IMPACT 4.08.

00 07/06/2024

Chassis ID Path
772/Description, Design and function//Tyre and inner tube

Model Identity
UD-MDE 136451818

Publish date ID/Operation

28/04/2016

Tyre and inner tube

Design

Tyres are made up of an arrangement of plies under a vulcanized tread. The plies are made by crisscrossing fibre,
nylon or steel belts. There are two types of tyre structure: the radial structure and the cross-ply/conventional structure.
The difference between cross-ply/bias tyres and radial ones is mainly a matter of the way the cords are arranged on
the structure lining.

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On the radial tyre "A" the cord plies are arranged perpendicular to the tyre's direction of rotation and are stabilised by
belts underneath the tyre's tread, which comes in direct contact with the ground. These tyres are flexible and can
therefore be mounted more quickly on the rims, while providing good surface contact on roads. They are used for long-
distance vehicles and on roads that are in good condition.

On a cross-ply/bias tyre "B" the cord plies are arranged in the same direction as the tyre's direction of rotation. They
are rigid and difficult to mount on the rims, and are generally used on vehicles for construction work and that operate
on roads in poor condition.

The advantages of radial tyres over diagonal ones are:

Better heat dissipation.

Less heat generated in the carcass.
Greater distance travelled.
Lower fuel consumption.
Better resistance to punctures and penetration.
More comfort and better protection for the suspension.
Better grip and manoeuvrability.

Tyres can also be classified as: tubeless tyres and tyres with inner tubes. Tubeless tyres possess a special layer of
rubber, called the “liner”, which ensures that the tyre is sealed against air leaks. They need to be fitted on suitable rims
using special valves. The basic advantages of tubeless tyres over tyres with inner tubes are:

Less weight.
Greater torque transference capacity, from the engine as well as from the brakes.
Simpler assembly and disassembly.
Fewer components.
Greater safety.
Lower working temperature.
Less chance of rapid deflation when punctured.

Tyre sizes
Tyre size is designated based on four different factors:

Tyre width.
Section height.
Construction type.
Wheel rim diameter.

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Low profile (tubeless tyre)

Consider for example: 295/ 80R22.5

295: tyre width measure in mm

80: the section height is 80% of the width
R: radial casing
22.5: wheel diameter in inches

According to the above, the Overall diameter is:

(295x0.8x2) + (22.5x25.4) = 1043 mm.

Standard profile (tubeless tyre)

For standard profile of a radial tyre the section height is approximately 90% of the width. At this type, is designated as:

For example: 13R22.5

And the Overall diameter is:

(13x25.4x0.9x2) + (22.5x25.4) = 1166 mm.

Tube type tyre

The tube type tyre usually has a 100% profile, which means the section height is the same as the width:
12.00R20: (12x25.4x2) + (20x25.4) = 1118 mm.

Note: Whenever the existing tyre is replaced with tyre of different size, the K- factor has to be calibrated using tech tool.

Loaded section height

In general, the loaded section is to be 85% of the unloaded section. This does not include the rim (as it normally is not
deformed):

For example in: 295/80R22.5

The normal section height is 80% of 295 = 236 mm. The loaded section height is 85% of 236 = 201 mm.

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IMPACT 4.08.00 07/06/2024

A ­ Maximum operational width

B ­ Tread width
C ­ Rim diameter
D ­ Tyre overall diameter
E ­ Section height

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IMPACT 4.08.00 07/06/2024

D ­ Tyre diameter
r ­ Loaded static radius
f ­ Difference between the loaded and the unloaded tyres

Wear factors

Pressure

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IMPACT 4.08.00 07/06/2024

A ­ Kilometers traveled
B ­ % of rated inflation

The tyre should always have the same shape, the lower section with 85% of the upper section. Too high pressure
results in noise, bad comfort, low rolling resistance, depending on the road better or worse grip and uneven wear
pattern.
Too low pressure results in lesser noise, high rolling resistance, undue wear, poor malleability and rim wear.

Speed

A ­ Kilometers traveled
B ­ Speed

High speeds result in increased wear due to increased side fatigue. As the temperature increases, the fatigue also
increases, resulting in higher temperature.
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IMPACT 4.08.00 07/06/2024

Temperature x Speed

A ­ Ambient temperature in °C
B ­ Performance

The ambient temperature has a great importance for the tyre wear. High ambient temperature softens the tyre, which
results in a higher fatigue that is likely to soften the tyre even more.

Note: If the performance is rated in 100 at an ambient temperature of 15°C and a speed of 80 km/h, it will fall to 67% if
the speed is 115 km/h.

Note: If the performance is rated in 100 at a speed of 100 km/h and a temperature of 10°C, it will fall to 47% if the
ambient temperature is 30°C.

Curved/straight road
Curved road conditions increase the wear dramatically, partly by increased side fatigue but also by pure mechanical
wear.

Road type km (%)

Straight and level 100
Straight but slightly uneven 96
Slightly uneven and curved 76
Very uneven and curved 50

Road structure
A rough surface wears the tyre more than a smooth surface. This is due to the crush/wear which will result in
increased side fatigue. The risk of hydroplaning is also likely to increase, as the tyre will have to continuously
overcome the road unevenness. The grip is also likely to decrease, as the contact surface will be disturbed.

Road surface km (%)

Well maintained asphalt 100
Concrete 95
Basaltic cobblestone 90
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IMPACT 4.08.00 07/06/2024

Tarmacadam 85
Gravel road 64
Dirt road 50

Torque
When it comes to specifying the tyre of a vehicle, it is also important to look at, for instance, the engine torque. This is
obvious when you consider that the tyres are the last link in the chain that starts with the crankshaft.
When the power from the engine is being charged into the tyres, the rim is a couple degrees before the tyres turning.
The resulting side fatigue causes heat on the tyres.
The torque from the brakes can be higher than the one from the engine, but it can be often neglected, as it is time
limited. It is important to know that braking can increase the temperature which, in turn, can lead to side fatigue.
Excessive side fatigue may cause the tyre to burst.

Balancing
Vibrations are mainly caused by unbalanced wheels and tyres. Mass might not be evenly distributed across the wheel
/tyre assembly. This will always lead to a certain amount of unbalance which, depending on the size and rotation of the
tyre, might give rise to a considerable amount of vibration. This will have a negative effect on comfort, and will
increase tyre wear and might reduce the working life of bearings, shock absorbers and suspension and steering
components. Tyre unbalance can be static, simple dynamic or combined dynamic.

Static unbalance

The static unbalance is the one caused by a mass symmetrically located in relation to the K median plane and not
uniform along the circumference (1). This type of unbalance causes the wheel to vibrate vertically bringing forth
successive impacts on the tyre that affects the vehicle's steering and suspension and causes wear on the tyre tread (2)
. Vibration can be felt in speeds from 50/60 km/h and it is squarely increased as the rotation increases.

A ­ Centrifugal force

Simple dynamic unbalance

The simple dynamic unbalance is the one caused by a pair of forces (mass m1 and mass m2) symmetrically located in
relation to the K median plane and not uniform along the circumference (1).

When the wheel starts rotating, the two masses m1 and m2 generate two centrifugal forces that lead to cross
vibrations (2).

The tyre suffers undue wear and both the comfort and the maneuverability are impaired, as well as the mechanical
elements of vehicle suspension and steering.
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IMPACT 4.08.00 07/06/2024

Vibrations start being felt when the rotation goes into the resonance range, that is, from 70/80 km/h and it stops being
felt at about 130 km/h, even though vibrations continue to act on the suspension.

Combined dynamic unbalance

The combined dynamic unbalance is the most common case of unbalance. This type of unbalancing is represented by
the sum of the static unbalance and the dynamic unbalance.

Tyre pressure calibration

Check the tyre pressure every week. Calibrate the tyres according to the vehicle load and superstructure.

Note: Always check the spare tyre pressure.

Follow the manufacturer instructions. In the absence of such recommendations, refer to the pressures on the charts.

Note: Pressures on the charts correspond to an average of the pressures recommended by the main tyre
manufacturers.

Single mounting Twin mounting

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IMPACT 4.08.00 07/06/2024

Note: In the twin mounting, tyres should have the same type and diameter or, at the most, a 6 mm difference between
the diameters.

Recommendations to avoid unnecessary tyre wear

Do the periodical checks.
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IMPACT 4.08.00 07/06/2024

Keep the correct air pressure by checking it according to the load.

Note: Always check the pressure when the tyres are cold.

Wear increases as the speed increases.

Do not overload the tyres with poorly distributed load.
Do not drive with unbalanced and uneven pressure tyres.
Check wheel toe-in regularly.
Shift tyres regularly.
Keep tyres free of pebbles and other objects in the tread grooves.
Do not allow the tyres to get in contact with solvents, fuels and mineral lubricants.

Note: When installing the tyre in the rim, use vegetable lubricant only.

Wear patterns, check

Check that the tyres have a normal pattern wear. Compare the wear with the charts to check the many different types
of wear.

Symptom Probable cause Illustration

Normal fast
wear 1. Mountainous and curved
roads or poorly paved roads
2. High ambient temperature
3. Tyre improper to the type of
use
4. Poor driving, specially
incorrect use of brakes and
high speeds

Irregular fast
wear 1. Incorrect parallelism of front
wheels
2. Incorrect parallelism
between axles
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3. the Volvo Group
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IMPACT 4.08.00 07/06/2024

3. Lack of regular maintenance

4. Trailer alignment

Camber wear
1. Excessive positive or
negative camber
2. Excessive axle bending due
overload
3. Trailer alignment

Wear caused by saw

teeth 1. Trailer alignment

Central wear (A) and Incorrect pressure:

shoulder wear (B)
AExcessive air
BLack of air

Diagonal wear
1. Tyre flotation
2. Poorly combined twin wheels
3. Uneven brake operation
4. Heavy loads (distribution)

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IMPACT 4.08.00 07/06/2024

5. Low air pressure or pressure

difference between tyres of a
twin mounting
6. Defective tyres

Fast wear on one tyre

of a twin mounting1. Tyres with different diameters
2. Tyre calibration
3. Warped axle
4. Excessive load

Wearing by tyres
1. Unsuitable pressures
friction (twin mounting)
2. Incorrectly centered wheels
3. Minimum distance between
tyres is below
recommendations
4. Unsuitable type of tyres

Break on the flank

casing 1. Underinflated tyre
2. Badly distributed load on the
vehicle
3. Incorrect twin mounting
(dimensions, different
wearing, etc.)
4. Cambering roads
5. Accidental cut

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IMPACT 4.08.00 07/06/2024

Casing break due

impacts 1. Overinflated tyre
2. High speed on large
obstacles
3. Overloading
4. Faults with the suspension,
springs, and shock absorbers
5. “Squeeze” caused by
obstacles

In-use empty or
underinflated tyre 1. Faulty tyre inner tube
2. Object caught in the tread
3. Small air leakage

Contaminated
rubber 1. Tyre contact with fuel,
lubricants, burned oil,
grease, etc.

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IMPACT 4.08.00 07/06/2024

Multiple cuts
1. Tyre improper to the type of
use
2. Overinflated tyre
3. Poorly cared gravelly/stony
roads, work sites, mines, etc.
4. Excessive acceleration
(abusive use)

Located wear due to

brakes 1. New brakes not yet softened
2. Sudden braking
3. Unbalanced brake system

“Undulated” or
1. Wrong assembling
“rounded” (pitting) wear
2. Incorrect matching of twin
mounting
3. Faults in the brake system
operation
4. Low air pressure or pressure
difference between tyres of a
twin mounting
5. Fatigued shock-absorbers
and/or springs

Copyright to this documentation belongs to the Volvo Group. No reproduction, copying, change, amendment or other similar disposal is entitled without prior written consent by
the Volvo Group
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Feathered edges
1. Normal on non-driven
wheels, good roads, and
long-distance journeys

Wear on the tread

edges 1. Normal, depending on the
tread size; the heavier the
weight, the bigger the wear
will be

Tyres rotation
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Recommended tyre rotation for trucks - "one-piece truck" (on average every 10,000 km, depending
on how the vehicle is used)

Vehicles with new tyres of same size and tread type.

Vehicles equipped with tyres of same size and tread type, or with different front tyres from rear tyres.

Shoulder wear on radial tyres

Uneven wear in radial tyres with a lower than expected number of kilometers traveled is characterized by rounded
shoulders that give the tyre an undesired visual effect similar to an old tyre. In most of these cases, there also
happens steering problems for the vehicle.

The symptom may be related to many basic maintenance items such as:

Toe-in
Toe-out
Camber
Excessive play on bearings
Excessive play on bushings
Excessive play in the king-pin bearing
Tyre calibration
Alignment between axles
Trailer alignment

The items above are of great importance for a good tyre performance. However, once the vehicle has its steering
system within the specified values, the rounded shoulders, characteristic of radial tyres, still take place.
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Even if all of the above items are in perfect conditions, rounded shoulders may still take place, as this is characteristic
of radial tyres.

Note: Failure in taking the necessary measures in the event of a tyre with rounded shoulders, such as tyre rotation and
calibration, can lead to an increase of the symptoms. That, in turn, will cause undulations that propagate themselves to
the tyre center, turning it into “pittings” that causes vibrations in the steering wheel due to the tyre deformation and
consequent unbalancing.

A ­ Rounded shoulders

In order to make tyre grooves seat properly on the ground and to render the tyres a good performance throughout its
entire life, install the radial tyres in the drive axle during the first 10 to 15,000 kilometers of the tyre life.

This procedure is one of the most practical ways to assure a good performance throughout the tyre life.

It reduces tyre grooves around 3 mm and seats them properly (hardening), besides decreasing wear since new tyres
are more susceptible to the lateral displacement of shoulders and grooves. At the drive axle, this feature is
considerably less prominent than in the front axle.

Experience has shown that the durability of tyres transferred to the front axle, after pre-seated in the drive axle, is
much greater than if they are installed in the front axle from the beginning. They also do not show the deformities
mentioned earlier.

Grooves with regular height (new)

B ­ Lateral force applied on tyre

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Grooves with reduced height

B ­ Lateral force applied on tyre

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