Human trafficking and the exploitation of women and children in a

Southern and South African context

DN Swart
Department of Criminology, University of South Africa
Email: [email protected]

Human trafficking in South Africa is a serious problem which needs intervention on all fronts. This article seeks to
extend the understanding of the different forms of exploitation which women and children are exposed to in the
trafficking chain.
The results of the research clearly indicate that South Africa is a source, transit and destination country for
trafficked women and children. The study identified a number of trafficking flows in the intercontinental trafficking
of women and children to and from South Africa from the rest of the Continent of Africa, as well as domestic
trafficking. Trafficking of South Africans out of South Africa was found to be less problematic and only a few cases
were reported.
The research confirmed that, as it occurs in most countries, women are mainly the victims of human trafficking
in South Africa, with the main purpose of sexual exploitation. Young girls are also trafficked for sexual
exploitation. Women and children are trafficked into domestic servitude, forced labour or debt bondage. These
women are also used in criminal activities like drug smuggling, begging, trafficking for the removal of body parts
(or muti) and for sacrifice in rituals.

INTRODUCTION South Africa has been identified by law

According to Lee (2007:1), human trafficking enforcement agencies such as the National
involves a variety of crimes and abusers Prosecuting Authority (NPA) and research
associated with the recruitment, movement and institutions such as the Human Science
sale of people into a range of exploitative Research Council (HSRC) as one of the
situations around the world. The issue of countries in Southern Africa that is a key
trafficking in human beings, particularly women destination and, to a lesser extent, a country of
and children, is not a new social problem in origin and transit for women and children
Southern Africa, and the roots thereof are trafficked both to and from Africa and globally
spread over many years. The trafficking of (Human Science Research Council Project.
women and children has become a world-wide Tsireledzani 2010:1). A combination of geo-
industry that “employs” millions of people and graphical, economical and social conditions
has an annual turnover of billions of makes South Africa susceptible to both
rands/dollars per year (Bakirci 2009:1). international trafficking and trafficking within
Human trafficking is seen as a form of its national borders. Little was known about the
modern day slavery (Mtyala 2008:1). Human scope and characteristics of women and child
traffickers have created a new form of slavery trafficking in either South or Southern Africa,
more than 200 years after the end of the trans- prior to the late 1990’s (Laczko & Gramegna
atlantic slave trade. Though people believe that 2005:8).
slavery was stopped at the end of the Civil War, Human trafficking in the twenty first century
this is simply not true. The trafficking of has retained some of the core aspects of
women and children is a huge but silent previous forms of servitude and human trade
problem that exists in almost all countries while also adapting to meet changing economic,
and endangers the lives of everyone involved. cultural and political realities (Picarelli
There are still millions of people who live 2007:45).
in bondage in all parts of the world, a majority Realities like increased unemployment,
of whom are women and children, who poverty, food shortages, child sex tourism,
make up the backbone of society. The traffic- famines and the HIV-epidemic prepares a
king in human beings continued to occur even market for the trafficking of women and
after the United Nations Declaration of Human children. Cultural beliefs for example that
Rights, developed in the 1940’s, stated that all “muti”, made from human tissue or body parts,
human beings without distinction of any kind is highly effective medicine which can be used
should be free from slavery (Fowler, Che & to solve any problem and creates an opportunity
Fowler 2010:1345). for traffickers to exploit this belief to generate

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© South African Professional Society on the Abuse of Children: ISSN 1562-1383
Child Abuse Research: A South African Journal 2012, 13(1):62-73
 Human trafficking and the exploitation of women and children in a Southern and South African context

money. There is also a belief amongst certain Research problem

cultures that sex with a virgin can prevent or Research undertaken on women and child
even cure HIV. In order to ensure that the girl is trafficking and specifically the different forms
a virgin, the victim is usually very young, of exploitation to which they are exposed was
sometimes even a baby or toddler. Political hampered by the following aspects:
realities like political instability, wars, conflict • Although the sexual exploitation of women
and a general surge for power provides a and children is well documented, limited data
favourable breeding ground for migration, is available on other forms of exploitation
which again is coupled with realities mentioned like the trafficking of people for body parts
above like unemployment, poverty and food and sacrificing cults.
shortages. These conditions then provides the • There are no comprehensive studies or
ideal opportunities to traffickers to traffick investigations done which explore the extent
women and children. and nature to which forms of exploitation
victims of trafficking are exposed.
DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS • The extent to which women and children are
Trafficking exploited remains unclear due to the
The term trafficking is similar to the definition clandestine and underground nature of the
approved and recommended by the South phenomenon.
African Law Reform Commission and adapted • Most of South Africa's neighbouring states
by the Department of Justice and Constitutional like Zimbabwe, Angola and Swaziland did
Development (Prevention and Combating of not respond on the request to assist and to
Trafficking in Persons Bill 2009:7) and states supply information on human trafficking and
that: forms of exploitation.
“Trafficking includes the recruitment, sale, supply, • With the exception of Mozambique, South
procurement, transportation, transfer, harbouring, Africa and the neighbouring states included
disposal or receipt of persons for the adoption of in the research, do not have legislation that
a child facilitated or secured through legal or
illegal means, within or across the borders of the would create a statutory offence of trafficking
Republic – in persons. This makes it difficult to trace
a) by means of the use of threat, force, intimidation cases in human trafficking and to identify
or other forms of coercion, abduction, kid- victims.
napping, fraud, deception, debt bondage, abuse
• It is difficult to get hold of victims of human
of power or the giving or receiving of payments
or benefits to achieve the consent of a person trafficking because children are increasingly
having control of authority over another person; trafficked by their parents.
or
b) by abusing vulnerability”. Research Rationale
In a broader sense children or women have been Very little has been written about human
trafficked if they have been moved from within trafficking and the different forms of
a country, crossing borders, whether by force or exploitation in Southern Africa and no attention
not, with the purpose of their exploitation. has been given to a collaborative approach in
identifying the victims of the crime. The
Exploitation author's motivation to investigate human
The concept exploitation in a human trafficking trafficking as a serious crime issue was based
sense as embodied in the United Nations on the following facts:
definition of human trafficking “shall include at • An eagerness as criminologist to expose the
a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution forms of exploitation to which victims of
of other forms of sexual exploitation, forced trafficking are exposed with the aim to
labour or services, slavery or practices similar develop a theoretical framework which could
to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs” help to identify and assist victims.
(Article 3 of the Supplementary Protocol to • Absence of a collaborative approach in
Suppress, Prevent and Punish Trafficking in assisting victims which were exploited by a
persons, especially Women and Children 2000). process of human trafficking.
For purposes of this article exploitation will • Existence of fragmented information on the
mean any directed act exploiting or victimising forms of exploitation for instance trafficking
a person who has been trafficked. These actions for human sacrifices, muti, pornography and
have self-gain as common ground. other forms.

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Research methodology further and further from their home countries,

Research involves the collection of data by indicating that international trafficking is on the
means of various methods and techniques. The rise. The rise and spread of international
nature of the study was explorative and trafficking is linked to the growth of
descriptive. It addresses the different forms of transnational organised crime groups due to the
exploitation suffered by victims of trafficking. advanced new infrastructure and technologies
Data was gathered by means of two processes associated with globalisation. If globalisation
namely: Firstly a multidisciplinary literature can be characterised as the free movement of
search was launched on different electronic capital, goods and services across the world,
data-bases for instance: aided by advanced systems of communication
Science Direct (www.sciencedirect.com), and and transportation, human traffickers can, and
Sabinet (www.sabinet.co.za). Other electronic certainly do, corrupt these systems to aid the
data-bases include Independent Online movement of people across borders (Turner &
(www.iol.co.za); South African Government Kelly 2008:188).
Information (www.info.gov.za); US Depart-
ment of State (www.state.gov); news paper THE TRAFFICKING OF WOMEN AND
reports (www.nes24.com) and South Africa CHILDREN TO SOUTH AFRICA FROM
Info (www.southafrica.info). OTHER AFRICAN COUNTRIES
Information was obtained by contacting and The trafficking of women and children to South
corresponding with The United Nations Office Africa from within the continent presents a
on Drugs and Crime (UNODC); The more varied scenario. Trafficking takes place
International Organisation for Migration, Non predominantly across the geographical borders
Government Organisations (NGO's) Molo of the country. The country's extensive and
Songololo, Government Organisations, the unpatrolled borders provide ideal opportunities
Department of Home Affairs of South Africa for traffickers to enter South Africa undetected
and its neighbouring states and several experts (Human Science Research Council Project.
in the field of human trafficking, Prof Carol Tsireledzani 2010:15 and 198).
Allais, Research leader and Managing Editor of The major countries of origin for trafficking
Project Tsireledzani: understanding the dimen- through Africa are those immediately adjacent
sions of human trafficking in Southern Africa. to South Africa, with the primary ones being
Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Malawi, Swaziland
Research delimitation and Lesotho are also amongst other African
Geographically, the research was confined countries where victims are trafficked from.
to South Africa and its neighbouring states Women and children are trafficked through the
including Botswana, Zimbabwe, Angola, Lebombo/ Komatipoort border (Mozambique),
Mozambique, Lesotho and Swaziland. and the Swaziland border areas. Zimbabwean
and Malawian children are trafficked through
SOUTHERN AFRICA AND HUMAN the Musina/Messina border. Young girls are
TRAFFICKING ACTIVITIES trafficked through the Lesotho border post
Southern Africa is host to a diverse range of at Maseru and then on to Bloemfontein.
human trafficking activities, from the global Destination points include Johannesburg, Cape
operations of Chinese triad groups and Russian Town and farms within Mpumalanga Province.
“Mafia”, to the local trade in persons across Barberton in Mpumalanga has been identified
land borders perpetrated by local syndicates as conduct for young girls trafficked from
(International Organisation for Migration Swaziland by illegal miners (Human Science
2003:6). The Southern region's young women Research Council Project. Tsireledzani 2010:15).
and children are especially vulnerable to the Longer distance trafficking documented by
recruitment tactics of traffickers because civil the International Organisation for Migration
unrest in Zimbabwe, Angola, Mozambique and (IOM) Pretoria involves victims trafficked from
economic deprivation leave them with few the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola,
opportunities at home, and make migration a Rwanda, Kenya, Cameroon, Nigeria and
national and common solution (International Somalia. In many of these cases a single victim
Organisation for Migration 2003:6). was recorded. (Human Science Research
Intra country and intra regional trafficking is a Council Media briefs 2010:1). Cases assisted by
significant problem in South and Southern the International Organisation for Migration in
Africa. Victims of trafficking are also found Pretoria since 2004 were all women, trafficked

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 Human trafficking and the exploitation of women and children in a Southern and South African context

for purposes of both sexual and labour traffickers) and trafficking for the removal of
exploitation. However, men and boys were also body parts (or muti) and for sacrifice in rituals
trafficked from neighbouring countries and (Human Science Research Council Project.
from more distant Sub-Saharan countries Tsireledzani 2010:19). Each one of these forms
(Human Science Research Council Project of exploitation will now be discussed.
Tsireledzani 2010:15)
DIFFERENT FORMS OF EXPLOITATION
THE INTERNAL OR DOMESTIC TO WHICH WOMEN AND CHILDREN ARE
TRAFFICKING OF WOMEN AND EXPOSED TO IN SOUTHERN AFRICA
CHILDREN IN SOUTH AFRICA
The largest movement of trafficked women and Women and child trafficking for purpose
children in South Africa has been from rural of sexual exploitation
areas to cities. Provincial ‘hotspots’ for traffic- The sexual exploitation of women and children
king activities within the various provinces is by far the most commonly identified form of
have been identified as Gauteng – Pretoria and human trafficking (79%) (UNODC 2009:6).
Johannesburg; North West – Rustenburg; Free Trafficking for sexual exploitation is relatively
State – Bloemfontein, the South Africa Lesotho well documented in South Africa, and has
Maseru border; KwaZulu-Natal – Durban and emerged as an issue of globalisation. In South
harbour, Western Cape – Cape Town and and Southern Africa it is facilitated by porous
harbour. borders, deprivation and advanced communi-
Although the trafficking of people for cation technologies. In a research project titled
exploitative purposes has taken place for Trafficking of children for purposes of sexual
centuries it has now come to the forefront of exploitation Molo Songololo (2005:12) found
international policy and research agendas. A that children are vulnerable to sexual
variety of types of trafficking has been exploitation because of economic inequalities,
identified in the trafficking stream from South migration and urbanisation, family disinte-
Africa's neighbouring state and other African gration, poverty, lack of affective social welfare
countries. Young children, particularly girls, support, lack of effective safety and protection
appear to make up a large component of these services, sexual abuse, high levels of domestic
streams. violence and increase demand for sex with
children. It is thus clear that the factors which
INTERCONTINENTAL TRAFFICKING (TO could contribute to the vulnerability of children
SOUTH AFRICA FROM OUTSIDE OF in exploitation situation are diverse in nature.
AFRICA) The victims of sex trafficking are enslaved
South Africa is a destination country for long- often under threat of death, assault, or by the
distance flows for people (mainly women) use of drugs (Human Science Research Council
trafficked from Thailand, Philippines, India, Project Tsireledzani 2010:150). Without their
China, Bulgaria, Romania, Russia and Ukraine consent, they are forced to provide sex for pay.
(Human Science Research Council Media briefs The payment goes directly to the traffickers.
2010:1). The main point of entry of these Traffickers often convince women to go abroad
trafficking streams is OR Tambo Airport in and work as prostitutes, seemingly of their own
Johannesburg. free will, but then enslave and brutalise them.
Human trafficking in the twenty first century In life they are nothing more than modern day
has retained some of the core aspects of slaves.
previous forms of servitude and human trade There is an immense diversity of trafficking in
while also adapting to meet changing econo- women and children for sexual exploitation in
mical, cultural and political realities (Picarelli Southern Africa. Victims are African, Asian
2007:45). Human trafficking involves a variety and European, from urban and rural back-
of crimes and abuses associated with the grounds, some with high levels of education
recruitment, movement and sale of people into a and others with little. They are predominantly
range of exploitation situations (Lee 2007:1). female, although where children are targeted
Women and young girls are trafficked for the specifically, boys are also among these
following forms of exploitation namely sexual recruited. They include Basotho children as
exploitation including prostitution and porno- young as 12 and refugee women as old as 44
graphy, domestic servitude, forced labour, and (International Organisation for Migration
begging, criminal activity (including drug 2003:123). South African women and children

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are trafficked into sex industries in European Investigation into the flows of trafficking shows
countries. The extended destinations are the that it is a cross-border trade that succeeds
Netherlands, United Kingdom and beyond. because vulnerable women and children may
Women and children are trafficked to Europe be found anywhere and everywhere, and
(Italy, Germany, Spain, France, Sweden, United because of the expedient cooperation of recruit-
Kingdom, and the Netherlands for commercial ment, transporters and exploiters (International
sex exploitation (Adepoju 2004:44). Organisation for Migration 2003:124).
With regard to the sexual exploitation of The scope and magnitude of women and
people the International Organisation for children trafficked from and to Southern Africa
Migration Regional Office for South Africa has remains unknown. According to Justice Pias
found in its investigation in Africa the Langa (2008:1) at least 28 000 children have
following distinct patterns of trafficking in been trafficked to South African cities for
women and children (International Organisation purposes of sexual exploitation (Independent
for Migration 2003:123). Online Human Trafficking 'modern day slavery'
• Trafficking of women from refugee- 2008:1). The International Organisation for
producing countries to South Africa. Migration (IOM) (2003) estimates that 1 000
• Trafficking of children from Lesotho to Mozambican women and children are trafficked
towns in the Eastern Free State of South to South Africa each year for sexual
Africa. exploitation (Martin 2010:3). Zimbabwean and
• Trafficking of women and girls from Malawian women and girls are trafficked to
Mozambique to Gauteng and KwaZulu- Mozambique for sexual exploitation (US
Natal. Department of State 2008:1).
• Trafficking of women from Malawi to Forced prostitution
Northern Europe. The most common form of sexual exploitation
• Trafficking of girl and boy children from in South Africa seems to be forced prostitution.
Malawi to Northern Europe. The scope or magnitude of women and children
• Trafficking of women and girls from Malawi forced in prostitution remain unclear. No
to South Africa overland. official available data exists on how many
• Trafficking of women from Thailand to women and children are trafficked into South
South Africa. Africa for the purpose of sexual exploitation in
• Trafficking of women from China to South general and into forced prostitution in
Africa. particular.
• Trafficking of Eastern European women to An investigation into the phenomenon and
South Africa. reports by research projects, for example
From the investigation it became evident that Human Science Research Council (Project
sex trafficking victims could be forced into the Tsireledzani 2010) and the IOM’s Seduction
following exploitive situations, namely forced Sale and Slavery: Trafficking in Women and
prostitution, (like street prostitutes, escort Children for Sexual Exploitation in South
agencies, brothels, hotel brothels, prostitution Africa (2003), however, revealed that victims
on trucking routes, harbours and private homes who were drawn or forced into prostitution
of traffickers) pornography, stripping/exotic originate from a wide range of nationalities.
dancing, mail order brides and massage It is evident that women and children from
parlours. our neighbouring states like Zimbabwe,
In Southern Africa, trafficking in women and Mozambique, Lesotho, Swaziland and Angola
children for sexual exploitation is neither are trafficked into South Africa for purpose of
perpetrated by a single group, nor are its forced prostitution.
victims from a single country or territory. It is a In Cape Town it was found that children as
cross border trade that succeeds because young as seven years old have been trafficked
vulnerable women and children may be found into the area from a wide range of countries
anywhere and everywhere. According to the from the Africa continent to include Zambia,
Human Science Research Council (2010:148), Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia
respondents identified criminal elements like and the Democratic Republic of the Congo
the Russia Mafia, Bulgarian crime syndicates, (Human Science Research Council Project:
Nigerians as well as individual South African Tsireledzani 2010:150).
and Bulgarian agents as the traffickers. Women and children in forced prostitution are

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 Human trafficking and the exploitation of women and children in a Southern and South African context

controlled by criminal syndicates (reportedly of (South Africa Coalition against Trafficking of

Nigerian nationality) operating in South Africa. Crime 2011:1). Data on people who been
Several tactics are used to control victims like: trafficked and exposed or forced into porno-
• A dependency on narcotics is created. graphy is scarce. According to the HSRC
• Often threatened and sexually raped to create Project Tsireledzani (2010:215) young Lesotho
fear for fleeing. girls between the ages 17-21 years were
• A debt bondage of anywhere from 60-70,000 exploited for purposes of pornography. Traffic-
ZAR depending on the value traffickers place kers have recently extended the destination of
on the victims. children to the European Union, especially the
• Seizure of passports. Netherlands, United Kingdom and beyond.
• Guarding victims by means of guards and
Women and children are trafficked to Europe
dogs to create fear. (Italy, Germany, Spain, France, Sweden, United
Kingdom and the Netherlands) for sexual
• The creation of the perception that criminal
exploitation and pornography (Molo Songololo
syndicates have close links with the police
2005:17). The forms of pornography to which
which mitigates the risk of victims reporting
victims were exposed to were not indicated.
their perspective cases to law enforcement.
The scope and magnitude of the phenomenon
• Threatening victims, their families and family
also remains unknown.
members.
The legal status of pornography varies widely
The profile of twelve (12) victims which were from country to country. Most countries allow
identified by the Human Science Research at least some form of pornography. In some
Council Project Tsireledzani (2010:23) indicated countries soft core pornography is sold but hard
that ten (10) were female and two (2) were men, core pornography is usually regulated. The
6 came from Mozambique, 2 from Swaziland, 1 production, sale and possession of child
from Zimbabwe and 3 from South Africa. The pornography is illegal in most countries.
ages of the victims range from 7-19 years and Children in South Africa are protected by
the average age of the victims is 13, 4 years. means of certain legislation against pornography.
From these twelve (12) cases, five (5) were The Sexual Offences and Related Matters
forced into sex work. Amendment Act, No 32 of 2007, makes special
Pornography provision for addressing offences relating to
Pornography is defined as material that is sexual exploitation or grooming, exposure to or
“predominantly sexually explicit and intended display of child pornography or pornography to
primarily for the purpose of sexual arousal”. children and the creation of child pornography.
Pornography may use any of a variety of media, Other acts which also could be used to combat
ranging from books, magazines, postcards, trafficking, are the Children’s Act No 38 of
photo's, sculptures, drawings, paintings, anima- 2005, specifically chapters 17 and 18, which
tion, sound recording, films, videos or video address child abduction and the trafficking in
games and television. (Anderson 2010:1). children, Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977,
According to Anderson (2010:1-2) porno- and the Films and Publications Amendment
graphy can be classified into five types: The Act, No 3 of 2009.
first type is adult magazines (like Playboy and Brothels and massage parlours
Penthouse). The other four types are video The exploitation of women and girls in brothels
cassettes, motion pictures, television and audio and massage parlours could be seen as an
porn. extension of the forced prostitution practice.
Lots of pornography features trafficked Brothels are controlled by syndicates and
women and teenagers. The pornography business brothel owners. According to Project Tsireledzani
justifies the buying and selling of women and (2010:215) a number of brothels using
young girls (Rice 2011:1). According to Lara Mozambican women have been identified in
Janson, a former porn star, trafficking victims Komatipoort. Zimbabwean women and children
are forced to watch porn and initiate it as a form are also trafficked for sexual exploitation and
of training. they are also used in brothels along the
Rice (2011:1) however indicates that country's border with Botswana, Mozambique,
pornography has became the foundation to the South Africa and Zambia (Human Science
human trafficking business. South Africa is a Research Council Project Tsireledzani 2010:
transit zone for international child pornography 169).

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Research by the Human Science Research (U.S. Department of State 2008:8). In Namibia
Council Project Tsireledzani (2010:214) has there is evidence that small numbers of
discovered the trafficking of Thai women to Namibian children are trafficked within the
South Africa by Thai women who were country for domestic servitude. There have also
previously trafficked to South Africa themselves been a few reported cases of Zambian and
and now have their own brothels. In the case of Angolan children trafficked to Namibia for
Thai victims, the trafficking network appears to domestic servitude (U.S. Department of State
be extensive. Brothel owners are able to place 2008:8). In Swaziland anecdotal evidence
'orders' for women who are then trafficked into indicates that Swazi girls, particularly orphans,
the country. Thai women are trafficked to South are trafficked within the country for domestic
Africa with employment offers in massage servitude in the cities of Mbabane and Manzini,
parlours but are then forced to become as well as to South Africa for the same purpose
prostitutes in brothels (Human Science Research (U.S. Department of State 2008:11).
Council Project Tsireledzani 2010:18). Women Women and girls, often with promises of
and girls from the Philippines, India, China, employment or education, are trafficked from
Bulgaria, Romania, Russia and the Ukraine are rural to urban areas of Mozambique, as well as
of the victims trafficked to South Africa and to South Africa for domestic servitude.
exploited by means of prostitution in brothels Research by the US State Department has found
and massage parlours. South African children that Mozambicans often labour for months in
are also trafficked to European countries. For South Africa without pay and under coercive
example, the London-based newspaper, The conditions before their exploiters have them
Observer, reported in February 2001 that under- arrested and deported as illegal immigrants
aged South African children were being used in (U.S. Annual Report: Mozambique 2008:1).
brothels in London (Molo Songololo 2005:22). According to the US State Department
Trafficking in Persons Report (2009:204) South
Domestic servitude
African women are trafficked to Europe and the
Women and children in domestic servitude may
Middle East for domestic servitude. Nigerian
well be the most vulnerable and exploited
syndicates are moving trafficked women from
people as well as the most difficult to protect.
South Africa to the United States for African
From the research conducted by Molo Songololo
clients in that country.
it became clear that women and children from
The extent and scope of women and children
Africa have been trafficked into South Africa
drawn into domestic servitude in South Africa
for domestic servitude. The largest movement
and Southern Africa remain unknown. It is
of trafficked women and children for domestic
prevalent that women and children are
servitude in South Africa is internally, from
trafficked internally, intra-regional and inter-
rural areas to cities. Children have also been
continentally for purpose of domestic servitude.
trafficked within provinces. An investigation by
Internal or domestic trafficking for domestic
Molo Songololo (2005:43) into “Trafficking in
servitude were found in countries like South
Children in the Western Cape Province”,
Africa, Botswana and Mozambique (U.S.
indicated that children are especially trafficked
Department of State 2008:16). Domestic
from the Western Cape and from the Northern
servitude and particularly the involvement of
Cape, Eastern Cape and in some instances from
children is a serious problem which needs
Limpopo into domestic servitude.
intervention.
The internal or domestic trafficking, as well as
cross border trafficking of women and children Trafficking for forced and bonded labour
in some of South Africa's neighbouring states, in Southern Africa
are also prevalent. In Botswana many Batswana Forced labour is defined as "all work or service
households employ Zimbabwean women as which is exacted from any person under
domestic workers, often without proper work the menace of any penalty and for which the
permits or the adequate payment of wages. said person has not offered himself/herself
Children engaged in work as domestics in voluntarily (International Labour Organization
towns or shepherds at remote cattle posts were Convention Concerning Forced Labour (No 29)
also identified (U.S. Department of State article 2.1. South Africa ratified this Con-
2008:2). vention on 5 March 1997.
In Lesotho women and girls have been There is a general concern that trafficking for
internally trafficked for domestic servitudes. forced labour is less frequently detected and

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 Human trafficking and the exploitation of women and children in a Southern and South African context

reported than trafficking for sexual exploitation. border crossings, and finding employment,
Prostitution (whether forced or voluntary) often in the form of commercial sex work,
involves the general public because it must be domestic servitude and farm labour. Trafficked
visible - taking place in streets, bars or public women and children are then required to “work
spaces in urban areas – to attract potential off” the debt they own for the services
clients. Conversely, most of the victims of provided.
forced labour often work in hidden locations, For the victims of trafficking, debts are held
such as agricultural fields in rural areas, mining over them as long as possible. The cost of
camps and garment factories or within the transporting the victims, their food and shelter
closed environment of a house in the case of will be increased by traffickers through high
domestic servitude. As a consequence, the interest and false accounting (Fowler, Che &
detection of victims of trafficking for forced Fowler 2010:1347). In situations of debt
labour is less probable than the identification of bondage, women become virtual prisoners, as
victims of trafficking for forced prostitution they are unable to ever earn back the amount
(UNODC 2009:51). purportedly owed to the traffickers. Trafficked
There are numerous forms of labour women are prevented from escaping their
trafficking like: agriculture/farm labour, factory situation through debt bondage as well as
work/“sweat shops”, domestic servitude/ house- retention of travel documents, violence and
keeping/nannies, construction, food services, threats of violence against themselves or their
entertainment/ modelling/peddling (Bakirci families (Advocates for Human Rights
2009:163). 2010:10).
According to the US Department of State, Debt bondage is usually placed on the victims
Trafficking in Persons Annual Report 2008:1, trafficked for sexual exploitation. It appears that
Mozambique is a source and, to a much lesser the amount of the debt bondage varies
extent, a destination country for men, women according to the nationality/ethnic group of the
and children trafficked for the purpose of victim. Whereas debt bondage may be 100,000
forced labour. The use of force and bonded ZAR for Thai Victims, debt bondage for
child labourers is a common practice in African women is far less than women from
Mozambique's rural areas, often with the Thailand, Russia and the Ukraine. Debt
complicity of family members. Young men and bondage can range from as little as 2500-5000
boys are trafficked to South Africa for farm ZAR for black women, 5000-7500 ZAR for
work and mining. Small numbers of coloured women and 7500-12000 ZAR for
Mozambican children are reportedly trafficked white women (Human Science Research
to Zambia for agricultural labour, while adult Council Project Tsireledzani 2010:218).
women are trafficked to Portugal for forced Trafficking for ritualistic killings and
labour. satanic cults
The real extent and scope of forced labour in Ritual murders have been reported in many
Southern Africa is hampered by insufficient African countries including the Southern Africa
knowledge, lack of resources to investigate the region. Victims are the poor, those who have no
problem and very little official data or voice or defence, or the strength to defend
analytical research. themselves (British Broadcast Corporation
Debt bondage versus women and child News Africa 2010:1).
exploitation Very little is known in South Africa about the
Debt bondage can be described as the practice linkage between ritualistic killings, practiced by
of lending money or services to a person or satanic cults and human traffickers. The Human
people in exchange for their labour or services Science Research Council (2010:16) however
should the debt not be paid (Fowler, Che & comments that interviews with key informants,
Fowler 2010:1347). reveal a belief that satanic cults operate within
Debt bondage could be seen as a tool used by all areas of South Africa. According to these
exploiters to get hold of women and children. It respondents, who were former members of
is probably the least known form of labour satanic cults within South Africa, these cults are
trafficking today, and yet it is the most widely very well connected and can be very dangerous.
used method of enslaving people. These cults seem to have significant financial
Debt bondage usually occurs when traffickers resources and their members are usually white
assist women in travelling, making illegal and include both men and women. They are

69
Swart

often affluent members of society, including Makotsi 2009:2)

doctors, lawyers and business people. Krugers- “Muti murder” refers to the killing with the
dorp in the Gauteng province was identified as purpose of harvesting body parts for use as
the main centre for the operation of satanic cults traditional medicine or “muti”. South Africa is
in South Africa (Human Science Research currently witnessing an “epidemic” of occult-
Council Project Tsireledzani 2010:153). related violent crime (Vincent 2008:1). Muti
Where satanic rituals require human sacrifice, killings is a way of life in some rural areas in
children are usually sacrificed. Respondents Southern Africa. According to Bailey (2010:1)
involved in Project Tsireledzani (Human one in five people in South Africa's rural areas
Science Research Council Project Tsireledzani has had first-hand experience of a human body
2010:16) believe that victims are either part being trafficked after a muti killing. The
recruited by cult members or purchased from trafficking of body parts between Mozambique
criminal syndicates that specialise in human and South Africa is a well known practice, and
trafficking. Nigerians seem to be mostly was verified by research undertaken by the
involved in these practices. Alternatively, Human Rights League in Mozambique and
satanic cults will kidnap victims often from supported by Childline in South Africa (Baily
rural areas. Street children and prostitutes are 2010:1). According to Simon Fellows (2008:8),
also targets because they are less likely to be project manager of the Human Rights League in
missed or reported to the police. It also became Mozambique, there was a demand in South
clear that if the ritualistic killing requires a man, Africa for body parts and a supply from
they will target gay men in bars and sedate Mozambique. However, it is unclear if there is a
them through the use of drugs, as it is more demand in Mozambique too because the checks
difficult to kidnap men directly from the street at the South African borders going to
due to the level of resistance (Human Science Mozambique are far more superior.
Research Council Project Tsireledzani 2010: A recent NGO report found that human
20). Information obtained at this stage is clearly trafficking of Mozambican children and adults
cursory and preliminary, but indicates an urgent for the forcible removal of body parts is
need for further investigation. significant, so-called witchdoctors in Mozam-
bique and South Africa seek various body parts
HUMAN TRAFFICKING AND MUTI of live victims for traditional medical
KILLINGS concoctions commonly purchase to heal illness,
Historically the people of Southern Africa used foster economic prosperity, or hurt enemies (US
Traditional Healers (TH) to aid them in terms State Department Trafficking in Persons
of health and to help them improve their life Report, June 2009:1).
situation in various ways (Ward and Makotsi Research by the Human Rights League in
2009:1). Access to Government Services and Mozambique (Mogakane 2009:2) found that it
Western medicine remains low in many areas, is a commonly held belief in South Africa and
and the use of TH is widespread and for many it Mozambique that traditional medicine, when
remains a first choice. TH has developed many made with body parts, is stronger and more
remedies using herbs and plants which alleviate powerful than herbal medicine. Body parts that
patients' problems. According to Ward and are usually harvested are male genitals, female
Mokotsi (2009:2) the World Health Organisation genital organs, breasts, hearts, fingers, tongues,
(WHO) called for an integration of traditional ears, eyes, hands, legs, lungs, guts, skin, arms,
medicine into the national health care system jaws and lips. The real extent and scope of
and also wanted to promote the proper use of trafficking in body parts remains unclear. The
traditional medicine by developing and dealing in and trafficking of human body parts
providing international standards, technical however is not human trafficking. Human
guidelines and methodologies. In the WHO trafficking requires that a person be moved
definition of traditional medicine, the use of within a country, across borders, whether by
human body parts is not considered part of force or not, with the purpose of exploitation.
traditional medicine. Rather, the use of body Victims are humiliated and killed frequently.
parts can be considered witchcraft and a Investigation and research done by the Human
harmful traditional practice. In practice the term Science Research Council Project Tsireledzani
witchdoctor and Traditional Healer is something and the Human Rights League of Mozambique
used interchangeably. “Witchcraft” typically could not confirm that women and children are
refers to malevolent or harmful magic (Ward & trafficked internally or domestically or inter-

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 Human trafficking and the exploitation of women and children in a Southern and South African context

continentally for the harvesting of body parts. Some other forms of exploitation associated
They confirmed however that body parts are with human trafficking are ritualistic killings
trafficked in such ways. and satanic cults and muti killings. Ritual
killings are reported in many African countries
CONCLUSION including the Southern African region. Very
It is inconceivable that in modern times, women little is known in South Africa about the linkage
and children can be held captive against their between ritualistic killings practiced by satanic
will and be physically, sexually and cults and human trafficking. Children are
psychologically exploited. However, this takes usually sacrificed but it still remains unclear if
place every day in the lives of women and they are recruited, kidnapped or trafficked.
children who have been trafficked. Human “Muti murder” where people are killed for the
trafficking and the exploitation of people know harvesting of body parts for use in traditional
no boundaries. Victims of this criminal activity medicine or “muti” is prevalent in South Africa
can be of either gender, any age or any as well as Mozambique. The trafficking of body
nationality. In Southern Africa as elsewhere in parts between these two countries occurs
the world women and children are the targets frequently. It remains unclear if people are
for trafficking and exploitation. trafficked and then killed to harvest body parts.
The ultimate objective of human trafficking is Data on these practices is cursory and
the exploitation of victims. The exploitation of preliminary and relies on hearsay, but also
women and children is a huge but silent indicates an urgent need for further
problem that exists in all the neighbouring investigation.
countries of South Africa. The clandestine Insufficient data exists to provide a
nature of the criminal activity and the lack of comprehensive portrait of the exploitation of
comprehensive data makes it very difficult to women and children in Southern Africa. This,
discover the real scope and magnitude of the however, highlights the urgent need for more
problem but also prevents a precise count of the research, new statistical methods and centralised
number of people victimised by the industry record keeping on human trafficking and the
each year. exploitation of women and children
Research into the different forms of
exploitation which women and children are RECOMMENDATIONS
exposed to revealed that sexual exploitation and • Institution of a formal victim identification
domestic servitude are the two most commonly mechanism to distinguish trafficking victims
forms of exploitation in South Africa and its amongst undocumented immigrants.
neighbouring states. Women and young girls • Development and employment of national
are trafficked inter-regional for some forms of procedures for victim protection, extended to
sexual exploitation and domestic servitude. the victims of sex trafficking.
Forced labour seems also prevalent in some
• Compilation of national statistics on the
countries.
number of trafficking cases prosecuted and
The internal or domestic trafficking of women
victims assisted.
and children from rural areas to cities for sexual
• Continuation to seek active participation from
exploitation seems to be a large problem.
Intercontinental trafficking of women and NGO's on anti-trafficking efforts and
children from outside of Africa was discovered assistance to victims of trafficking.
with Mozambican women and girls prominently. • The government must provide regular
Intercontinental trafficking of women and girls funding and other supportive services to a
from several countries and nationalities were wide range of NGO programs that service the
also prominent. It became clear that there is an needs of victims of trafficking.
immense diversity of trafficking in women and • Enactment of legislation that creates traffic-
children for sexual exploitation in South Africa. king in persons as a statutory offence (The
The most common form of sexual exploitation Prevention and Combating in Persons Bill) so
seems to be forced prostitution. The sexual that traffickers could be punished and victims
exploitation of trafficked women and children protected.
in pornography and brothels is not well • Addressing inter-related economic factors
documented. Although it was mentioned by like poverty, unemployment and disem-
HSRC (2010), little information exists on the powerment so that the most vulnerable such
real scope and nature of these acts. as women and children be protected from

71
Swart

falling prey to traffickers. Government and Private Organisations to

• Border fences between South Africa and assist victims of human trafficking will be
neighbouring countries should be reinstalled essential.
and border control and the patrolling of • Enough shelters should be established to
borders must be sharpened. assist the victims of human trafficking.
• Border officials and policemen must be • Communities and households must be
trained and informed how to look out for informed about the negative effects of human
trafficking women, children and traffickers. trafficking and the consequences it holds for
• A national collaborative approach between victims.

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