Panchsheel that it had no intention of
interfering in china’s internal affairs. In 1959, Tibetans revolted against the brutalities of
peoples republic of China, Dalai Lama a religious leader along with thousands Budddish
Tibetans ran and sought Asylum in India. The grant of Asylum by India to Dalai Lama
was described as an enemy like Act. But India’s Position on Tibet has been that it is a
part of China. However the recent trip of Dalai Lama to Arunchal Pradesh, China accused
India of violating its commitment and warned that allowing Dalai Lama to go there will
have negative impact.
2) Border Dispute: A road built by Akshai chin in 1956-57 to open western Tibet to
Chinese immigrants. When Chinese premiere visited India in 1954, he assured Nehru of
respecting the McMahan line. But in 1959, china laid claims over the thousands of miles
of Indian Territory and described McMahon line as Illegal. In 1959 Chinese troops came
to Khurnak Fort in Ladakh and arrested an Indian petrol Party in Akshai Chin and also
claimed 50000 sq. miles of Indian Territory. Several steps were taken to solve the border
dispute but border issued is still a major issue between the two countries.
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India Pakistan war of 1965

The India Pakistan war of 1965 was a due to a series of disputes. Right from the partition there
emerged several issues between India and Pakistan, but the issue of Kashmir is one of the severe
issues between the two countries. The Kashmir conflict didn’t allow them to work together. Both
the countries fought over the disputed Himalayan region of Kashmir. The conflict began when
Pakistan launched “Operation Gibraltar” In an attempt to capture Kashmir by force. Pakistan also
launched an armed attack in the Runn of Kutch of Gujarat. This lead to all out war on August
1965. India retaliated by launching a full scale military attack on “West Pakistan”. At the mid-night
on 06.Sep, India crossed the international border and attacked Lahore and Kasur. The attack also
started in the areas of J&K. The five week war caused thousands of causalities on both the sides.
The hostilities came to an end with UN intervention. In January 1966 both the countries signed the
“Tashkent Agreement” by President Mohammad Ayoub Khan and PM Lal Bahadur Shastri, to settle
their disputes through peaceful means.

Indian Pakistan war of 1971

During the partition in 1947, the east wing of Bengal joined the Pakistan as East Pakistan. An
independence movement broke out in East Pakistan which was brutally crushed by Pakistani
Forces. Thousands of Bengalis took refuge in neighboring India causing major refugee crises there.
In 1971 India declared its full support for the Bengali Rebels, known as “Mukti Bahini”. Finally on
4th December 1971 Pakistan waged a war against India but was defeated on all fronts. It
surrendered India unconditionally on 16th December 1971. About 93000 Pakistani troops surrender
along with General Niazi. The Net result of War was division of Pakistan and creation of
Bangladesh. Indira Gandhi and Pakistani President Z.A. Bhutto signed the Shimla Agreement in
June 1972 for the restoration of Peace and order between two states.

India’s Nuclear Programme

Jawaharlal Nehru the First PM had always believed in Modern Science and Technology, to build a
Modern India. A part of such progress was Nuclear Programme started by “Homi Bhabha”. India
wanted to generate atomic energy for peaceful purposes.
India has always believed that a world free of Nuclear weapons would enhance Global security and
India’s own National Security. In terms of National security India was faced not only with the
situation of Nuclear proliferation world over, but also its neighborhood, first in china and then in
Pakistan. China attacked India in 1962 and conducted nuclear tests in 1964 and also started
helping Pakistanis Nuclear Programme. In response to it, on May 18, 1974 India carried out
underground nuclear experiment for peaceful purposes. In May 1998 India conducted a series of
five Nuclear test explosions. However India had made it clear that these tests were conducted in
the context of National security and prevailing international situation. India didn’t sign NPT and
CTBT as these treaties discriminate between Nuclear and Non-Nuclear States. The Nuclear Deal
signed with USA in 2008, is reaffirmation of India’s approach on peaceful use of Nuclear weapons
and is likely to make India’s position in Global affairs.

Shifting Alliances in world Politics

After the end of 2nd world war, there emerged bipolarity in which India came close to USSR.
However after the collapse of USSR and emergence of unipolar world, India in search of new and
sophisticated weapons and in search of new partner and supporter in international relations, tried
to come close to the USA. Ruling parties have been criticized for their pro US tilt after 1990. After
1990, though Russia is an important friend of India, it has lost its strategic importance. As a result
of India’s foreign policy has become pro US. Further contemporary foreign policy is regulated by
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
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economic rather than military considerations. With Pakistan, while Kashmir is the main issue
between the two countries. Bus and train diplomacy between India and Pakistan didn’t prevent the
1999, Kargil war between two states. Further repeal of article 370 by India deteriorated the
relations between India and Pakistan further. While economically EU, ASEAN, China and Russia
have emerged as important centers of Power. So the foreign policy has to keep these changes in
mind while laying down the structure of relations with other states.

Shimla Agreement
The shimla Agreement was signed between India and Pakistan on 2nd July 1972 in Shimla by
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto the President of Pakistan and Indhira Gandhi the Prime Minister of India. It
followed from the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971 that lead to independence of Bangladesh,
which was earlier known as East Pakistan. The Agreement was result of resolve of both the
countries to put an end to the conflict and confrontation.
Some of the major outcomes of shimla Agreement are:
1) Both countries will, settle their differences by peaceful means through bi-lateral
negotiations.
2) Both the countries would respect each other’s national unity, territorial integrity, political
independence and sovereign equality.
3) Both the countries won’t use force against each other’s territorial integrity.

Tashkent Declaration ;
The Tashkent declaration was a peace Agreement between India and Pakistan signed on 10th
January `1966 that resolved the Indo Pakistani war of 1965. The place was Tashkent (USSR) where it
was signed. The main aim was to restore economic and diplomatic relationships in the respective
countries and to keep away from each other’s internal and external affairs, and to work towards
the progress of bilateral relations.
The McMohan Line:
The McMohan Line is a demarcation line between the Tibetan Region of china and the North East
region of India proposed by British colonial Administrator McMohan at the 1914 shimla
convention signed between British and Tibetan representatives. Although its legal status is
disputed. It is currently the effective boundary between china and India.

NPT (Non-Proliferation Treaty)

The Non Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of Nuclear weapons is an international treaty whose objective is
to prevent the spread of Nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in
peaceful uses of Nuclear Energy and to further the goal of the achieving Nuclear Disarmament and
general and complete disarmament. The treaty was signed in 1st July 1968.
India opposes the NPT (1968), because the treaty is discriminatory. The treaty denies right to
peaceful nuclear explosions by Non-Nuclear States.

CTBT (The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty)

The comprehensive test ban treaty is a multi-lateral treaty that bans all nuclear explosions for both
civilian and military purposes, in all environments. It was adopted by the United Nations General
Assembly on 10th September 1996 but has not entered into force, as eight specific nations have
not ratified the treaty. India refused to sign CTBT because it denies the right to use Nuclear Energy
for peaceful purposes.
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India’s stand on the NPT and CTBT

India’s approach to disarmament has four goals:
1. Disarmament is to apply to all countries.
2. It is to be universal.
3. It is to include all types’ of weapons.
4. It has to be implemented under strict international supervision.
It was because the NPT and CTBT did not full fill the above mentioned conditions, that India did
not sign the treaties. Its approach is that the NPT and CTBT are discriminatory.

Learning Outcomes:
After reading you should be able to answer the following questions:
� Describe Nehru’s vision on Foreign policy?
� What was the Principles of Nehru’s Foreign Policy?
� Explain the factors that determine India’s Foreign Policy?
� What are the objectives of Nehru’s Foreign Policy?
� Describe Sino-India war of 1962?
� What are the causes of Sino-India war 1962?
� What are the major disputes between India and China?
� Describe the Indo-pak war of 1965?
� Describe the Indo-Pak war of 1971?
� Write note on India’s Nuclear Programme?
� Discuss India’s shifting alliance in the world Politics?
� What is Panchsheel?
� What is shimla Agreement?
� What is Tashkent Declaration?
� Write short note NPT?
� Write short note on CTBT?
� Why has India not signed the NPT and CTBT?

Objective Questions
� Who laid the foundations of foreign policy of India?
Ans: - J.L Nehru
� Foreign policy of India was based on:
Ans: - Non Alignment
� When did Sino- India war took place:
Ans: -1962
� In which year shimla agreement took place:
Ans: - 1972
� Indo-pak war 1971 took place over the issue of:
Ans: - Bangladesh
� The 1965 war between India and Pakistan was fought on the Issue of:
Ans: - Kashmir
� When did India conducted its first nuclear test:
Ans: - 1974
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Chapter-14 CHALLENGES TO AND RESTORATION OF

CONGRESS SYSTEM
Prepared by Lect. Zahoor Mehdi (BHSS Hariganwan Ganderbal

“The congress system was first challenged during 1960’s . It faced challenges from non-congress
parties that emerged as strong opposition parties against congress system. The congress faced
challenged from within. The most powerful and inflancial leaders also challenged the congress
new/real. During and after the 1967 elections. In 1971 election congress new led by Indira Gandhi
defeated non congress parties and restored the congress by wining 1971 election.
After studying you must be able to:
1. Understand the challenge the political succession that emerged after J.L Nehru?
2. How unity of non congress party and syndicates posed a challenged to congress system
3. How Indira Gandhi overcame the challenges posed by non congress parties?
4. How 1967 election was a political earthquake for Indian National congress?
5. Understand coalition and defection as a challenge to a party politics?
6. Under the policies and programmes of Indira Gandhi that helped the restoration of
Congress system.

CHALLENGE OF POLITICAL SUCCESSION

J.L Nehru was the first PM of India. PM J.L Nehru died in 1964 that generated lot of speculation
after the question of political succession that is after Nehru who? And after Nehru What?
The 1960’s were labed dangerous decade. IN this connection many doubts emerged regarding
leadership. The main doubt was how new leaders will be able to handle different crises that
awaited a solution. The ease with which succession to place proved all critics wrong. K Kamraj the
President of congress consulted party leaders and found there was consensus in favour Lal
Bahudar Shastari. After Nehru Lal Bahadur Shiastri became PM of India from 1964 to 1966. During
his leadership he faced multiple challenges. His famous slogan “Jay Jawan Jay Kisan” symbolized
countries’s resolve to face both the challenges.Shaistri died on 10th January 1966.
After his death congress faced the political succession in two years. This time was a competition
between Morji Desai and Indira Gandhi. The senior leaders decided to back Indira Gandhi. For
political transition secret ballot among congress leaders were used and Indira Gandhi became PM
of India after shiastri.

CHALLENGES THAT EMERGED DURING 1967

OR
FOURTH GENERAL 1967:- A CHALLENGED THAT EMERGED FOR CONGRES SYSTEM
General election 1967 is known as land mark year in India’s electoral history. In the first three
elections Indian National Congress dominated the entire elections and parties as well. Thus we
witnessed domination of Indian National Congress in first three elections in India. But fourth
general election had created many challenges for congress system
The 1960’s decade is popularly known as dangerous decade, because in this decade India faced
two wars from China and Pakistan. Unresolved problems like poverty, in equality, communal and
regional divisions also emerged, the economic situation due to drought t and famine conditions
led the people to protest against the ruling party. Food scarcity and increased prise of
commodities also emerged as challenged to ruling party. Thus congress faced protests hartals and
bands from people. Now the challenge was how to solve crises that emerged in this decade.
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
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Emergence of non congressism as challenge to congress system:- As we have seen many

challenged emerged in 1960’s for Congress system. IN such situation non congress that is anti
congress party joined their hands together in order to criticize the policies and programmes of
congress. It was a socialist leader “Ram Manahar Lohia” who have this strategy the name of non
congressism. He provided theoretical argument for its defence. He advocated the that congress
was undemocratic and opposite to interests of common people. The coming of non congress
parties together was essential for reclaiming democracy for people of India. Thus non congressism
emerged as a challenged to congress system.

Fourth Lok Saba election 1967:- In February 1962 fourth general election was conducted in
India. The election of 1962 was a great challenge for a congress as non congressism emerged
against congress system. Thus political and electoral competition was between congress and non
congress system. After declaration of election both center and state assemblies lost seats but
managed to get majority in Lok Saba. Half of the ministers in Indira Gandhi’s cabinet lost in their
constituencies. IN State assemblies congress lost majorities in as many as seven states. For the first
time in the electoral history of India, coalition government were format by non congress parties.
The political scientists describe 1967 election as political earthquake. The domination of congress
system was over. In short congress system faced many challenges from non congress parties.

Emergence of Coalition and defection:-The election of 1967 witnessed the phenomena of

coalitions and defections. Coalitions:- when a single political party is not in a position to form
government of its by not getting 50% +1 seats in Lok Saba then two or more political parties join
their hands together to form a government that govt is popularly known as coalition govt.
Defection:- When elected representative leaving the party on whose ticket he/she has been
elected is known as defection. The constant realignment and shifting political loyalties in this
period gave rise to expression popularly known as “Aaya Ram Gaya Ram” (Ram Came and Ram
Went). Thus Coalition and defections also posed challenges to the party politics.

SPLITS/ FACTIONALISM IN CONGRESS SYSTEM

The real challenge to congress/ Indira Gandhi came not only from non congressism but from
within her own party. She had to deal with syndicate__ a powerful and influencial leaders from
within the congress. Indira Gandhi faced two challenges she needed to built her independence
from syndicate. She also needed to work towards regaining ground that the congress had lost in
1967 from non congress parties. Indira Gandhi adopted a bold strategy in order to achieve a
challenges posed by non congress parties and syndicates.

The faction rivalry between the syndicate and Indira Gandhi came in1969. After death of president
Zakir Hussain’s death the syndicates managed to nominate N. Sanjeeva Reddy as the official
candidate for the office of president. But Indira Gandhi encouraged V.V Giri to file his nomination
as independent candidate. Thus this difference between Indira Gandhi syndicated led base of split
within the congress. V.V Giri got elected by the support of Indira Gandhi and other members of
congress. Thus by 1969 congress led by Indira Gandhi came to be known as congress
(requisionist)/ (Congress R). and the faction led by syndicated was known as Congress old (O).
Thus these two factions were known as congress new and congress old. Thus factionalism
emerged as a challenge to congress system.
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ELECTION 1971 AND RESTORATION OF CONGRESS SYSTEM

In 1970 government led by Indira Gandhi recommended for the dissolution of Lok Sabha. The fifth
general election to Lok sabha was held in February 1971.
The electoral contest was between congress real led by Indira Gandhi and Grand Alliances formed
by Non congress and Non communist parties. More over congress old led by syndicates were
opposed to Indira Gandhi. The new congress led by Indira Gandhi had something that its big
opponents lacked. It had an issue, an agenda and a positive slogan. The Grand alliance did not
have a coherent and people friendly policies and programmes. According to Indira Gandhi the
grand Alliances had only one programme that is “Indira Hato ( Remove Indira). But her party had
one slogan i.e. Garibi Hato ( Remove Poverty). Through this slogan Indira got support from people
and got popular support during election of 1971.
After declaration of result, congress (R) led by Indira Gandhi and CPI alliances won more seats and
votes than earlier elections. The combine won 375 seats and secured 48.4 parent votes. Congress
(R) / New managed to secure 352 with 44% of votes on its own. The Indira Gandhi regained its
electoral dominance. The Grand Alliances of the opposition proved a grand failure. They won with
combine only less than 40.
With two successive election victories one at center other at state level, the dominance of the
congress was restored. The congress was now in power both at centre and state assemblies with a
span of four years. Indira Gandhi had awarded the challenge to her leadership and to the
dominant position of the congress party. Thus there was revival of congress system.

IF YOU WANT TO UNDERSTAND MORE THE READ.

1. Politics in India since independence by N.C.E.R.T.
2. Politics in India by Paul Brass.
3. India after Gandhi by Ram Chandra Guha.
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
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AFTER STUDYING THIS LESSON NOW YOU MUST BE ABLE TO ANSWER THE FOLLOWING
QUESTIONS.

Q NO. 1. Which of these statements about 1971 election are correct.

a) Congress new led by Indira Gandhi was defeated by syndicates.
b) Indira Gandhi led congress won 1971 election with great majority
c) Both syndicates and now congress parties were in favour of Indira Gandhi.
d) Now congress parties won 1971 election after defeating Indira Gandhi.

Q NO. 2. Which of the following statement is correct about 1967election.

a) End of congress dominant system.
b) Non congress parties were supporting INC.
c) System of coalition and defection did not emerge in 1967election.
d) Indira Gandhi did not formed govt. in the Lok Sabha.

Q NO. 3. Explain how political succession emerged as a challenge to congress system?

Q NO. 4. How 1967 election changed the dominant nature of congress system.

Q NO. 5. How congress new/ Indira Gandhi faced the challenges during 1971 election.
Discuss how she managed to restore congress system.

Q NO. 6. Explain the following?

a) Syndicates.
b) Coalitions.
c) Grand Alliances.
d) Defection.
e) Non Congress.

Q NO. 7. Discuss the major issue which led to the formal split of the congress party in 1969.
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
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(Chapter-15) CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC ORDER

Prepared by Lect. Zahoor Mehdi (BHSS Hariganwan, Ganderbal)

“The congress party led by Indira Gandhi restored and recovered the dominant position after 1971
election but not the same kind of party that dominated the first three general elections. The
difference appeared in a series of events between 1973 and 1975 that brought challenge to
democratic politics and the Institutional balance provided by constitution of India. These
development led to imposition of emergency in June 1975. The emergency ended as dramatically
as it had began, resulting in a defeat of the congress in Lok Saba election 1977”
After studying this lesson you must be able to understand
1. Why emergency wass imposed?
2. Bihar and Gujrat movement in India that led emergency?
3. Consequences of emergency?
4. Understand how Janta Party emerged as strong rulling party in 1977 elections.
5. Lessons learnt from emergency?

REASONS BEHIND EMERGENCY IN 1975

In India the emergency refers t an 18 month period from 1975 to 1977 when Prime Minister Indira
Gandhi had a state of Emergency declared across the country officially ussuedby the president
Fakhrudin Ali Ahmad under Article 352 of the constitution because of prevailing internal
disturbances. The Emergency was in effect from 26 June 1975 until its withdrawl in January
1977.Following things emerged before the proclamation of emergency.
1. Economic Conditions:- After 1971-72 economic conditions did not improve, the
Bangladesh war had put heavy strain on India’s economy. The inflation caused by economic
stagnation caused much hardships to people. Industrial growth was low and unemployment
was high. The employees were not satisfied with the policies and programmes of rulling
party. Due to drought and famine conditions, there wad decline in agricultural productivity.
Food grain output declined 8%. So, war with Pakistan and China led together burden on
India’s economy. More over food scarcity had dissatisfied the common people. In such
context Non-congress parties organized popular protests against government. The
government considered these popular protests as law and order problem not as aspiration
and needs of people. Thus on the ground of internal disturbance, imposition of emergency
emerged.
2. Bihar Movement:- The Bihar movement was political movement initiated by students in
1974. It was led by Gandhian Socialist Jay Prakash Narayan known as JP Movement against
misrule and corruption in the state government. It later on attacked the policies and
programmes of Central Government led by Indira Gandhi. It was also called Sampoorna
Kranti (Total Revolution and J.P Movement).
In March 1974 students came together in Bihar to protest against rising prices, food
Scarcity, unemployment and corruption. A series of Bandhs, Gheros and strikes were
organized in protest against the Bihar Govt. The government however refused to resign.
3. Gujrat Movement: - Narnariman Andolan (Reconstruction Movement) was a Socio-political
movement in 1974 in Gujrat led by students and middle class people against economic
crises and corruption in public life. In January 1974 students in Gujrat started an agitation
against corruption, rising prices of food grains, cooking oil and other essential
commodities. The protest was joined by major opposition parties and become wide spread
leading to the imposition of presidential rule in the state. Under internal pressure from
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students supported by opposition parties, assembly election were held in Gujrat in June
1975. The Congress was defeated in this election.
Thus both Bihar and Gujrat movement led the conditions for emergence of
emergency. Both movements/ agitations were the leadership of Indira Ghandhi. She
believed that such movements were motivated by personal opposition to her.

4. Conflict with Judiciary: - In the Democratic history of India, there was a period of tension
between the government (parliamentary legislature , executive and Judiciary). The Judiciary
found may initiatives of government to be violation of constitution. Three constitutional
issues had emerged. Can the parliament abridge fundamental rights, secondly can the
parliament curtail the right to property by making an amendment , thirdly the parliament
amended the saying constitution saying that it can bridge fundamental rights. But the
Judiciary said in all three cases “NO” so, conflict emerged when congress party took the
position that this stand of Judiciary was against principles of Democracy and parliamentary
supremacy.
Two developments further created conditions that led tension between executive and
judiciary. In the appointment of Chief Justice of Supreme Court, the govt. set aside the
seniority of the judges and appointed Justice A. Roy as Chief Justice of India. The end of the
confrontation was of course the ruling of high court declaring Indira Gandhi election in
valid.
Thus to conclude, it is now evident that conflict between executive and judiciary led the
conditions for the emergence of imposition of emergency.

HOW AND WHY EMERGENCY WAS IMPOSED BY CONGRESS LED BY INDIRA GANDHI
OR
WIRTE A SHORT NOTE ON DECLARATION OF EMERGENCY IN INDIA
From the wording of the provision of constitution it is clear that an emergency is seen as an extra
ordinary condition in which normal democratic politics cannot function, therefore special powers
are given to govt. once an emergency is imposed, the federation distribution of powers remain
practically suspended and all powers are concentrated in the hands of union govt. moreover
fundamental rights are also suspended during Emergency.
After 1971 elections, Indira Gandhi led congress was in power after obtaining majority of seats for
making government. The opposition parties led by Jay Prakash Narayan pressed for Indira
Gandhi’s resignation and organized a massive demonstration in Delhi’s Ram Lela ground on 25
June 1975. The political mood of country had gone against the congress more than ever before,
more over the election of Indira Gandhi was challenged in the Judiciary on 12the June 1975.
The response of the govt was to declare a state of emergency on June 25, 1975 the government
declared that there was a threat of internal disturbance article 352 was imposed on the ground of
internal threat, government decided the proclamation of state of emergency necessary. On the
night of 256th June 1975, the Prime minister recommended the imposition of emergency to
President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmad. He issued the proclamation immediately. Thus emergency was
imposed on 25the Jun 1975.

WHAT WERE THE CONSIQUENCES OF EMERGENCY IMPOSED ON 25TH June 1975.

After proclamation of Emergency, the leaders of opposition parties were put behind bars. The
protests and agitations were stopped, the political situation become very quiet. The government
suspended the freedom of press. Press censorship was imposed by ruling party. Most importantly
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the fundamental rights of citizens were also suspended. The govt. made excessive use of
preventive detention, thus during emergency we have witnessed the suspension of Democracy.
The parliament of India brought new changes in the constitution of India. By making amendment
it was made clear that election of prime minister, president and vice president cannot be
challenged in the law court. The 42 amendment was also passed by parliament of India the tenure
of legislature was extended for six years.
To conclude, it is now evident that ruling party has declared emergency on the ground of internal
disturbance created by opposition parties and other democratic institutions in India. Thus on 25th
June 1975, Democracy was suspended. The critics say that Indira Gandhi misused a constructional
provision meant for saving the country to save her personal power.

WHAT WERE THE LESSONS OF EMERGENCY

The first lesson of Emergency is that is extremely difficult to do away with democracy in India.
Although during emergency India ceased to be democratic but it is not worthy that democratic
functioning resumed very soon after emergency. Democracy was unspended by restored after
emergency.
The second lesson of emergency is that many doubts were raised against proclamation of
emergency. In order to remove such doubts many provisions of Indian constitution were rectified
internal emergency can be imposed only on the ground of armed rebellion. For proclamation of
emergency Union Cabinet must advice the president for proclamation of emergency though
writing.
The third lesson that we learnt is that importance of civil liberties in democracy was felt by citizens
of India. In this connection civil liberties organizations come up after emergency. The Judiciary also
played important role in protecting civil liberties in India.
The fourth lesson is that during emergency Bureaucracy was committed to ruling party. After
emergency it was felt that Bureaucracy must be neutral and impartial. Government must run the
administration according to the provision of constitution. Independence of Bureaucracy and
Judiciary must be in Democratic state so that ruling party will not abuse of the power.
The fifth lesson that we learnt during emergency is that there is need of supremacy of constitution.
Different organs of government must follow the constitution. No organ of the govt. must misuse
the power provided by the constitution.
The last lesson of emergency was learnt as soon as emergency was over. The 1977 elections turned
into a referendum on the experience of the emergency. The opposition parties fought election on
the slogan of save Democracy. The lesson was clear that the governments that are perceived to be
anti-democratic are punished by the voters. In this sense the experience of emergency ended up
strong thing the foundation of democracy in India.
Thus the experience of 1977-79 taught another lesson in democratic policies. Governments that
are seen to be unstable and quarrelsome are punished by the voters.

LOK SASHA ELECTION 1977 AND EMERGENCE OF JANTA PARTY IN INDIAN ELECTORAL AND
POLITICAL SYSTEM
The janta party (People’s party) was an amalgam of Indian political parties (Barati Janasang Baratia
Lokdal, Congress for Democracy, Socialist party and Congress (O)) Opposite to emergency that
was imposed between 1975 to 1977. The major opposition parties have already coming closer in
pre-emergency period. Now they come together on the eve of election 1977 and formed a new
party on 23rd January 1977 popularly Janta Party. New party accepted new leadership of Jay
prakash Narayan.
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The Janta party made this election in to a referendum on the emergency. Its campaign was
focused on the non democratic character of the rule and on the various excesses that took place
during this period. In the back drop of emergency, Jay Prakash Narayan became the symbol of
restoration of Democracy. The opposition party or parties particularly Janta Party fought 1977
election on the slogan of “Save Democracy”. The formation of Janta Party also ensured that non
congress votes would not be divided. Thus election of 1977 was fought between congress (R) led
by Indira Gandhi and Janta Party formed after emergency.
After declaration of results of election of 1977. The Janta Party won LOk Saba election. The
congress was strongly defeated. The congress could win only 154 seats in the Lok Saba. It’s Share
of popular vote fell less than 35%. The Janta Party and its allies 330 seats out of 542 in the Lok
Saba. Janta Party itself 295 seats and enjoyed a clear majority. Election 1977 was thus massive
electoral verdict against congress.
Thus Janta Party Government that came to power in 1977 elections was far from cohesion. After
the election there was competition among three leaders for the post of PM. Eventually Moraji
Desai became the first non congress PM of India. The Janta Party then split and the govt which was
led by Moraji Desai lost its majority in less than 18 months. Another Government headed by
charan singh was formed by support by the congress party but later congress withdraw its
support with the result Janta government remained in power for just about 4 months under the
prime ministership of Charan Singh. Fresh Lok Saba election were held in 1980 the Janta Party that
emerged as a strong party 1977 elections was thus defeated by Congress led by Indira Gandhi in
1980.

Learning outcome:-
1. What were the conditions that led to imposition of emergency in India?
2. How Janta Party emerged as strong party 1977 election?
3. Write a short note on declaration of emergency in India?
4. What lesson we learnt from emergency?
5. Write a short note on Bihar and Gujrat Movements?
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(Chapter-16) REGIONAL ASPIRATION AND CONFLICTS

(EMERGENCE OF REGIONAL PARTIES IN INDIAN POLITICS)
Prepared by Lect. Zahoor Mehdi (BHSS Hariganwan Ganderbal

A regional party is any political party with its base in single region whatever its objectives and
platforms may be regional parties specifically campaign for greater autonomy or independent in
their region. Regionalists aim at increasing the political power and influence available to all or
some residents of a region. The regional aspirations and demands are frequently expressed by
regional parties.
The emergence of regional parties in India has a geo-political importance. India is a continental
polity with wide range of socioeconomic, cultural and ethnic diversity under conditions of
democratic culture, these diversities are bound to indeed aspire for political autonomy. One way
of expression of political autonomy in a federation is the formation of regional parties in order to
began with the centre for a better regional development many factors such as ethnic / cultural
factor, Geographical factor , historical factor, Religious factor, economic factor, lust for power,
reaction against centralization, regional feelings and aspirations, end of one party dominance led
the emergence of regional parties. In the era of coalition govt. from 1989-2014, regional parties
like Sheinoni Akali Dal, National Conference, All India Anna Drarida Munmetra , Telegudesam,
Asam Gona Sangram Parrishad, Peoples Democratic Party played important role in the formation
of coalition government. These parties demanded autonomy within the frame work of Indian
Constitution.

REGIONAL ASPIRATION IN PANJAB

The decade of 1980 saw major development in the state of Punjab. The social composition of the
state changed first with partition and later on after carving out Haryana and Himachal Pradesh in
1966. The Sikhs were now majority in the newly formed state of Punjab.
In 1967 and 1977 Akalis come to power but it was coalition government. During this period the
position of Akalis remained precarious. Firstly, Akali Government was dismissed by Centre midway.
Secondly, they did not enjoy support then Akalis.
It was in this content during 1970’s a section of Akalis began to demand political autonomy for the
region. Thus was reflected in a resolution passed at their conference at Anandpur Sahib in 1973.
This resolution demanded regional autonomy and wanted to redefine centre state relationship.
This resolution was a plea for strengthening federation. But it could be interpreted as plea for
separate Sikh Nation. In 1980, Akali government was once again dismissed by centre. A section of
the religious leaders raised the question of Sikh identity. The more extremist elements started
advocating secession from India and creation of Khalistan.
For creation of separate nation state of Khlistan, the armed insurgency approved in Punjab. The
Sikhs militents made their head quarter inside the Golden Temple and turned it into an armed
fortress. Since 1981, the Akali extremists have been taking hard line approach for establishing a
new all sikh nation called Khalistan. In order to combat insurgency in Punjab,. In June 1984,
government of India carried out operation blue star, code name for army action in the Golden
Temple. Thus cycle of violence started between militants of Punjab and Indian Army. The
assassination of Indira Gandhi on 31 Oct, 1984 further complicated the Punjab problem. They led
communal riots between Hindus and Sikhs. In Sikh riots of 1984, Sikhs were killed in large number.
Thus this event further complicated the Punjab problem. The cycle of violence continued rarely for
a decade.
The process of peace was started by P.M Rejiv Gandhi after the congress won 1984 election.
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Rajiv Gandhi initiated a dialogue with moderate Akali leaders. In July 1985, He reached an
agreement with Harchand Singh longwall then the president of Akali Dal. This ogrement is known
as Rejiv Longwas accord or Punjab Accord. It was step to bring normalcy in Punjab. It was agreed
that Chandigarh would be transferred in Punjab, a saperate commission would b appointed to
resolve the border dispute between Punjab and Haryana and to decided the sharing of water of
Ravi River among Punjab, Haryana and Rajistan. The agreement also provided for compensation to
those who affected by militancy and withdrawal of Armed forces special power act in Punjab.
Militancy was eventually returned by Indian armed forces. Peace retuned to Punjab by the middle
of 1990’s. Though religious identities continue to be important for the people, politics has
gradually moved back along secularism.

REGIONAL ASPIRATION IN NORTH EAST

In the northeast, regional aspiration reached a turning point in 1980’s. This region now consists of
seven states also referred to as seven sisters. The region has witnessed a lot of change since 1947.
The entire region of northeast has undergone considerable political reorganization of Nagaland,
Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh were carved out of Assam and became separate
Federalism states in India. Regionalism emerged in this region as the region felt that they are
neglected and ignored by the centre. The issue of underdevelopment was the main reason behind
regionalism. At the same time States in the region underwent demographic change due to flow of
migrants from neighbouring states and countries.
The isolation of region, the social character and its backwardness have resulted in the complicated
set of demands from different states of the north east. Three issues dominate politics in this
region, Demands for autonomy, Movement for secession and opposition to outsiders.
At the time of independence entire region except Manipur and Tripura comprised the state of
Assam Demands for political Autonomy. There were opposition and protest riots through out the
state. Leaders of major tribal communities wanted to separate from Assam they formed the
eastern tribal Union which later transformed into a more comprehensive. All party Hill leaders
conference in 1960, they demanded tribal states to be carved out of Assam. The central
government had then created Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland out of
Assam and Tripura and Manipur were upgraded into States too. Thus reorganization of North East
States was Completed in 1972.
Seven Sisters:-
1. Assam.
2. Manipure-1972
3. Triputa-1972
4. Nagaland-1963
5. Meghalaya-1972
6. Mizoram-1987
7. Arunachal Pradesh-1987
These are also called seven sisters.

SECESSIONIST MOVEMENT IN MIZORAM AND NAGALAND.

Demand of Autonomy were easily responded but some groups demanded a separate nation state
(Country) not in a momentary anger but consistently as principled position. The country face this
problem at least from two states Mizoram and Nagaland.
After independence, the Mizo hill area was made an autonomous district within Assam. Some
Mizo’s believed they were not part of British India hence they are not part of India. In 159 Mizo’s
formed the Mizo National Front (MNF). Founder and leader of MNF was laldenga who turned to a
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rebel after the experience of famine in 1959 led an armed struggle against India for two decades.
Laldenga demanded independence from India. Thus started two decades long battle between
MIzo National Front and India Army.
At the end of two decades insurgency, Lal denga and Rajiv Gandhi signed an agreement of peace
in 1986. As per this accord Mizoram was given full-fledged statehood and with special power .
MNF agreed to give up secessionist struggle.

SECCESSIONIST MOVEMENT IN NAGALAND

The Nagaland attained State Hood on 30th November 1963 with the enactment of the State of
Nagaland Act 1962 by the Parliament. The State of Nagaland was formally inaugurated on 1 Dec.
1963. The demand and aspiration of Nagaland were same as to Mizoram. Naga Nation council
come into exiistan0ce on 2nd February 1946. The Naga National Council began armed struggle
against Indian State and demanded separate Nation State for Nagaland. It started much earlier led
by Angam Zapu Phizo a section of Nagas declared independence from Indian way back in 1951.
After a period of violent insurgency a section of the Nagas an agreement with government of India
but it was not acceptable to other rebels. The problem of Nagaland waits for final solution.

MOVEMENT AGAINST OUTSIDERS

The large scale of migration into the north east gave rise to a special kind of problem that lifted
local communists against people who were seen as outsiders or migrants. The Assam movement
from 1979 to 1085 is the best example of such movements against outsiders. In 1979, All Assam
students union led Anti foreigners movement. The movement was against illegal migrants,
domination of Bengalis and other outsiders, against faulty voters. The movement demanded that
all outsiders who had entered the State after 1951 should be sent back. The agitation follows many
Novels methods in order to mobilize Assam people.
Eventually after six years of the turmoil, Rajiv Gandhi led govt. entered negotiation with the AASU
(All Assam Students Union) leaders leading to the signing of an accord popularly known as Assam
Accord. According to this Accord those foreign who migrated into Assam were to be identified
with the successful completion of Movement, Assam Gana Sangram Parrishid emerged as Regional
Political Party known as Assam Gana Parishad. It came in power in 1985. Thus Assam Accord
brought peace and changed the politics in Assam but it did not solve the problem of Immigration.
This issue continues in the politics of Assam and other north eastern States.
Thus to conclude, the regional aspiration in North Eastern States emerged in different forms
ranging from Autonomy to complete freedom. The Movement against outsiders were also most
demand of North Eastern States. Many agreements had helped to bring peace in the region but
solution to many problems is still waiting.
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REGIONAL ASPIRATION IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR

Jammu and Kashmir comprised three social and political regions:- Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh.
The heart of the Kashmir region is the Kashmir valley. The people are kashmiri speaking and
mostly muslims with a small kashmiri speaking Hindu Minority. Jammu region is a mix of foothills
and plans of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs and speakers of various languages.
The Kashmir issue is not just a dispute between India and Pakistan. The issue has external and
Internal dimensions. It involves the issue of Kashmir identity known as Kashmiriyat and the
aspiration of the people of J&K for political autonomy.
Before 1947, J&K was a princely State, its Hindu ruler Hari Singh, did not want to merge with India
and tried to negotiate with India and Pakistan to have an independent status for his state. The
Pakistan leaders thought the Kashmir region belonged to Pakistan. The national conference
wanted to get rid of Maharaja Hari Singh but was against joining Pakistan.
In October 1947, Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators from its side to capture Kashmir this forced the
Maharaja to ask for Indian military help India’s military support and drove back the infiltrators from
Kashmir valley. Then Maharaja had signed an instrument of accession with govt of India. It was
also agreed that once the situation normalized, the views of the people of J&K will be ascertained
about their future. Sheikh Abdulla becomes Prime Minister of the state of J&K in 1948. India
agreed to maintain the autonomy of J&K.
Internally there is a dispute about status of J7K within the India Union J&K was given a special
status by article 270 in our constitution article 370 gives greater Autonomy to J&K, compare to
other states of India. The special status have provoked two opposite reactions. There are people
outside state who believe that article 370 does not allow full integralism of the state. They are in
favors of abrogation of Article 370. Recently on 5th August 2019, BJP Abrogated Article 370 and
reorganization of state took place by making J&K and Ladakh two different Union Territories. Thus
Statehood of J&K come to an end. This generated new demands and aspiration within the UT of
J&K, and Lakakh.
On the other hand Kashmiris believe that Autonomy granted by Article 370 is not enough. They
demand for greater Autonomy within the frame work of constitution. There is feeling that Article
370 has been eroded in practice. They now demanded for greater state Autonomy. Most people
also feel that Democracy has not been institutionalized in the State of J&K. The mainstream parties
in J7K are facing new challenges.
By 1989, the state had come in the grip of militant movement mobilized around the cause of a
separate Kashmir nation. The Insurgent got moral, material and military support from Pakistan.
Insurgency started between Indian army and militants of J&K throughout the period from 1990,
J&K experienced violence in the hands of insurgents and army action. The violence still continues
in J&K.

Separatist politics which surfaced in Kashmir from 1989 has taken different forms and it made up
of various strands. There is one strand who wants a separate Kashmir Nation, independent of India
and Pakistan. Then there are groups who want to merge with Pakistan. Besides there is third strand
which wants greater Autonomy for the people of State within India Union. The inter State
Autonomy is as strong as the demand for the state Autonomy. The initial period of militancy has
now given way to urge for peace. The centre has started negotiation with various separatist
groups. Instead of demanding a separate nation most of the separatist in dialogue are trying to
renegotiate a relationship of state with India.
Externally Pakistan has always claimed that Kashmir valley should be part of Pakistan. Pakistan
sponsored a tribal invasion of the state in 1947, as a conservance of which one part of the state
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come under Pakistani control. Pakistan calls it Azad Kashmir and India considers it illegal
occupation. Since 1947 Kashmir remained a major issue between India and Pakistan.
Thus to conclude it is clear now that politics of accession and politics of secession continues in
different forms and manifestation. Internally mainstream parties demand greater autonomy and
separatist have their own demands and aspirations. Indian Union recently abrogated Article 370
for the full integration of J&K State. Reorganization of J&K state took place on 5th August 2019.
Now J&K and Lakakh were made two Union Territories. Thus politics of Accession and succession
still continues.

NATIONAL CONFERENCE
The J&K National Conference is a political party in the Indian Union Territory of J&K. Founder as
the all J&K Muslim Conference by Sheikh Abdullah and Chaudhary Ghulam Abbass in 1932 in the
princely state of J&K. The organization renamed itself to National Conference in 1939 in order to
represent all the people of the State. It supported accession of the princely state to India in 1947
since 1947, the National Conference was in power in J&K in one form or another till 2002 and
again between 2009-2014. It implemented land reforms in the state, ensured the state’s Autonomy
under Article 370 of Indian constitution and formulated a separate constitution of J7K in 1957.
After Sheikh Abdulla’s death, Farooq Abdullah and Umer Abdullah lead the National Conference in
the electoral politics of J&K

National Conference believed in Socialism, Democracy and Secularism. It always supported Article
370 for Autonomy. Advocates of 1953, position in 2000 by demanding Great Autonomy. It is
against Abrogation of Article 370 and reorganization of State.

PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC PARTY

The Jammu and Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party is a State political paty in Union Territory of
J&K. The PDP was founded by Mufti Mohammad Sayeed in 1998, his daughter Mehbooba Mufti,
succeeded him as party leader and Chief Minister of J&K after his death in January 2016. It
captured power in J&K in October 2002 Assembly election. In 2004, it has one member each in Lok
Sabha and Rajya Sabha. It was a member of ruling united progressive alliances until 2009 general
election. In 2014 general election, three of its member were elected to Lok Sabha, its strength in
the legislature was 28 and in the Rajya Sabha two (2). The party ran a coalition government in J7K
with Bharatiya Janta Party until the BJP abandoned the coalition on June 2018 due to concerns
about terrorism and radicalization in Kashmir. After Abrogated of Article 370 and reorganization of
the state, many members of PDP left party and formed separate Party.
The People’s Democratic Party has full faith in Democracy, Secularism and Security, the party
believed in the dignity and security of the people of J&K. The party is against repressive members.
The PDP stressed on sincere efforts to create an atmosphere for the resolution of Kashmir
problem. In Assembly election held in 2002 PDP secured 16 seats and in 2008 Assembly election
the party secured 21 seats. In Assembly election 2014 PDP secured 28 seats. The BJP-PDP formed
coalition government after 2014 election but BJP left coalition before its tenure.
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Learning Outcome
1. How coalition government dominated enter electoral and Indian political since 1989.
2. What Mandal Issue.
3. Why Mandal commission/ Commission for back ward classes.
4. What was Ayodiya dispute? How it emerged as challenge to Indias Democracy and
secularism.
5. Write a short note on election 2004.
6. How BJP emerged Majority ruling party in 2014 and 2019.
7. What do you mean by coalition governments.
8. Who was chairperson of Mandal commission.
9. What do you understand by Hindutva.
10. When was national front govt. formed as coalition govt.

Suggested further readings

1. Politics in India since independence by NCERT.
2. Indian Politics and Government by F.L Fadia.
3. Politics in India since Independence by Paul Bras.
4. Constitutional History of J&K by A.G Noorani.
5. Integration of Princely States by K.P.S Menon.
6. India after Gandhi by Ram Chander Guha.

Bibliography/ Books studied for preparation of study of material

1. Politics in India since independence by NCERT.
2. Indian Politics and Government by F.L Fadia.
3. Politics in India since Independence by Paul Bras.
4. Wikipedia.
5. Constitute at work by NCERT.
6. All books of political Science and history prepared and published by NCERT.
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(CHAPTER-17) POPULAR MOVEMENTS IN INDIA/ RISE OF NEW

MOVEMENTS IN INDIA
Prepared by Lect. Zahoor Mehdi(BHSS Hariganwan Ganderbal

After studying this lesson you must be able to understand

1. Chipko movement and Narmada Andolan movements as environment/ ecological
movement.
2. How farmers of India demanded their rights.
3. Understand how women of India faced problems in Indian society and how they started
movements for safeguarding their rights.
4. Understand cast movements in India.

PEASANT OR FARMERS
In the 1970’s diverse social groups like Farmers, Dalits, students, women felt that democratic
politics did not address their needs and aspirations and demands therefore they come together
under the banner of various social organizations to voice their demands. These assertions marked
the rise of popular or new social movements in Indian politics.

TELEGHANA MOVEMENT
There have been a number of peasants revolt in independent India. The Teleghana peasant
movement started in Mid 1946 and continued till October of 1951. This movement engulfed the
whole of the teleghana region of Hyderabad and adjoining Districts of Andrapradesh. It has been
regarded as most revolutionary of all movements in India. The objective of the movement was
broad one and was concerned with whole of the peasantry against illegal and excessive extraction
by the rural feudal Aristocracy. The most important demand was that all peasant dest should be
written off. The second stage of the movement began when in order to counter the oppression
done by feudal Aristocracy the peasants’ lead armed struggle. In September 1948 Indian troops
took over the state and moved against the communists in teleghana.

NAXALBARI MOVEMENT
The Naxalbari peasant uprising that occurred in the Northern part of west Bengal is the last major
uprising India has witnessed. It took place in post colonial India and was led by a faction of (CPIM).
The most prominent leaders were Kanu Sanyal and Chru Majumdar. It erupted in the foot hills of
Himalayan in West Bengal in a place called NAXALBARI. It is in this region that peasants’
movement took a militant form or turn. The Agrarian revolt arose in the month of April 1967 and
continued till June 1967. The leader of the movement demanded specified ten tasks.
The land which was not used and tilled by peasants themselves was to redistributed, peasants
burnt all legal deeds and documents, unequal agreements between money lender and peasants
were to declared null and void. Hoarded rice be distributed among peasants. All Jotedars be tried
and sentenced to death. Ho argued the peasants to arm themselves with traditional weapons. But
the movement comes halt when West Bengal police entered the region and swept the area.

NEW FARMERS MOVEMENT

In contemporary India some prominent movements of farmers are:- one led by Bharatiya Kisen
Union (BKU) AND Shetkari Sangathan (SS). Agrarian Struggles of the Eighties is one such example
where better of farmers protested against the policies of the state.
The BKU was originally formed on August 13 -1978 in Naryana under the guidance of Charan
Singh and the Shetkari Sangathan has its origin in the late 70’s and the founder leader was
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Sharhad Joshi of Maharashtra. In January 1988 around twenty thousand formers had gathered at
the city of meerut in Uttarpradash. They were protesting against the Govt decision to increase
electricity rates. The farmers camped for about three weeks outside the District collectors office
until their demands were fulfilled. This agitation was seen as great power of farmer cultivators. The
agitation members were of the Bharatiya Kisem Union and Organization of farmers from Western
Utter Pradesh and Harrayana Region. Activities conducted by BKU to pressurize the State for
accepting its demands include rallies, demonstration, sit-ins and Jail Burro agitations. The BKU
demanded higher govt. floor prices for sugar can and wheat, abolition of restriction on interstate
movement f farm produce, guaranteed supply of electricity at reasonable rates, waiving of
repayment due on loans to farmer and the provision of govt. pension for farmers.

Similar demands were made by other farmers organization in the country. Shetkari Sangathan of
Maharashtra declared the farmers movement as war of Bharat against forces of India. Both farmers
organizations attacked the policies of economic liberalization and thus pressure rise the Govt. to
fulfill the needs and demands of the farmers.

CHIPKO MOVEMENT
Chipko movement was started in 26th march 1074 spontaneously in two or three villages of
Uttrakhend at that time Uttrakhand was the part of Utterpradesh in an effort to save areas of trees
ad forests from cutting by forest contractors. In Hindi Chipko literally means stick and people
started sticking/ Hugging to trees when it was being cut. One of sunderlal Bahaguna’s notable
contribution to that cause and environmentalism in general was his creation of chipko’s Slogan “
Ecology is Permanent Economy” The chipko movement was thus a movement that practiced
method of satayagraha where both male and female activists from Uttrakhend played important
role in protecting and preserving natural forests from deforestation. According to Ram Chander
Guha in his Book “Unquiet woods” Villagers rallied together to save the Oak and rhododemdron
forests near their villages. When government contractors came to cut down the trees, villagers
including large numbers of women, stepped forward to hug the trees to prevent their being felled.
The livelihood of villagers was on the natural resources. This movement raised the issue of
ecological sustain ability, so concern about economy, ecology and political representation underly
the Chipko movement. Women’s active participation in the Chipko Movement was a very Novel
aspect of the movement. The movement achieved a victory when the government issued a ban on
felling of trees in the Himliyan region until green cover was fully restored.

NARMADA, BACHO, ANDOLAN

Narmads Bacho Andolan (NBA) is an Indian Social Movement spear headed by native tribals
farmers, environmentalists and human rights activists against a number of large dam projects
across river Narmada which flows through the State of Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
Sardar Sarova Dam in Gujrat is one of the biggest Dams on the River. Its advocates say that it
would benefit huge areas of Gujrat and three adjoining states interms of availability of drinking
water, water for irrigation, generation of electricity and increase of agricultural production. In the
process of construction of dams 245 villages from these states were expected to get submerged. It
required relocation and proper rehabilitation of the project. Affected people were first raised by
local activists groups. It was around 1988-89 that the issues crystallized under the banner of the
NBA a loose collective of local voluntary Organization.
The mode of campaign under NBA includes court actions, Hunger strikes and gatherings support
from notable and art personalities. The Narmada, Bacho and Andolan with its leading spokes
persons Medha Patkar and Babu Amte. Narmada Bacho and Andolan, a movement to save
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
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Narmada, opposed to the construction of these dams and questioned the nature of ongoing
development projects in the country. The movement demanded proper and just rehabilitation of
all those who were affected by this project. The movement also questioned the nature of decision
making process that go in the making of Mega-dams. Narmada Bacho Andolan insisted that local
communities must have say in such decisions and they should have effected control over natural
resources like water, land and forests. The movement also asked why in democracy should some
people be made to sacrifice for benefiting others. All these considerations led the NBA to shift
from its initial demand for rehabilitation to its position of total opposition to dam.
Thus Narmada Bacho and Andolan continued a sustained agitation for more than twenty years. It
used every available democratic strategy to put forward its demand. These included appeals to the
judiciary, mobilization of support at international level, public rallies in support of movement and
revival of the forests of satyagraha. In 2003, the govt. formulated National rehabilitation policy and
this is a major achievement of NBA.

WOMENS MOVEMENT IN INDIA

Women’s movement is a set of movements aimed at defining, establishing and defending equal
political, economic and social rights and equal opportunities for women in India. It is the pursuit of
women’s rights within the society of India. Feminist in India seek gender equality, right to work for
equal wages, right to equal access to health and education, equal political rights. India feminists
have also fought against cultural issues within India’s patriarchal society such as inherent law.
The history of feminism in India can be divided into three phases:-The first phase beginning in the
mid nineteenth century initiated when male European colonists began to speak out against social
evils of sati. The second phase nineteen fifteen to till India’s independence, when Gandhi in
corporated women’s movement in quite India movement and Independent women’s organization
began to immerge and finally the third phase post independence which has focused fair treatment
of women at home after marriage, in the work and right to political parity. Neera Desai observed
that women’s movement is the organized effort to achieve a common goal of equality and
liberation of women and it presupposes sensitivities to crucial issues effecting women’s life. On the
basis Paradigm “Gail omvedit classifies women’s movement into two types, first women’s equality
movements and second women’s liberation movement.
The first two decades after India’s independence were full of optimism. The overall feeling was that
as far as women’s issue are concerned the problem is to make dejure equality into de-facto
equality. As the result the special marriage 1954, the Hindu marriage and divorce act 1955,
adoption act 1956. All India women’s conference still continues to exist. In 1924 all India women’s
conference was established however, there are two more national organizing of women i.e
National federation of India which was formed in 1954 and all India democratic women’s
association formed in 1981. Thus all women’s organization work for the welfare and development
in India.
In short, women’s movements highlight the problems faced by women in India’s societies as well
as in state. They play important role for social transformation. This organization work for gender
equality, liberty and justice. The needs aspiration interests and demands of women are expressed
through these movements.
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
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DALIT MOVEMENT/ DALIT P ANTHERAS/ CAST MOVEMENT IN INDIA

The word Dalits encompass the communities known as untouchables and tribals who are officially
known schedule casts and schedule tribes. The term is an ancient Marathi Word that may be
defined as ground or broken into pieces. In Indian society the clearly indicates for backward and
lower casts.
By the early 1970’s the first generation Dalit graduates began to assert themselves various
platforms. Dalit panthers a militant organization of Dalit youth was formed in Maharashtra in 1972.
In post independence period Dalit groups are mainly fighting against perpetual cast based
inequalities and material injustice that the Dalit faced inspite of constructional guarantee of
equality and justice. Effective implementation of reservation and other such policies of social
justice was one their prominent demands.
Activities of Dalit panthers mostly centered around fighting increasing atrocities on Dalits and
various parts of State. As a result of sustains agitation on the part of Dalit panthers along with
other likeminded organization where started. The larger ideological agenda was destroy the cast
based inequality and injustice and to built an organization of all oppressed section like the
landless poor peasants and urban industrial workers along with Dalits. Therefore Dalit panthers
resorted to mass action assertion of Dalit rights to conclude, it is evident that cast movements
standed against exploitation discrimination, domination and oppression. Thus they were in favour
of cast based equality, liberty and justice.

LESSONS FROM POPULAR MOVEMENTS

The history of popular movements helps us to understand the nature of democratic politics. The
popular movements are neither sporadic in nature nor are these a problem these movements
helped rectify some problems in the party politics and are integral part of democratic politics.
These movements insured effective representation diverse groups and their demands. This
reduced the possibility of deep social conflict and disaffection of these groups from democracy.
Popular movements are not only about rallies and protests. They involve a gradual process of
coming together of people with similar problems, similar demands and similar expectations but
these movements also about making people aware about their rights. Such popular movements
thus contributed expansion of democracy rather than causing disruptions. Critics of these
movements often argue that collective actions like strikes, sit-ins and rallies disrupt the
functioning of govt.
Thus by understanding these movements we understand that different sections of society ,
aspiration, interests and demands that must be taking into consideration while making national
policies and decisions in democratic institutions.

Learning Outcomes:-
1. What do you understand by Chipko movement?
2. Write a short note on farmers movement in India?
3. What was Narmada Bacho Andolan?
4. Write a short note on women’s movement in India?
5. What was Dalit Panthares Movement?
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
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(Chapter-18) RECENT DEVEOPMENTS IN INDIAN POLITICS

Prepared by Lecturer Zahoor Mehdi (BHSS Hariganwan Ganderbal

“From 1989 to 2009 , Indian politics witnessed the emergence of coalition governments, National
front government, United front government, National Democratic Alliances and United Progressive
Alliances. Many challenges emerged in the shape of communalism and castesism. Ayodha dispute
and Mandal issue challenged the principles of democracy and secularism. New economic policy in
the shape of liberalization, globalization and civilization emerged in Indian Economic policy. After
2014 Lok Saba election till date, Bharatiya Janta Party emerged as single largest party to form
government on its own at Centre, thus dominance of BJP emerged in Indian politics by winning
2014 and 2019 Lok Saba elections”

AFTER STUDYING THIS LESSON YOU MUST BE ABLE TO UNDERSTAND

a) Coalitions government dominated the entire Indian politics after 1989 to 2009?
b) What was Mandal issue? How Mandal commission was formed?
c) What was Ayodha dispute? Now jit challenged Indian’s democracy and secularism?
d) In 2004 election UPA formed its government explain How?
e) How politics of back ward castes started in India after 1989?

RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN INDIAN POLITICS

(Era of Coalition Government)
Since 1989, Indian electoral politics witnessed the era of coalition govt. No political party was in a
position to obtain majority in order to form the govt. The most important development was the
defeat of congress system party in the election held in 1989. The party obtained only 197 seats in
the election of 1989. The congress imposed its position in the midterm election of 2991. But
political scientists called it end of congress system and emergence of coalition government
emerged in Indian electoral and political system.
Election in 2989 led to the defeat of congress party. A new coalition government in the form of
“National front Government” (An alliance of Janta Dal and some other regional parties), come into
existence. The 1990’s saw yet another challenge to the predominant position of the congress from
coalition parties. Thus 1990’s era saw emergence of multiparty system in India.
With the elections of 2989, a long phase of coalition politics began in India, since then there have
been eleven governments at the Centre, all of which have either coalition governments or minority
governments. In this new phase any government could be formed only with the participation or
support of many regional parties. This applied to the National front in 1989, united front in 1996,
and 1997,National Democratic Alliance (NDA) 1997, BJP led coalition in 1998, NDA in1999, the
UPA in 2004 and 2009. However this trend changed in the election of 2014 and 2019. In short from
1989 to 2013, new developments in the shape of coalition governments emerged on the scene of
Indian politics.

POLITICAL RISE OF OTHER BACKWARD CLASSES

Rise of the Mandal issue in national politics was one of the recent trends that emerged after 1989
in Indian politics. In 1990 National front government was formed under the Prime Minister ship of
V.P Singh and then by Chandera Shekher. It was during the tenure of Janta Party Govt. In 1977-79
that demand for reservation for backward castes was raised. For this purpose central Govt.
appointed a commission in 1978 to look into recommenced ways to improve the conditions of the
backward classes. This commission is popularly known as Mandal Commission or Second backward
Commission. The Commission gave the recommendation in 1980. The commission recommended
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
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reservation of 27 % seats in educational Institution and government jobs for these groups. It also
recommended for land reforms to improve the conditions of OBC’S
In August 1990, the national front government decided to implement one of the recommendation
of Mandal Commission pertaining to reservation for OBC’S in jobs in central govt. and its under
takings. This led to violent anti Mandal protests in different parts of country. This dispute between
the supporters and opponents of OBC reservation was known as Mandal issue. This issue played
important role in shaping politics since 1989. But now the policy of reservation for OBC’S has
support of all major political parties in the country.

COMMUNALISM A CHALLENGE TO INDIAN NATIONALISM AND SECURALISM

One important development emerged after 1989 that is rise of Hindutva and Communalism in
Indian politics. A number of events culminated in the demolition of the disputed structure of
Ayodha known as Babri Masjid in December 1992. This event symbolized and triggered various
changes in politics of the country and intensified debates about the nature of Indian Nationalism,
Democracy and secularism.
The other long term development during this period was the rise of politics based on religious
Identity leading debate about secularism and democracy. The Bharatiya Janata Party began to
emphasis the Hindu Nationalist element in the Ideology. The BJP pursued the politics of Hinduta
and adopted the strategy of mobilizing the Hindus.
Two developments around 1986 became central to the politics of BJP as a Hinduta Party. The first
was Shah Banu Case in 1985. IN this case Supreme Court decision in favour of divorced woman
but later on govt. on recommendation of orthodox Muslims passed Muslim woman protection of
rights on divorce act, 1986 that nullified the supreme court’s judgment. The BJP criticized the
action.
The Second development was the order by the Faizabad District court in Feb. 1986. The Court
ordered the Babri Masjid premises be unlocked so that Hindus could offer prayer at the site which
they consider as a Temple. A dispute had been going on for many decades over the Masque
known as Babri Masjid at Ayodiya that was build by Mir Baqi Mugal Empire Babar’s General. Some
Hindus that it was built after demolition of Temple of Lord Rama in what is believed to be his birth
place. This dispute went to the judiciary and has continued for many decades.
In December 1992 the organizations who were supporting the construction of Ram Temple
organized a Kar sava___ Meaning voluntary service by the devotees for building the Ram Temple.
On 6th 1992 Dec. thousands of people gathered at Ayodhiya and demolished the Mosque. This led
to the emergence of what is known as communalism. This event led to serious debate over
securlism and democracy in India.
In Feb. 2002 similar violence broke out against Muslims in Gujrat. Such violence against minority
community and violence between different communities is threat to democracy and securalism in
India.
“Hindutva literally means Hinduness and was defined by its originator S.D Savkar as the basis of
India Nationhood. It basically means that to be a member of Indian Nation every one must not
only accept India as their father Land/ Mother Land but also as their holy land. Believers of
Hindutva argue that strong nation can be built only on the basis on strong united Hindu Culture”

LOK SABHA ELECTION 2004

The 14th Lok Sabha was held in 2004 there was a strong competition between United progressive
alliances led by congress and Nationa Democratic Alliances led by BJP. In 2004 Lok Sabha election
NDA was defeated by United Progressive Alliances led by Congress. Not only did the congress
party emerged as single largest party with 145 seats in Lok Sabha but its prepool Alliances climbed
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
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up to 219. Thus 14th Lok Sabha election have led to the formation of coalition Govt. in the form of
UPA. The election 2004 witnessed the partial revival of congres party. It increased its seats for the
first time since 1991. A silent feature of Manmohan Singh led Govt. was that many state level
parties agreed to be part of UPA. Thus in 2004 elections UPA 1st led by congress formed the Govt.
with the help of regional parties in states of India.
The UPA partners have concretized their mandate in National common Minimum programme
expected to act as a road map for the Govt. at the centre. In short, in 2004 elections UPA 1st
formed the Govt. by defeating NDA. In 2009 UPA 2nd also came into power under the Prime
minister ship of Manmohan Singh by defeating NDA.

THE BHARTIYA JANTA PARTY

The Bharatiya Janta Party was formally launched as independent political organization in Feb. 1980
after split of the Janata Party on the RSS issue. Most of the erstwhile Jana Sang members along
with few others, left the Janta Party to form the BJP. Thus the BJP is a reincarnation of Jana Sang, ,
the Hindu Nationalist Party founded in 1951 by sham Prasad Mukherjee. The party adopted four
fundamentals:- One country one nation, one culture and rule of law that would determine its
future course of action. Secularism for Jan Sang was simply a disguised policy of Muslim
appeasement. Most of the Jana Sang’s support came from the Hindi Speaking states of North
India. From the Ideology of Hindu Chavinism with an emphasis on Bharatiya Culture, Hindi
Language and militant anti Pakistan foreign policy, It has moved to non communal and pragmatic
political and economic policies.
On April 24, 1980, the election commission granted recognition to the group led by Mr. Atal Behari
Wajpayee as national party with distinct name of Bharti Janata Party. The BJP was allotted the
symbol of Lotus.
If we look at electoral history of BJP, it is evident that from 1989 to 2013, BJp was not in a position
to form government of its own. It was dependent on the allies/ Partners. The BJP and its allies are
popularly known as National Democratic Alliances (NDA). NDA formed the govt. in 1997, the BJP
led coalition 1998 and NDA in Oct. 1999- May 2004. For the first time in India’s electoral history
BJP obtained 282 seats and formed the govt. at centre in 2014. Then again in 2019 Lok Sabha
elections BJP alone got 303 seats. The BJP led government was again formed at centre under the
Prime Minister ship of Mr. Narendra Damodardas Modi. Thus from 2014 till date BJP is ruling party
at centre.

EMERGENCE OF COALITION GOVERNMENT LED BY JANTA DAL

Janta Dal was an Indian Political party which was formed through the merger of Janta Party, the
Lok Dal, Indian National Congress and the Jan Morcha United on 11 October 1988 on the birth
Anniversary of Jay Prakash Narayan Under the leadership of V.P Singh.
It first come to power in 1989, after allegation of corruption known as the Bofors scandal caused
by Rajive Gandhi’s congress to lose the elections. The national front coalition that was formed
consisted of the Janta Dal and a few smaller parties in the government and had outside support
form the left front and Bharatiya Janta Party V.P singh was the Prime Minister. In November 1990,
this coalition collapsed and a new government headed by Chander Shakher come to power for a
short while. Its second spell power began in 1996 when Janta Dal led united front coalition coe to
power choosing H.D Deve Govda as their Prime Minister. The congress withdraw their support in
less than a year hoping to gain power with the support of various united front constituent group
and I.K Gujral became the next Prime Minister. His govt. too fell in a few months and in February
1998 the Janta Dal led coalition lost power to the Bharatiya Janta Party. Thus Janta Dal formed
National front (1989-1991) and united front 1996-1998.
 State Institute of Education, Kashmir Political Science
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Following were the policies and programmes of Janta Dal

1. The party promised a responsive administrative structure.
2. Religious and ethnic minorities will be accorded full protection and their personal laws will
not be tempered.
3. The party shall take steps to fight for the welfare of SC, ST and other Social Disabilities.
4. The party will take all efforts for electoral reform.
5. The party would promote cooperative federalism involving all states government in policy
and decision making process.
6. The party will appoint a commission that will look into the demand for formation of small
states.
7. The party is committed to secularism and social justice into the demand for formation of
small states.
8. The role of power and functions of governor will be reviewed so as to ensure their
constitutional accountability.
9. The party is committed to provide uniform and universal education to all.
10. Economic globalization would be gradual where eve needed.

Learning Outcome
1. How Indian political has witnessed emergence of regional parties.
2. How demand for autonomy and separate nation state(secessionism) emerged in Punjab
3. What was regional aspiration in North East India.
4. How demand for greater autonomy and insurgency for self determination emerged in J&K.
5. Write the names of North eastern states.
6. What were three regions of J&K
7. Name two Union Territories formed after the abrogation Article 370.
8. What was Raju longwal accord.
9. What was Shimla Agreement.
10. When was Article 370 abrogated.
11. Name some political parties of J&K, Punjab and North eastern states.
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