Digital Electronics Unit 12

Unit 12 A/D and D/A Converters

Structure:
12.1 Introduction
Objectives
12.2 Digital to Analog Converters (DACs)
Types of DACs
12.3 Analog to Digital Converters (ADCs)
Types of ADCs
12.4 Summary
12.5 Terminal Questions
12.6 Answers

12.1 Introduction
In the previous unit we have studied the counters and their design. Digital-
to-analog (D/A) and analog-to-digital (A/D) converters play an important role
when it is required to covert a given signal from digital to analog form and
vice versa. A D/A converter is used when it is required to covert an output of
digital systems into an analog form. Similarly, an A/D converter used when it
is required to convert an output of analog systems into digital form. For
example, in order to manipulate the data using a digital circuit called
microprocessor, we need to convert the analog signals to the digital signals,
so that the microprocessor will be able to read, understand and manipulate
the data. Similarly to understand the processed or manupulated digital data,
we need to convert it back to analog form.
In this unit, we will discuss the A/D and D/A converters and their operational
fundamentals.
Objectives:
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 define D/A conversion
 list the important performance characteristics of D/A converters
 discuss the types of Digital to Analog Converters (DACs)
 define A/D conversion
 list and explain the functioning of different types of analog to Digital
converters (A/Ds)

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12.2 Digital to Analog Converters (DACs)

A Digital to Analog Converters (DAC) takes digital data input and converts it
into an analog voltage or current that is proportional to the digital input. A
digital-to-analog converter is also known as DAC, D/A, D2A or D-to-A
converter. The figure 12.1 shows the logic symbol of D/A converter.

Figure 12.1: Logic Symbol of D/A converter

DACs are commonly used in music players to convert digital data streams
into analog audio signals and in televisions and mobile phones to convert
digital video data into analog video signals to display on the screens. Now
let us see some the important characteristics which will decide the
performance of D/A converters.
D/A Converter Performance characteristics
For designers and users, it is very important to know the performance
characteristics of D/A converters. The performance characteristics
determine the stability and accuracy of D/A converter output. The important
performance characteristics or specifications of a D/A converter are:
1. Resolution
2. Accuracy
3. Monotonocity
4. Conversion speed or Settling time
5. Dynamic range
6. Nonlinearity (NL) and Differential nonlinearity (DNL)
1. Resolution:
The resolution of a D/A converter is the number of states (i.e. 2n ) into which
the full-scale range is divided. Here, n is the number of bits in the input
digital word. We get better resolution when the numbers of bits are higher.
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For an n-bit D/A converter, the percentage resolution is given by (1/2n−1) ×

100. For example, an 8-bit D/A converter, the percentage resolution is (1/28-
1)×100 = (1/255)×100=0.39% or simply an eight-bit resolution. The
resolution in millivolts for a full-scale output of 5 V is approximately 20 mV
for an eight-bit converter with 255 levels.
2. Accuracy
The accuracy of a D/A converter is the difference between the actual analog
output and the ideal expected output when a digital input is applied. For
example, an accuracy of ± 0.1% implies that the analog output voltage may
be off as much as ±5 mV for a full-scale output of 5 V throughout the analog
output voltage range.
3. Monotonocity
A D/A converter is said to be monotonic if its analog output either increases
or remains the same but does not decrease as the digital input code
advances in one-LSB steps.
4. Conversion Speed or Settling time:
The conversion speed of a D/A converter is expressed in terms of its settling
time. The settling time is the time period that has elapsed for the analog
output to reach its final value within a specified error band after a digital
input code change has been effected.
5. Dynamic Range:
This is the ratio of the largest output to the smallest output, excluding zero,
expressed in dB.
6. Nonlinearity and Differential Nonlinearity
Nonlinearity (NL) is the maximum deviation of analog output voltage from a
straight line drawn between the end points, expressed as a percentage of
the full-scale range.
Differential nonlinearity (DNL) is the worst-case deviation of any adjacent
analog outputs from the ideal one-LSB step size.
12.2.1 Types of DACs
There are two types of D/A converters. They are:
1) Weighted-resistor D/A converter
2) R-2R ladder D/A converter.

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1. Weighted Resistor D/A converter

A weighted resistor D/A converter consists of the following four major
components.
1. n switches one for each bit applied to the input
2. A weighted resistor ladder network
3. A reference voltage Vref
4. A summing amplifier that adds the current flowing in the resistive
network to produce a signal that is proportional to the digital input.
A typical binary weighted resistor ladder D/A converter is shown in figure
12.2.

Figure 12.2: Weighted Resistor D/A converter

As shown in figure 12.2, the binary digits (Bits) control the positions of
switches. For logic 1, they are connected to voltage Vref and for logic 0,
they are connected to ground. We may observe that the resistors values at
the digital inputs are not same and are the multiple of the resistance
corresponding to the most significant digital input. We also observe that the
resistance values are weighted in accordance with the binary weights of the
digital inputs. Hence this circuit is called a weighted-resistor D/A converter.
The output Vo is directly proportional to input binary word.
The disadvantage of this circuit is that resistors used in the network have a
wide range of values. So it is difficult to get absolute accuracy and stability
of all the resistors. This limitation is overcome by the use of R-2R ladder
nertwork.

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2. R-2R Ladder Network

The figure 12.3 shows a digital to analog (D/A) converter with an R-2R
ladder that eliminates complications of weighted resistor network at the
expense of an additional resistor for each bit.

Figure 12.3: R-2R ladder network

The advantage of R-2R circuit is that only two values of resistors are used:
R and 2R.

Activity 1:
Draw the circuit diagram of a four bit R-2R ladder type A/D converter

Self-Assessment Questions
1. A ________________ takes digital data at its input and converts it into
an analog voltage or current that is proportional to the weighted sum of
digital inputs.
2. The ______________of a D/A converter is the difference between the
actual analog output and the ideal expected output when a given digital
input is applied.
3. _________________ is the ratio of the largest output to the smallest
output, excluding zero, expressed in dB.
4. In weighted resistance, values are weighted in accordance with the
___________ weights of the digital inputs.

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5. The advantage of weighted D/A converter is that resistors used in the

network have a wide range of values (True or False?).

12.3 Analog to Digital Converters (ADCs)

Digital systems are used in communication, computers, instrumentation, etc.
However, in many such applications of digital systems, sometimes, signals
are available in analog form. So we need to convert these analog signals
into digital form for the purpose of processing using digital systems. In such
cases analog to digital converters can be used. The process of conversion
of analog signal to digital signal is referred as analog-to-digital conversion.
The system that does the conversion is known as analog-to-digital converter
or A/D Converter or ADC.
An analog-to-digital converter is a device that converts continuous analog
signals (usually voltage) into digital forms. The figure 12.4 shows the symbol
of A/D converter.

Figure 12.4: Logic Symbol of A/D converter

The major performance specifications of an A/D converter are:

1. Resolution
2. Quantization error
3. Dither
4. Accuracy
5. Non linearity
6. Conversion time
7. Sampling rate
Now let us study each of these specifications.

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1. Resolution
The resolution of the A/D converter is the number of discrete values it can
produce over the range of analog values. Resolution is usually expressed in
bits. Note that the number of discrete levels is represented in power of two.
For example, an 8-bit resolution ADC can sample an input signal into
28 = 256 distinct levels. The values can represent the ranges from 0 to 255.
2. Quantization error:
Quantization error is the noise introduced by quantization in an ADC. It is a
rounding error between the analog input voltage to the ADC and the output
digitized value.
3. Dither
In ADCs, performance can usually be improved using dither. Dither is a very
small amount of random noise (white noise), which is added to the input
before conversion.
4. Accuracy
The accuracy represents the actual analog input and full-scale weighted
equivalent of the output code corresponding to the actual analog input.
5. Non-linearity
Physical implementation imperfections cause all the ADCs to suffer from
non-linearity errors which cause their output deviate from the linear function
of their input.
6. Conversion time: It is the total time required for an ADC to convert an
analog signal into its digital output.
7. Sampling rate
ADC has to convert the analog signal into digital values. One of the
processes involved in the conversion is sampling. In sampling process,
sampling rate plays an important role. Sampling rate is the rate at which
new digital values are sampled from the analog signal. However, for faithful
reproduction or reconstruction of the signal from the samples, the sampling
rate should be higher than double the maximum frequency of the signal, to
be sampled. This is called SyQuest sampling theorem.

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12.3.1 Types of ADCs

There are many types of ADCs. The following are some important types of
ADCs.
1) Flash ADC
2) Successive-Approximation ADC
3) Ramp-Compare ADC
4) Integrating ADC
5) Counter-Type ADC
1. Flash ADC:
Flash ADCs or Direct conversion ADCs have a bank of comparators. A logic
circuit follows this comparator bank which generates a code for each
voltage range created. These converters are faster, but normally have only
8-bits resolution. Direct conversion ADCs are mainly used in applications
like video, wideband communications.
2. Successive-Approximation ADC
A successive-approximation ADC, also called direct-conversion ADC, uses
a comparator to successively narrow a range that contains the input voltage.
At each successive step, the converter compares the input voltage to the
output of an internal digital to analog converter which might represent the
midpoint of a selected voltage range. At each step in this process, the
approximation is stored in a successive approximation register (SAR).
3) Ramp-compare ADC
Ramp-compare ADC produces a saw-tooth signal. A counter starts counting
as the ramp starts. When the ramping voltage matches with the input
voltage, comparator flags and the timer value is recorded.
4) Integrating ADC
An integrating ADC (also called dual-slope or multi-slope ADC) applies the
unknown input voltage to the input of an integrator and allows the voltage to
ramp for a fixed time period (the run-up period). Then a known reference
voltage of opposite polarity is applied to the integrator and is allowed to
ramp until the integrator output returns to zero (the run-down period). The
input voltage is computed as a function of the reference voltage, the
constant run-up time period, and the measured run-down time period.
These types of converters are used in most digital voltmeters.

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5) Counter-Type ADC
Counter type ADC uses a counter that feeds a DAC. Both the input signal
and the DAC feed to the comparator and this comparator controls the
counter. This converter has a high resolution.
Now let us discuss the following types of ADCs.
Successive Approximation ADC
Successive approximation ADC is faster ADC. It reduces the conversion
time and increases speed of operation. The successive approximation type
A/D converter approximates the input analogy signal to be digitized by trying
only one bit at a time.
Figure 12.5 shows a block diagram of a successive approximation type A/D
converter.

Figure 12.5: Successive approximation ADC

In successive approximation, ADC uses a successive approximation

register (SAR) rather than counter and the SAR output is converted to
analog out by the DAC. This DAC analog output is compared with the input
analog sampled value in the comparator. The comparator outputs a high or
low depending on the difference through the logic circuit. Now let us
consider a three bit operation of 3 bit Successive Approximation ADC. In
very first case the 3 bit SAR enables its MSB bit as high i.e. ‘1’ and the
result will be “100”. This digital output is converted to analog value and
compared with input sampled voltage (Vin). If the difference is positive i.e. if
the sampled input is high then the SAR enables the next bit from MSB and
result will be “110”. Now if the output is negative i.e. if the input sampled
voltage is less, then the SAR resets the last set bit and sets the next bit and
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resultant output will be “101” which will be approximately equal to the input
analog value.
Advantages of Successive Approximation ADC:
 Speed is high compared to counter type ADC.
 Good ratio of speed to power.

Disadvantages of Successive Approximation ADC:

 Cost is high because of SAR
 Complexity in design.

Integrating ADC
In integrating ADC unknown input voltage is applied to the input of the
integrator and allowed to ramp for a fixed time period called the run-up
period. Then a known reference voltage of opposite polarity is applied to the
integrator and is allowed to ramp until the integrator output returns to zero
(the run-down period).
Figure 12.6 shows a block diagram of an integrating single-slope A/D
converter.

Figure 12.6: Block diagram of Single slope A/D converter.

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One of the inputs to the comparator is a ramp of fixed slope, and the other
input is the analog input to be digitized. The counter and the ramp generator
are initially reset to 0s. The counter starts counting with the first clock cycle
input. The ramp is also synchronized to start with the first clock input. When
the ramp amplitude equals the analog input the counter stops. In this case,
the counter count is directly proportional to the analog signal.
The advantage of this A/D converter is that it is a low-cost, reasonably high
accuracy converter. The disadvantage is loss of accuracy due to changes in
the characteristics of the ramp generator. This limitation can be overcome in
a dual-slope integrating-type A/D converter.
Figure 12.7 shows a block diagram of a dual-slope integrating A/D
converter.

Figure 12.7: Block diagram of a dual-slope integrating A/D converter.

An analog input voltage VA to be digitized is connected to the switch S.

The moment the output Vo tries to go below zero, clock pulses reach the
clock input terminal of the counter which is initially cleared to all 0s. The
counter counts from 0000….0. At the (2n)th clock pulse, the counter is
again cleared, the ‘1’ to ‘0’ transition of the MSB of the counter sets a flip-
flop that controls the state of switch S which now connects the integrator
input to a reference voltage of polarity opposite to that of the analog input.

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This type of A/D converter is very popular in digital voltmeters due to its
good conversion accuracy and low cost.
Counter-Type ADC
It is possible to construct higher-resolution A/D converters with a single
comparator by using a variable reference voltage. One such A/D converter
is the counter-type A/D converter. The figure 12.8 shows the block diagram
of counter-type A/D converter.

Figure 12.8: Block diagram of counter-type A/D converter.

Assume that the counter is reset to zero. When a convert signal appears on
the start line, the gate is enabled and the clock pulses are applied to the
clock input of the counter. The counter advances through its normal binary
count sequence. The counter output is given to D/A converter which
produces the staircase waveform and this signal is then applied to one of
the inputs of the comparator. The other input to the comparator is the
analog input signal. Whenever the D/A converter output exceeds the analog
input voltage, the comparator changes state. The gate is disabled and the
counter stops. The counter output at that instant of time is the required
digital output corresponding to the analog input signal.
The counter-type A/D converter provides a very good method for digitizing
to a high resolution.
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The drawback with this converter is conversion time is longer.

Self-Assessment Questions
6. The process of conversion of analog signal to digital signal is referred
to as________________________.
7. The resolution of the A/D converter is the number of _________values
it can produce over the range of analog values.
8. Dither is a very small amount of ____________noise which is added to
the input before conversion.
9. The accuracy represents the actual analog input and full-scale
weighted equivalent of the output code corresponding to the actual
analog input. (True or False?)
10. A successive-approximation ADC uses a ___________to successively
narrow a range that contains the input voltage
11. In integrating ADC unknown input voltage is applied to the input of the
integrator and allowed to ramp for a fixed time period called
___________________.
12. Counter Type ADC uses a___________that feeds a DAC.

12.4 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit:
 A D/A converter takes digital data at its input and converts it into analog
voltage or current that is proportional to the digital input.
 The resolution of a D/A converter is the number of states (i.e. 2n ) into
which the full-scale range is divided.
 The conversion speed of a D/A converter is expressed in terms of its
settling time.
 The two types of D/A converters are: Weighted-resistor D/A converter
and R-2R ladder D/A converter.
 In weighted Resistors D/A converter, the resistors used in the network
have a wide range of values, so it is very difficult to ensure the absolute
accuracy and stability of all the resistors.
 The process of conversion of analog signal to digital signal is referred to
as analog-to-digital conversion.

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 An analog-to-digital converter is a device that converts a continuous

analog signal (usually voltage) to a digital number that represents the
signal amplitude.
 Flash ADCs has a bank of comparators.
 A successive-approximation ADC uses a comparator to successively
narrow a range that contains the input voltage.
 An integrating ADC applies the unknown input voltage to the input of an
integrator and allows the voltage to ramp for a fixed time period.

Glossary:
D/A converter: A converter converts digital input into analog voltage or
current.
Resolution of a D/A converter: The number of states into which the full-
scale range is divided.
Settling time: The time period required for an analog output to reach its
final value within a specified error band after a digital input code change has
been effected.
A/D converter: A converter that converts analog input signal into digital
form.
Conversion time: The total time required for an ADC to convert an analog
signal into its digital output.
Dither: A very small amount of random noise added to the input before
conversion.
Sampling rate: The rate at which new digital values are sampled from the
analog signal.

12.5 Terminal Questions

1. What is the function of D/A converter? Explain the function of weighted
Resistor D/A converter.
2. List and explain the performance characteristics of D/A converters.
3. Explain the following characteristics of A/D converters
a) Resolution
b) Accuracy
c) Conversion time
d) Sampling rate
4. Explain working of the Counter type ADC.

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12.6 Answers
Self-Assessment Questions
1. D/A converter
2. Accuracy
3. Dynamic range
4. Binary
5. False
6. Analog-to-digital conversion
7. Discrete
8. Random
9. True
10. Comparator
11. Run-up period.
12. Up-down counter
Terminal Questions
1. A D/A converter takes digital data at its input and converts it into analog
voltage or current that is proportional to the weighted sum of digital
inputs.Refer to section 12.2.
2. The important performance characteristics or specifications of a D/A
converter are: Resolution, Accuracy, Monotonocity, Conversion speed,
Dynamic range, Nonlinearity (NL) and Differential nonlinearity (DNL).
Refer to section 12.2 for more details.
3. a) Resolution: The resolution of the converter is the number of discrete
values it can produce over the range of analog values.
b) Accuracy: The accuracy represents the actual analog input and full-
scale weighted equivalent of the output code corresponding to the
actual analog input.
c) Conversion time: The total time required to convert an analog signal
into its digital output is called conversion time.
d) Sampling rate: Sampling rate or sampling frequency is the rate at
which new digital values are sampled from the analog signal. Refer
to section 12.3 for more details.
4. It is possible to construct higher-resolution A/D converters with a single
comparator by using a variable reference voltage. One such A/D
converter is the counter-type A/D converter. Refer to sub-section 12.3.3
for more details.
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