Components of a Database Management System (DBMS)

DBMS stands for DataBase Management System. DBMS is a type of software by

which we can save and retrieve the user's data with the security process. DBMS can
manipulate the database with the help of a group of programs. The DBMS can
accept the request from the operating system to supply the data. The DBMS also
can accept the request to retrieve a large amount of data through the user and
third-party software.

1. **Hardware:** The physical equipment and devices that support the DBMS,
such as servers, storage devices, and network infrastructure.

2. **Software:** The DBMS software itself, responsible for managing and

manipulating the database. Examples include MySQL, Oracle, or Microsoft SQL
Server.

3. **Data:** The information stored in the database, organized into tables,

records, and fields.

4. **Procedure: ** Defined processes and guidelines for designing, creating,

maintaining, and securing the database. This includes data input, retrieval, and
updating procedures.

5. **People:** Users, administrators, and other stakeholders involved in using

and managing the DBMS, each with specific roles and responsibilities.

6. **Data Access Language:** The language or set of commands used to

interact with and retrieve data from the database. SQL (Structured Query
Language) is a common example.
What is data Model and types
A data model is a conceptual representation of the data structures that are
required by a database. It provides a way to organize and store data and defines
the relationships between different data elements. Data models can be categorized
into different types, including conceptual, logical, and physical models, each serving
a specific purpose in the database development process.

The three levels of data Model abstraction are:

1. **Conceptual Data Model**: A high-level representation of the essential
data elements and their relationships in a database. It focuses on the business
concepts and is independent of any specific technology or implementation.

2. **Logical Data Model**: A detailed outline of the structure of the data

elements and their relationships, which is technology-independent. It serves as a
basis for the physical data model and provides a blueprint for database design.

3. **Physical Data Model**: A specific representation of the structure of the

data elements, including tables, columns, data types, and constraints. It is tailored
to a particular database management system (DBMS) and guides the
implementation of the database design.

• Three schema Architecture

The Three Schema Architecture refers to a framework that organizes a database
system into three distinct levels:

1. **Internal Schema (Physical Level)**: Deals with the physical storage and
representation of data on the storage devices.

2. **Conceptual Schema (Logical Level)**: Provides a global view of the

entire database, describing the structure and constraints of the data in a
technology-independent manner.

3. **External Schema (View Level)**: Represents individual user views of the

database, offering a customized perspective of the data relevant to specific user
needs and applications.
 Structured (Types) Database Models
A data model is a conceptual representation of data structures that define the
storage, manipulation, and organization of data in a database system. Here are
short definitions of different types of data models:
1. **Hierarchical Data Model**: Organizes data in a tree-like structure,
allowing for one-to-many relationships between data items.
2. **Network Data Model**: Allows for complex data relationships, enabling
records to have multiple parent and child records.
3. **Relational Data Model**: Represents data as tables with rows and
columns, with relationships between tables defined by common fields.
4. **Entity-Relationship Model**: Represents data in terms of entities and
their relationships in a conceptual way.
5. **Object-Oriented Data Model**: Handles complex data and relationships
by treating data as objects containing both data and methods.
6. **Document Data Model**: Designed for working with semi-structured
data, using documents with fields and data.
7. **Graph Data Model**: Represents data as nodes and edges, used for
analyzing and representing complex relationships between data points.
Introduction of DBMS (Database Management System)
▪ A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software system that is
designed to manage and organize data in a structured manner. It allows
users to create, modify, and query a database, as well as manage the
security and access controls for that database.

Some key features of a DBMS include

▪ Data modeling: A DBMS provides tools for creating and modifying data
models, which define the structure and relationships of the data in a
database.
▪ Data storage and retrieval: A DBMS is responsible for storing and retrieving
data from the database.
▪ Data integrity and security: A DBMS provides tools for enforcing data
integrity and security constraints.

File System Approach

▪ File based systems were an early attempt to computerize the manual system.
It is also called a traditional based approach in which a decentralized
approach was taken where each department stored and controlled its own
data with the help of a data processing specialist.

Advantages of database
▪ Data Abstraction:
hide the complexity of data from basic users.

▪ Controlling Data redundancy:

Database control the data redundancy and integrates all the data into single file. It
also save our storage space.

▪ Minimized data inconsistency:

It means different files contains different information about particular person or
object. Due to DBMS leads better consistency.
 ▪ Data manipulation easily:
Data can be easily manipulated because data is centralized so once the data
structure is defined we can easily modify it.

▪ Data can be shared:

Data can be easily shared by multiple applications in centralized DBMS.

Disadvantages of database
▪ Cost of hardware and software:
It required high speed processor and large memory size is required which causes
expensive hardware is needed.

▪ Cost of staff training:

DBMS are often complex systems, so training is required for DBMS users.

▪ Scalability:
Databases can be difficult to scalable horizontally to accommodate increasing
amount of data and users.

▪ Dependence on the system:

Organization may become dependent on specific DBMS and may find it difficult to
switch other system.
THE RANGE OF DATABASE APPLICATION:
There are many different types of databases, from those for a single user on a
desktop computer to those on mainframe computers with thousands of users.
From the simplest to the most complicated, there are four categories that can be
used to categorize database applications.

1. **Personal Computer Database:**

- Definition: A database designed for individual use on a personal computer. It
typically manages relatively small amounts of data and is used for personal tasks,
such as tracking contacts, inventory, or hobbies.

2. **Workgroup Databases:**
- Definition: Databases that support a small group or team within an organization.
These databases facilitate collaboration and data sharing among team members,
often for projects or specific departmental needs.

3. **Department Database:**
- Definition: A database serving the needs of a specific department within an
organization. It caters to the data requirements of a particular functional area, such
as human resources, finance, or marketing.

4. **Enterprise Database:**
- Definition: A comprehensive and centralized database designed to serve the
entire organization. Enterprise databases integrate and manage data from various
departments, providing a unified view of the organization's information.

DATABASE SYSTEM APPLICATION

▪ Banking: For customer information, accounts, loans and banking transaction.
▪ Airlines: For reservations schedules information.
▪ Universities: For student information, course, registration and results with
grades.
▪ Credit Card Transaction: For purchases on credit cards and generation of
monthly statements.
 what is relationship and types:
A relationship is a connection or association between two or more things, entities,
or elements, often based on some form of correlation, dependency, or interaction.

1. **One-to-One Relationship**: A relationship where one record in a table is

associated with only one record in another table, and vice versa.

2. **One-to-Many Relationship**: A relationship where one record in a table

can be associated with multiple records in another table, but each record in the
second table is associated with only one record in the first table.

3. **Many-to-Many Relationship**: A relationship where multiple records in

one table can be associated with multiple records in another table. This
relationship requires a junction table to link the primary keys of both tables.

Introduction to Database
▪ A database is a structured information collection that is often stored
electronically in a computer system.

Purpose of Database
▪ Databases can be used to store, manage, and access any kind of data. They
gather data on people, locations, or objects. To enable observation and
analysis, that data is gathered in one location. Databases can be seen as a
well-organized collection of data.
What is RDBMS Define and Explain keys
RDBMS:
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. It is a type of
database management system that stores data in a structured format, using rows
and columns in tables to represent and organize information. The relational aspect
refers to the use of relationships between tables to connect and manage data.
Now, let's discuss keys in the context of a relational database:

Type of keys
1. **Primary Key (PK): ** A primary key is a unique identifier for each record in
a table. It ensures that each row in the table is distinct and provides a reference
point for relationships with other tables.
- **Example: ** An employee ID in an employee table can be a primary key.

2. **Super Key: ** A super key is a set of one or more keys that can uniquely
identify a record in a table. It is a broader concept than a candidate key or primary
key.
- **Example: ** In a student table, a super key could be a combination of student
ID and email address.

3. **Candidate Key: ** A candidate key is a minimal super key, meaning it is a

set of columns that uniquely identifies a record, and removing any column from the
key would result in the loss of uniqueness.
- **Example:** In a course table, both course code and course name together
could be a candidate key.

4. **Foreign Key (FK):** A foreign key is a field in a table that refers to the
primary key in another table. It establishes a link between the two tables, creating
a relationship.
- **Example:** In an order table, a foreign key might reference the primary key of
a customer table.
5. **Alternate Key:** An alternate key is a candidate key that is not selected as
the primary key. It is an alternative choice for the primary key.
- **Example:** In a product table, both product ID and product name could be
candidate keys, but one is chosen as the primary key, and the other becomes an
alternate key.

6. **Composite Key:** A composite key is a key that consists of two or more

columns to uniquely identify a record. It is used when a single column cannot
guarantee uniqueness.
- **Example:** In a shipment table, a composite key could be a combination of
shipment ID and shipment date.

7. **Artificial Key:** An artificial key is a key created for the sole purpose of
serving as a primary key. It is not inherently meaningful and is often generated by
the database system.
- **Example:** A serial number or an auto-incremented ID in a table can serve as
an artificial key.

Key Constraints In DBMS

1. Primary Key Constraints In DBMS
Primary key Constraint states that
▪ There are no duplicate values allowed, i.e. The column designated as the
primary key should be unique only.
▪ No NULL values are found in the column that has Primary key. Therefore,
there is a Mandatory value in column that has Primary key.
▪ One primary key for each table exists, however Primary Key may contain
multiple columns.
▪ There is no way to create a new row using the existing primary key value.
Foreign Key Constraints In DBMS
▪ The parent used as a reference must be unique or primary key.
▪ Child may have duplicates as well as nulls.
▪ Parent records can be erased in the event that there is no child.
▪ Master table can’t be updated in the event that a child exists.
▪ It is necessary to reference the primary key in the primary table.
▪ A foreign key column, as well as a constraint column must have the same
data types.

Unique Key Constraint In DBMS

▪ A unique constraint is the rule that states that the value of a key is valid only
if they’re unique. The key which is restricted to have unique values is
referred to as a unique key.
What is RDBMS Functional dependency
Functional dependency is a concept in the context of relational database
management systems (RDBMS) that describes the relationship between two sets of
attributes in a relation (table). It is a fundamental concept in database
normalization and is used to express how the values in one set of attributes (or
columns) determine the values in another set.
In a relational database, a functional dependency is denoted by \(X \rightarrow Y\),
where \(X\) and \(Y\) are sets of attributes. This notation reads as "X functionally
determines Y" or "X uniquely determines Y."
Here's a breakdown of the concept:

- **Functional Dependency (\(X \rightarrow Y\)):**

- If, in any relation, two tuples have the same values for the attributes in set \(X\),
they must also have the same values for the attributes in set \(Y\).
- In simpler terms, the values in \(X\) uniquely determine the values in \(Y\).

For example, consider a relation representing employee information with attributes

(columns) {EmployeeID, FirstName, LastName, Department}. If we have a
functional dependency \(EmployeeID \rightarrow FirstName, LastName\), it means
that the employee ID uniquely determines the first name and last name of an
employee. In other words, if you know an employee's ID, you can uniquely
determine their first and last names.
Functional dependencies are essential in the process of normalization, which is the
systematic organization of data in a relational database to reduce redundancy and
improve data integrity. Identifying and enforcing functional dependencies help
ensure that the database structure is well-designed and that data is stored
efficiently and accurately.
What is database administration? and its responsibilities
**Database Administration (DBA):**
Database administration is the process of managing and maintaining a database
system to ensure efficient operation, security, and optimal performance. DBAs
oversee tasks such as database design, installation, security, backup, recovery,
maintenance, capacity planning, documentation, and user support.

**Responsibilities:**
1. **Database Design:** Structuring and organizing databases, defining tables,
relationships, and constraints.

2. **Installation and Configuration:** Installing and configuring database

management system (DBMS) software and setting up instances.

3. **Data Security:** Implementing security measures, controlling access, and

ensuring data confidentiality.

4. **Backup and Recovery:** Developing and executing strategies to safeguard

data and facilitate recovery in case of failures.

5. **Database Maintenance:** Performing routine tasks like indexing,

defragmentation, and configuration adjustments.

6. **Capacity Planning:** Forecasting data growth, planning for additional

resources, and ensuring scalability.

7. **Documentation:** Maintaining thorough documentation of database

structures, configurations, and procedures.

8. **Training and Support:** Providing training to users and support to IT staff

on database-related topics.
What is normalization?
**Normalization:**
Normalization is a database design process that minimizes data redundancy and
dependency by organizing tables into a structured form, improving data integrity
and efficiency.

1. **First Normal Form (1NF):**

- Ensures that data in each column is atomic (indivisible) and there are no
repeating groups of data. Each column contains only a single value.

2. **Second Normal Form (2NF):**

- Builds on 1NF and eliminates partial dependencies by ensuring that non-key
attributes are fully functionally dependent on the primary key. It involves breaking
down composite primary keys.

3. **Third Normal Form (3NF):**

- Builds on 2NF and eliminates transitive dependencies by ensuring that non-key
attributes are not dependent on other non-key attributes. Each non-key attribute is
functionally dependent only on the primary key.
The purpose of a database
The purpose of a database is to efficiently and systematically organize, store,
retrieve, and manage data in a structured manner. Databases play a crucial role in
information management for various applications and organizations. Here are some
key purposes of databases:

Why it is use
1. **Data Storage:**
- Purpose: To provide a centralized and structured repository for storing large
volumes of data in an organized format.

2. **Data Retrieval:**
- Purpose: To enable efficient and targeted retrieval of specific information
through queries and filters.

3. **Data Integrity:**
- Purpose: To maintain the accuracy and consistency of data by enforcing
relationships, constraints, and preventing errors.

4. **Data Security:**
- Purpose: To implement measures such as access controls and encryption to
safeguard sensitive information.

5. **Concurrency Control:**
- Purpose: To manage simultaneous access to data, preventing conflicts and
ensuring data consistency.

6. **Data Analysis and Reporting:**

- Purpose: To support the extraction, aggregation, and visualization of data for
analysis and decision-making.