Endocrine System – system of ductless (endocrine) glands that secrete

chemical mediators called hormones

Endocrine glands are composed of epithelial tissues
Secrete hormones into interstitial fluids; diffuse into blood
stream and are transported to target cells and tissues (effectors)
Some hormones act locally; others are circulatory and are
transported distally to organs, tissues and cells.
Overview:
1. Regulation of metabolism
2. Control of food intake and digestion
3. Modulation of tissue development
4. Ion balance
5. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
6. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
7. Control of reproductive functions
8. Uterine contractions and milk release
9. Immune system regulation
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland:
1. Hypothalamus is part of the CNS and not technically an endocrine
gland, but a collection of CNS neurons that produce neuropeptides
that behave like hormones
2. Pituitary is where the nervous system and endocrine system interact
3. Hypothalamus regulates excretions of the anterior lobe of the
pituitary gland
Pituitary gland and its lobes
1. Also called the hypophysis
2. Posterior pituitary lobe = neurohypophysis
a. Neural extension of the hypothalamus
b. Contains axons of cell bodies that originate in the hypothalamus
 c. Infundibulum contains axons and connects the posterior lobe to
the hypothalamus
d. Stores and secretes, but does not directly produce the following
neuropeptide hormones
i. ADA / Vasopressin (ADH = anti diuretic hormone)
1. Water balance
2. Sodium balance
3. Blood volume and pressure regulation
ii. Oxytocin
1. Child-birth hormone (“quick birth”)
3. Anterior pituitary lobe = adenohypophysis
a. Produces on its own, at least 9 major hormones
b. Regulation of bodily functions
c. Regulation of secretion of other endocrine gland hormones
4. Blood supply of the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland (formerly
known as the “master Endocrine gland). Hypothalamus is the ANS
regulator of much of the endocrine system and the Hypothalamus is
the “master” regulator of the Pituitary gland.
a. Pituitary gland – 2 lobes.
i. One lobe = posterior pituitary lobe (approx. 25% of the
pituitary gland)
1. Neural tissue
2. Storage and release of two hormones
a. *does not synthesize hormones; hormones are
made in the cell bodies of the hypothalamus
neurons
3. ADH / Vasopressin and Oxytocin
ii. One lobe is called the anterior pituitary lobe (approx. 75%
of the pituitary gland). At least 9 hormones / factors
1. Epithelial tissue
iii. Pituitary loges have separate blood supplies
1. Anterior pituitary lobe has a portal system that links it
to the hypothalamus via portal veins
a. Primary and Secondary plexuses that are separate
capillaries supplying blood and carrying
hormones within the Hypothalamus / Pituitary
Portal system.
i. Primary plexus – carries blood and
hormones from the hypothalamus to the
anterior pituitary lobe:

1.
a. Provides quick transport of
hormones from the hypothalamus
to the anterior pituitary lobe.
ii. Secondary plexus – venous capillaries that
carry blood away from the anterior pituitary
lobe and returns venous blood back to
systemic circulation.
2. Posterior pituitary lobe has one capillary plexus made
up of arterial and venous capillaries.
 a.
b. This plexus is for picking up the hormones
oxytocin and ADH / Vasopressin for transport to
distal parts of the body, such as the reproductive
system and kidneys
c. Hormones (Oxy. and ADH/Vas) are not
transported from the hypothalamus to the
posterior pituitary lobe by the blood stream
because:
i. Neuron cell bodies in the hypothalamus
produce these hormones and
ii. The hormones are secreted into the posterior
lobe at the ends of the axons originating at
the cell bodies in the hypothalamus.
5. Overview of endocrine glands and hormones:
a. Pineal gland – produces melatonin when “asleep”
 i.

b.

GH = Growth Hormone – hGH = human growth hormone

ADH = antidiuretic hormone
T3 and T4 = triiodothyronine and tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine
 Thyroid also produces calcitonin for calcium homeostasis
Parathyroid – PTH = parathyroid hormone
Hormones
1. The Hormones of the Hypothalamus – releasing and inhibiting
hormones and “factors” mostly targeting the anterior pituitary lobe:
a. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone - (Prolactin-releasing hormone;
formerly known as Prolactin-releasing “factor”)
i. TRH (PRH) - Stimulates thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH) release from anterior pituitary (primarily)
1. Also stimulates prolactin release from anterior
pituitary
b. Corticotropin-releasing hormone – Stimulates
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) release from anterior
pituitary
c. Dopamine - (Prolactin-inhibiting hormone; formerly known as
Prolactin-inhibiting “factor”)
i. DA (PIH) - Inhibit prolactin release from anterior pituitary
d. Growth-hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) - Stimulates
growth-hormone (GH) release from anterior pituitary
e. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) - Stimulates follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) release from anterior pituitary
i. Also stimulates luteinizing hormone (LH) release from
anterior pituitary
f. Somatostatin - (growth-hormone-inhibiting hormone) - Inhibits
growth-hormone (GH) release from anterior pituitary
Thyroid and hormones
1. The thyroid is just inferior to the larynx
2. Right and left lobes
3. Isthmus (Is-mus) – center mass of thyroid tissue
 4. Pyramidal lobe – elongated 3rd lobe present on about 50% of
thyroid glands, usually small and insignificant
a. Extends superiorly from the isthmus
5. Follicular Thyroid Cells – produce T3 and T4; more T4 is made
than T3, but then T4 gets converted into T3 in target cells

a.
6. T3 / T4 – regulation of metabolism in nearly every cell in the body
a. Increases synthesis of sodium / potassium ion pumps and
electron transport carriers for aerobic respiration.
b. T4 is the “precursor” to T3
c. T3 is more potent than T4
7. Calcitonin – calcium homeostasis; inactivates osteoclasts and
promotes activity of osteoblasts and osteocytes
8. Parafollicular cells – produce calcitonin; cells are found
surrounding the follicular thyroid cells
a. Calcitonin lowers blood Ca levels
Parathyroid – PTH; activation of osteoclasts; raises blood Ca levels.
1. Usually 1 superior and 1 inferior on each lateral lobe of the thyroid
gland
Adrenal glands and hormones
1. Paired, encapsulated glands located superior to the kidneys; one on
top of each kidney
2. Encapsulated with connective tissue, primarily adipose
3. Pyramidal shaped and flat
4. Cortex – layered regions or zona (zones or belts); 3 zona:
a. Zona glomerulosa – “ball”
i. Cells in spherical clusters
ii. Secrete mineralocorticoids
1. Regulate mineral (Na and K ions) metabolism and
electrolyte balance
a. E.g. Aldosterone – regulation of fluid and
electrolyte balance
b. Zona fasiculata – bundles
i. Cells in long, straight rods and cords (bundles; fascicles)
ii. Secretion of cortical steroids
1. E.g. Glucocorticoids, such as cortisol
a. Lipid and carbohydrate metabolism
b. Reduction of inflammation
c. Imbalance or dysregulation results in promotion
of weight gain and increased inflammation
c. Zona reticularis – network
i. Cells in branching network of cords
ii. Secretion of small amounts of androgens – masculinizing
hormones
5. Medulla – middle region that synapses with ANS motor neurons
that simulate release of epinephrine and norepinephrine under
sympathetic subdivision control
a. The Adrenal Medulla is a modified sympathetic ganglion of the
ANS sympathetic motor subdivision
i. A.M. cells lack axons, but are a specialized type of
neurosecretory cell
ii. Cluster around blood vessels and release Epi and NE into
the blood stream under fight or flight conditions
1. Chromaffin cells – have affinity for colored reagents
(dyes), hence “cromaffin”
2. ANS controls these cells directly and allows for rapid
release of NE and Epi into blood stream
a. There are water-soluble, tyrosine derivative
hormones / neurotransmitter that work via ligand-
mediated activation of target cells, such as the
heart and respiratory system as well as of other
components of the cardiovascular / respiratory
systems.
b. Epinephrine increases blood glucose levels by
signaling for the breakdown of glycogen in the
liver into glucose:
Summary:
 1. Primary message – epinephrine (a ligand – binds to a receptor on
the outside of a cell, but does not enter the cell)
2. Epinephrine binds to receptors on hepatocytes (liver cells)
3. G-protein complex releases a subunit that activates adenylate
cyclase
4. Adenylate cyclase catalyzes an amplified production of cAMP, a
second messenger
5. cAMP activates protein kinase
6. Protein kinase phosphorylates an enzyme called phosphatase and
activates it (phosphatase)
7. Phosphatase breaks down glycogen into glucose
8. Glucose is released into the blood stream and used as an energy
source
9. Ultimately increases catabolism of glucose for making lots of ATP
– energy for cellular processes.
Pancreas – “all flesh”
1. Located between the duodenum of the small intestine and the
spleen:

a.
b. Has both exocrine and endocrine glands
i. Exocrine – digestive enzyme secretions
1. 99% of the pancreas cells are acini (as-in-eye) cells
(berry-like glandular cells)
a. Ducts
b. Secrete digestive enzymes into the duodenum
ii. Endocrine – hormone secretions of glucagon and insulin
1. Islets of Langerhans (“small islands”)
a. Scattered clusters of small island like deposits of
cells surrounded by acini cells
b. 4 types of islet cells
i. Alpha cells – secrete glucagon
1. Increases breakdown of glycogen and
increases blood glucose levels when
one becomes hypoglycemic (low blood
sugar)
2. Also promotes gluconeogenesis –
formation of glucose from non-
carbohydrate sources like amino acids
and lactic acid
a. Occurs in the liver
ii. Beta cells – secrete insulin
1. Promotes uptake of glucose by cells
2. Promotes storage of glucose in the live
3. Promotes production of glycogen for
storage in the liver and in skeletal
muscle fibers
4. Causes a decrease in blood sugar when
one is hyperglycemic (high blood
sugar)
5. Also promotes uptake of other
nutrients, such as amino acids
 6. Promotes lipogenesis
7. Promotes protein synthesis
iii. Delta cells – somatostatin production
1. Inhibits secretion of insulin and
glucagon
2. Slows absorption of nutrients from GI –
parasympathetic motor division of ANS
iv. F-cells – pancreatic polypeptide
1. Decreases somatostatin
2. Decreases gallbladder release of bile
3. Decreases secretion of pancreatic
digestive enzymes, such as proteases,
lipases and carbohydrate digesting
enzymes
4. Also parasympathetic
Gonads – ovaries and testes; hormone and gamete production
1. Ovaries – secretion of sex hormones estrogen and progesterone
a. Also secretion of inhibin – inhibits secretion of FSH
b. Relaxin – during childbirth relaxes the pubic symphysis and
facilitates dilation of the cervix
2. Testes – secretion of sex hormone testosterone
a. Inhibin (see above).