2.

0 GRAVITATION
2.1 UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that “every particle in the universe attracts
every other particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product of the masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them”.

If the masses of the two particles are m1 and m2 , the law can be expressed thus:
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹= 2.1
𝑟2

where r is the distance between the two particles, G is a universal constant called the
universal gravitation constant with a value of 6.673 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 /𝑘𝑔2 .

Let us asssume the earth is a uniform sphere of mass M, the magnitude of the
gravitational force from the earth on a particle of mass m, located on its surface is
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹𝑔 = 2.2
𝑅2

where 𝑅 is the radius of the earth with a value of 6.37 × 106 𝑚.

But, Newton’s second law of motion, the gravitational force can be expressed as

𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔
𝐺𝑀𝑚
=> 𝑚𝑔 =
𝑟2

𝐺𝑀
∴ 𝑔= 2.3
𝑟2

The gravitational potential energy 𝑈𝑔 possessed by each of two particles of masses m and
M, separated by a distance r is given by
−𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑈𝑔 = 2.4
𝑟

This equation shows that the acceleration of free fall varies with attitude. See the table
below.

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 The variation of go with Altitude

Altitude (Km) go (m/s2)

0 9.83

5 9.81

10 9.80

50 9.68

100 9.53

400a 8.70

35,700b 0.225

380,000c 0.0027

a. A typical space shuttle altitude.

b. The altitude of communication satellite.

c. The distance of the moon.

Example 1: A 425 kg satellite revolves around the sun at a distance 1.6 × 106 𝑘𝑚 from
the earth. It is observed that the satellite orbits between the earth and the sun. Determine
the attractive force of the satellite by the earth. Assume gravitational constant is
6.67 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚−2 𝐾𝑔−2.
Solution:

𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚𝑠 6.67 × 10−11 × 5.98 × 1024 × 425

𝐹𝐸−𝑆 = 2
= 9 2
= 6.62 × 10−2 𝑁
𝑅 (1.6 × 10 )

Example 2: Calculate the pull of the sun on the satellite in the example 1 above since the
distance between the earth and the sun is 1.5 × 108 𝑘𝑚.
Solution:
𝑅𝑆𝑢𝑛−𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝑅𝑆𝑢𝑛−𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ − 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ−𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 1.5 × 1011 − 1.6 × 109 = 1.484 × 1011 𝑚

𝐺𝑀𝑆 𝑚𝑠 6.67 × 10−11 × 1.99 × 1030 × 425

𝐹𝑆−𝑆 = = = 2.56 𝑁
𝑅2 (1.484 × 1011 )2

Example 3: Find the acceleration of the magnitude of the resultant force on the satellite
in the example 2 above.
Solution:
Resultant force, 𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹𝑆−𝑆 − 𝐹𝐸−𝑆 = 2.56 − 0.066 = 2.49 𝑁

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𝐹𝑅 = 𝑚𝑠 𝑎 ⇒ 2.49 = 425𝑎
2.49
𝑎= = 5.8 × 10−3 𝑚/𝑠
425

Example 4: At what angular speed does it take the earth to revolve around the sun at
distance 1.5 × 108 𝑘𝑚 from the sun?
Solution:
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑀𝑠
𝐹 = 𝑀𝐸 𝜔2 𝑅 =
𝑅2

𝐺𝑀𝑠 6.67×10−11 ×1.99×1030

𝜔=√ =√ = 1.98 × 10−7 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑅3 (1.5×1011 )3

Example 5: If the mass of the planet and its radius are 1.91 × 1027 kg and
7.15 × 104 kmrespectively, find the free fall acceleration of a body on or near the
surface of the planet.
Solution:
𝐺𝑀p 6.67×10−11 ×1.91×1027
𝑔p = = = 24.92m/s2
𝑟2 (7.15×107 )2

2.2 ESCAPE SPEED

This is the minimum speed required by a body travelling away from the earth’s surface,
to break away from the effect of the earth’s gravitational pull.

Let us consider a body of mass m, projected from the surface of the earth with a velocity
v,
1 −𝐺𝑀𝑚
Kinetic energy, 𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑚𝑣 2 and, Potential energy, 𝑃. 𝐸. = , where M is the mass
2 𝑅
of the earth and R, the radius of the earth

At the surface of the earth, the total energy must be zero.

That is, 𝐾. 𝐸. +𝑃. 𝐸. = 0

1 −𝐺𝑀𝑚
=> 𝑚𝑣 2 + =0
2 𝑅

2𝐺𝑀
∴ 𝐸𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 = √ ≈ 11.2 𝑘𝑚/s = 11,200 𝑚/𝑠 2.5
𝑅

Taking 𝑀 ≈ 5.98 × 1024 𝑘𝑔 as the mass of the earth and 𝑅 ≈ 6.37 × 106 𝑚 as the radius
of the earth.

Example 6: If the mass of the moon 7.36 × 1022 kg while its radius 1.74 × 106 m
revolves at a distance of 4.05 × 108 m from the Jupiter planet of mass 1.89 × 1027 kg
and radius 7.15 × 107 m. Determine the gravitational potential energy of the moon
with respect to the Jupiter.

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Solution:
−𝐺𝑀J Mm
𝐸p(grav) =
R
R is the separation between the Jupiter and the moon, i.e.,R = 4.05 × 108 m
−6.67 × 10−11 × 1.89 × 1027 × 7.36 × 1022
𝐸p(grav) = 8
= −2.29 × 1031 J
4.05 × 10
Example 7: What is the escape velocity from the surface of planet Jupiter of mass
1.89 × 1027 kg and radius 7.15 × 107 m?
Solution:
−11
2𝐺𝑀J 2 × 6.67 × 10 × 1.89 × 1027
𝑣=√ =√ 7
= 59,382.1 m/s 2 = 59.4 km/s2
𝑅J 7.15 × 10

2.3 MOTION OF SATELLITES

Artificial satellites launched into space revolve around the earth in nearly circular orbits.
The gravitational force of attraction between a satellite of mass 𝑚𝑠 and the earth brings
about the centripetal acceleration of the satellite. Newton’s second law effect on the
satellite in circular orbit with radius 𝑟 gives:

𝑚𝑠 𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚𝑠
= 2.6
𝑟 𝑟2

Solving for 𝑣, we find

𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝑣=√ 2.7
𝑟

This relationship shows that the orbit radius r and the speed 𝑣 is chosen independently;
for a given radius r, the speed 𝑣 for a circular orbit is determined.

If the motion of the satellite is uniform, i.e., the magnitude of the velocity does not
change with time, the time (𝑇) taken for it to complete one revolution around the circular
orbit of radius 𝑟 is the distance 2𝜋𝑟 (as the circumference of the circle) divided by the
velocity 𝑣:

2𝜋𝑟 𝑟3
𝑇= = 2𝜋√ 2.8
𝑣 𝐺𝑀𝐸

Example 8: A space shuttle orbited the moon at an altitude of 230 km in a circular

orbit. Find its velocity and the time required to a complete circle.
Solution:
𝑟 = R m + h = 1.74 × 106 + 0.23 × 106 = 1.97 × 106 m

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 𝐺𝑀m 6.67 × 10−11 × 7.36 × 1022
𝑣=√ =√ = 2.49 × 106 m/s
𝑟 1.97 × 106
For the time required to complete one orbit,
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋 × 1.97 × 106
𝑇= = = 4.97 s ≈ 5.0 s
𝑣 2.49 × 106
2.4 KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION

Kepler’s planetary laws of motion describes the motion of satellites around the planets,
such as, the motion of satellites like the moon around the planets like the earth.

Kepler’s analysis first showed that the concept of circular orbits about the Sun had
discovered that the orbit of planets could be accurately described by an ellipse with the
Sun at one focus. He then generalized this analysis to include the motions of all planets.
The complete analysis is summarized in three statements that govern planetary motion
as established by Kepler:

First law: All planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one of the focal points.
Kepler's first law - sometimes referred to as the law of ellipses - means that the orbit or
path of a planet around the sun is an ellipse i.e. an oval-shaped and not an exact circle. An
elliptical path has two foci and the sun is at one of the two foci of the elliptical path. This
law is important for us as it helps us discover if other stars have planets! We cannot see
those planets but if the star wiggles back and forth in a complicated way, it may be because
a planet makes it move so.

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Second law: A line drawn from the sun to any planet sweeps out equal areas in equal
time intervals. Kepler's second law - sometimes referred to as the law of equal areas -
describes the speed at which any given planet will move while orbiting the sun. The
speed at which any planet moves through space is constantly changing. It is known that
a planet moves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with sun at one of its focus. Now,
since the line joining the planet and the sun sweeps over equal areas in equal intervals of
time, a planet moves fastest when it is closest to the sun and slowest when it is furthest
from the sun.

Third law: The square of the orbital period of any planet is proportional to the cube of
the average distance from the planet to the sun. Kepler's third law - sometimes referred to
as the law of periods - compares the orbital period and radius of orbit of a planet to those
of other planets. Unlike Kepler's first and second laws that describe the motion
characteristics of a single planet, the third law makes a comparison between the motion
characteristics of different planets. The comparison being made is that the ratio of the
squares of the periods to the cubes of their average distances from the sun is the same for
every one of the planets. As an illustration, consider the orbital period and average
distance from Sun (orbital radius) for Earth and Mars as given in the table below:
Period Average T2/r3
Planet
(s) Distance (m) (s2/m3)
Earth 3.156 x 107 s 1.4957 x 1011 2.977 x 10-19
Mars 5.93 x 107 s 2.278 x 1011 2.975 x 10-19
Observe that the T2/r3 ratio is the same for Earth as it is for mars. In fact, if the
same T2/r3 ratio is computed for the other planets, it can be found that this ratio is nearly
the same value for all the planets (see table below). Amazingly, every planet has the
same T2/r3 ratio.
Period Average T2/r3
Planet
(yr) Distance (au) (yr2/au3)

Mercury 0.241 0.39 0.98

Venus 0.615 0.72 1.01
Earth 1.00 1.00 1.00
Mars 1.88 1.52 1.01

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 Jupiter 11.8 5.20 0.99
Saturn 29.5 9.54 1.00
Uranus 84.0 19.18 1.00
Neptune 165 30.06 1.00
Pluto 248 39.44 1.00
NOTE: The average distance value is given in astronomical units where 1 a.u. is equal to
the distance from the earth to the sun - 1.4957 x 1011 m. The orbital period is given in
units of earth-years where 1 earth year is the time required for the earth to orbit the sun -
3.156 x 107 seconds.

From the third law, the statement is expressed in a mathematical form, so that, we have:

4𝜋 2
𝑇2 = ( ) 𝑟 3 = 𝑘𝑠 𝑟 3 2.9a
𝐺𝑀𝑠

𝑇2
= 𝑘𝑠 2.9b
𝑟3

where Ms is mass of the sun, r is the distance between the planet and the sun, and T is
the period of the orbit of the planet.

4𝜋 2
𝑘𝑠 = = 2.97 × 10−19 𝑠 2 /𝑚3 2.10
𝐺𝑀𝑠

It is further illustrated in a graphical diagram below:

Kepler's third law provides an accurate description of the period and distance for a
planet's orbits about the sun. Additionally, the same law that describes the T2/r3 ratio for

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the planets' orbits about the sun also accurately describes the T2/r3 ratio for any satellite
(whether a moon or a man-made satellite) about any planet.

In conclusion, with the help of Kepler’s third law of planetary motion, we can show how
long does it takes to reach Mars, how long would it take for a spacecraft from earth to
reach the Sun, how far from the center of Earth do synchronous satellites orbit, how far
does Halley’s comet go, etc.

Example 9: A moon at a distance above a point on the earth rotates about the earth of
mass 5.98 × 1024 kg with a period of 27.5 days. Determine the radius of such an
orbit.
Solution:
Orbital velocity of moon
𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝑣=√
𝑟
Period of the moon
𝑇 = 27.5 days = 27.5 × 24 × 3600 = 2,376,000 s
2𝜋𝑟 𝑟3
But, 𝑇 = = 2𝜋√
𝑣 𝐺𝑀𝐸

𝑟3
⟹ 2𝜋√ = 2.376 × 106
6.67×10−11 ×5.98×1024
5
∴ 𝑟 = 3.85 × 10 km

Example 10: Mars is an average distance 2.28 × 108 km from the sun. Compute the
length of Marsian year using the fact that the Uranus is 84 years and
2.87 × 109 km from the sun on the average for the period and distance
respectively.
Solution:
2
𝑇m (2.28×1011 )3
=
(84)2 (2.87×1012 )3

∴ 𝑇m = 1.88 years

EXERCISES
1. What force of attraction exists between Cynthia and Femi, if their masses are
65 𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 70 𝑘𝑔, respectively, and they are standing 6 𝑚 from each other?
2. Two pieces of stone, each weighing 100 𝑘𝑔 are separated by a distance of 5 𝑚.
Calculate the gravitational force of attraction between them.
3. Consider a neutron star with a mass M equal to the mass of the sun,
1.98 × 1030 𝑘𝑔, and a radius of 12 × 103 𝑚. What is the free-fall acceleration at
its surface?

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 4. The asteroid has a mass of 1.2 × 1021 𝑘𝑔 and a radius of 470 𝑘𝑚. What is the
free-fall acceleration at its surface?
5. What is the gravitational potential energy of the moon – earth system? The
masses of the earth and the moon are 5.98 × 1024 𝑘𝑔 and 7.36 × 1022 𝑘𝑔,
respectively, and their mean separation distance d is 3.82 × 108 𝑚.
6. A satellite of Mars has an orbital radius of 9.43 × 106 𝑚 and a period of
2.83 × 104 𝑠. Assuming the orbit is circular, determine the mass of Mars.
7. A 600 kg satellite is in a circular orbit about Earth at a height above Earth equal
to Earth’s mean radius. Find (a) the satellite’s orbital speed, (b) the period of its
revolution, and (c) the gravitational force acting on it.
8. A satellite of mass m circles the earth in an orbit at a distance R from the centre of
the earth. If the radius of the earth is 6.4 × 106 𝑚, calculate the height above the
earth’s surface of the parking orbit and the velocity of the satellite in orbit.
9. Ten days after it was launched toward Mars in December 1998, the Mars Climate
Orbiter spacecraft (mass 629 kg) was 2.87 × 106 𝑘𝑚 from the earth and traveling
at 1.4 × 104 𝑘𝑚/ℎ relative to the earth. At this time, what were (a) the
spacecraft’s kinetic energy relative to the earth and (b) the potential energy of the
earth–spacecraft system?
10. Two satellites are in circular orbits around a planet that has radius 9.0 × 106 𝑚.
One satellite has mass 68.0 kg, orbital radius 5.0 × 107 𝑚, and orbital speed
4.8 × 103 𝑚/𝑠. The second satellite has mass 84.0 kg and orbital radius
3.0 × 107 𝑚. What is the orbital speed of this second satellite?

© Dr. E.O, EHINLAFA 2019 – University of Ilorin, Faculty of Physical

Sciences, Physics Department.

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