Introduction The study of research methods provides one with the knowledge and skills neede dto solve the problems and the challenges of a fast-paced decisionmaking envir onment. Business research course reco gnizes that students preparing to manage business, non-profit and public organisations, in all areas, need training in a disci plined process for conducting an inquiry of a management dilemma, the problem or opportunity that requires a management decision. During the last two decades, there has been a dramatic changein the business en vironment. Emerging from a historically economic role, the business organisation has evolved in response to the social and political mandates of national public po licy, explosive technology growth and continuing innovations in global communic ations. These changes have created new knowledge needs for the manager andn ew publics to consider when evaluating any decision. Other knowledge demands havearisen from problems with mergers, trade policies, protected markets, techno logy transfers and macro-economic savings ~investment issues The trend towards complexity has increased the risk associated with business de cisions, making it more important to have a sound information base. To do well in such an environment, one will need to understand how to identify quality informat ion and recognize the solid, reliable research on which one's high-risk decisions as a manager can be based. One also needs to know how to conduct research. Devel oping these skills requires understanding the scientific method as it applies to the managerial decision-making environment. Three factors stimulate an interest in a scientific approach to decision making + The managers increased need for more and better information + The availability of improved techniques and tools to meet this need + The resulting information overload if discipline is not employed in the proc ess Definition of Research Different authors have defined research as follows: 1. Research is carrying out a diligent inquiry or a critical examination of a giv en phenomenon. 2. Research involves a critical analysis of existing conclusions or theories wit h regard to newly discovered facts i.e. i's a continued search for new know ledge and understanding of the world around us. “] T_| 3. Research is a process of arriving at effective solutions to problems through systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data. The Scientific Approach to Research The Scientific Method is a way (a method) of acquiring knowledge in both the ph ysical and social sciences. Science may be regarded as a: * Body of knowledge which contains laws and facts that are already known, and + Method of inquiry, which claims that science, is a set of principles that tells us how to obtain these facts. This is called the methodological approach, or the Scientific Method. Thescientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dicta ted by the demands of logic and abjective procedure. It is based on the following basic postulates: © Itrelies on empirical evidence Itutilizes relevant concepts Itis committed to only objective considerations * Itpresupposes ethical neutrality i.e. it aims at nothing but making only ad equate and correct statements about population objects © Itresults into probabilistic predictions * Its methodology is made known to all concemed for critical scrutiny and f or usein testing the conclusions through replication, * Itaimsat formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as sci entific theories The Importance of Research and Decision-Making The importance of research may vary according to kind, especially whether basic or applied. Basic research is designed to advance knowledge with no application t © existing problems in view. The audience for basic research consists almost excl usively of other scholars or researchers interested in learning more about a pheno menon. Applied research is designed to help solve particular, existing problems so there is a much larger audience eager to support research that is likely to be profit able or solve problems of immediate concem. Quite a bit of applied research is su vey research or marketing research. This is the art and science of systematically asking questions and observing behavior to obtain information from a population of interest. Although we may envy natural scientists the simplicity of their study 0 f objects or properties, behavioral scientists can observe and ask questions. Surve y research hopes to gather evidence which will eventually allow behavior to be pre “] T_| L dicted and controlled. Decision-Making Managers make decisions every day. Ideally, such decisions would be made on th ebasis of evidence thoughtfully and appropriately gathered. The more important t he decisions and their impact, the more important the research becomes. Some d ecisions may have consequences resulting in considerable harm to a large numbe of people. Some managers make their decisions using the following ways «Intuition [sometimes called gut decision-making] Randomly Mystical or supernatural guidance Hearsay Authority [do as we are told or appeal to authority] Evidence gathered by another Evidence gathered by self or colleagues If managers use evidence gathered by others, especially those at some distance fr om them, research methods experience and knowledge is useful because it gives t hem rules or guidelines helpful in evaluating the quality and utility of evidence gat hered by another. Often, managers and supervisors are eager to use invalid andu nreliable evidence simply because it is easily available. In some cases, managers want evidence that supports an existing opinion or preference. In other cases, they want evidence with unambiguous findings and conclusions [which is rarely foun d]. Managers can be impatient with the limitations and qualifications of well-done research In most cases, managers want the evidence NOW and that creates a variety of pro blems. Decision-makers must always face the issue of deciding now or waiting u ntil more or better information is available. This is called the problem of sufficien cy. There may never be enough evidence to support a difficult decision Themanager lives in three time dimensions + Thepast - accurate sense of what was accomplished and what wa snot + The present ~ accurate sense of what is being accomplished + The future~what should be accomplished Research may be used to provide evidence on the first two, which supports decisi ons that will have an impact in the future. Considering the risks or consequences of making an important decision with inad equate evidence. How much information is enough? How much information can y ou afford? It certainly is not true that more evidence or information is always bett er. "Information obesity’ can be a research problem just as itis a problem in every day life. Research is cost incurring, but also value-producing so that cost and valu “] T_| L e must be balanced. Research is of little value if you do not know what evidence i s needed or how to get it. You need the "tight" evidence and that requires skill, tho ught and experience. Why Do We Do Research? The Job Requires It In most positions, some sort of research is required to support normal decision-m aking. We examine circulation records to determine if fund allocations should be changed. We examine head counts to see when the library might reduce hours. W e examine attendance at the summer reading program to seeif it is cost-effective. ‘Academic librarians may be required to conduct research and publish as a conditi on of employment [publication is certainly much more important than the researc hl, REPORTINGis a crucial element in the conduct of research. Research depends on da ta. In many organizations, a wide variety of data is routinely collected and much o f that information may be 'mined” by the researcher. For example, circulation data and acquisition data are frequently available in many libraries and information ce nters. Often, research is limited by what data is relatively easily available. We need to ta ke advantage of data already available while encouraging managers to see the va lue in collecting the right information. We need to gather evidence that answers i mportant questions about effectiveness and efficiency rather than just what is ea sily counted or has always been counted. “The compilation of statistical information conceming library operationsis too fre quently a routine operation based on tradition and with an unclear purpose, resulti 1g in poorly collected data utilized at a very unsophisticated level.” We WantTo Do It Curiosity is a crucial part of the human condition. Many professionals, including i nformation ones, want to know more about something that interests them. Do ant hropologists use government information? How many well-known children’s auth ors have personal websites? Where did my family come from? Are weblog sites m ore likely to be created by men or women? What do teen-aged boys read? Thereis an excitement in the discovery of new information and knowing more about some topic than anyone else. There is joy in sharing newly gathered and previously una vailable information. Finally, publishing or sharing information via publication or public meetings provides visibility and recognition. In an Ideal World In an ideal world, research methods would be an integral part of thoughtful mana gement of any information agency. Better reporting would result in better data, wh ich would result in better decisions and a much more effective, visibly so, services to the community. “] TWhy Managers need Better Information Global and domestic competition is more vigorous Workers, shareholders, customers and the general public are demanding to be included in company decision-making. Organisations are increasingly practicing data mining and data warehousi ng Communication and measurement techniques within research have been e nhanced. The quality of theories and models to explain tactical and strategic results is improving The power and ease of use of today’s computers to analyze data, which he Ip in decision-making There are more variables to consider in every decision. More knowledge exists in every field of management. ‘Types of Research Different authors have classified research into various categories. (USIRSENVEFESERWGRE|I: includes designs, techniques and measures that do not pr oduce discrete numerical data. Qualitative data can be collected through direct ob servation, participant observation or interview method. Quantitative research: It includes designs, techniques and measures that produce discreet numerical or quantifiable data. Advantages of using both qualitative and quantitative methods 1 Since in many cases a researcher has several objectives, some of these obj ectives are better assessed using quantitative methods Both methods supplement each other i.e. qualitative methods provide the i n-depth explanations while quantitative methods provide the data needed t 0 test hypotheses. rc| LL 3. Since both methods have a bias, using both types of research helps to avoi d such bias in that each method can be used to check the other. Disadvantages of using both qualitative and quantitative methods 1. Itis expensive 2. Researchers may not have sufficient training in both methods to be able to use them effectively Basic researchers are interested in deriving scientific knowledge i.e. they are motiv ated by intellectual curiosity and need to come up with a particular solution. It focuses on generating new knowledge in order to refine or expand existing the ories. It does not consider the practical application of the findings to actual pr oblems or situations. 2. Applied research Itis conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory and evaluating its use fulness in solving problems. It provides data to support a theory, guide theory r evision or suggest the development of anew theory, 3 Itis conducted with the primary intention of solving a specific, immediate and co nerete problem in a local setting eg. investigating ways of overcoming water s hortage in a given area. It is not concerned with whether the results can be gen eralized to any other setting 4. Evaluation Research Itis the process of determining whether the intended results were realized. 1 Needs assessment Aneed is a discrepancy between an existing set of conditions and a desired set of conditions. The results of needs assessment study provide the foundation for developing new programmes and for making changes in existing ones. ii Helps to collect data about a programme while itis still being developede.g. ane ducational programme, a marketing strategy etc. iti Itis done after the programme has been fully developed. It is conducted to evaluat ehow worthwhile the final programme has been especially compared to similar pr ogrammes. ltis the process of collecting data in order to test hypotheses or to answer questio ns concerning the current status of the subjects in the study. It determines and rep orts the way things are. It attempts to describe such things as possible behaviour, “] [_| L attitudes, values and characteristics. Steps involved in descriptive research + Formulating the objectives of a study + Designing the methods of data collection + Selecting the sample + Data collection + Analyzing the results 2 It is used to explore relationships between variables. It determines reasons or cau ses for the current status of the phenomenon under study. The variables of interes t cannot be manipulated unlike in experimental research. Steps in causatcomparative research «Define the research question «Select a group that possesses the characteristics, which the researcher wants to study. + Select a comparison group which does not display the characteristics under st udy but which is similarto the group in other respects. + Collect data on both the experimental and control groups + Analyze the data Advantages of causal-comparative study + Allows comparison of groups without having to manipulate the independent variables + Itean be done solely to identify variables worthy of experimental investigation + They are relatively cheap. Disadvantages of causal-comparative study + Interpretations are limited because the researcher does not know whether a pa rticular variable is a cause or result of a behaviour being studied + There may be a third variable which could be af fecting the established relation ship but which may not be established in the study. 3. Correlation Methods It describes in quantitative terms the degree to which variables are related. It explo res relationships between variables and also tries to predict a subject's score ono ne variable given his or her score on another variable, Steps in correlational research + Problem statement + Selection of subjects + Data collection + Data analysis Advantages of the correlational method + Permits one to analyze interrelationships among a large number of vari “] T4 ables in a single study L + Allows one to analyze how several variables either singly or in combinati on might affect a particular phenomenon being studied + The method provides information conceming the degree of relationship between variables being studied Disadvantages of the correlational method + Correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply causation although researchers often tend to interpret such a relationship to mean causation. «Since the correlation coefficient is an index, any two variables will alway s show a relationship even when commonsense dictates that such varia bles are not related. + The correlation coefficient is very sensitive to the size of the sample. Classification by type of research 1, Survey Research Asurvey is an attempt to collect data from members of a population in order tod etermine the current status of that population with respect to one or more variable s. Survey study is therefore a self-report study, which requires the collection of qu antifiable information from the sample. Itis a descriptive research Steps involved in Survey research + Problem statement + Defining Objectives + Selecting a Sample + Preparing the instruments + Data analysis Purpose of survey research ii. It seeks to obtain information that describes existing phenomena by askin g individuals about their perceptions, attitudes, behaviour or values. ill, Can be used for explaining or exploring the existing status of two or morev ariables, at a given point in time. iv, Itis the most appropriate to measure characteristics of large populations. Limitations: of Survey research i. They are dependent on the cooperation of respondents. ii. Information unknown to therespondents cannot be tapped in a survey e.g amount saved per year ili, Requesting information which is considered secret and personal, encourag es incorrect answers. iv. Surveys cannot be aimed at obtaining forecasts of things to come. 2 Historical research Involves the study of a problem that requires collecting information from the past. “] T_| L Purpose of Historical Research + Aims at arriving at conclusions concerning causes, effects or trends of pas ‘t occurrences that may help explain present events and anticipate future event s + Attempts to interpret ideas or events that had previously seemed unrelated. + Synthesizes old data or merges old data with new historical facts that the r esearcher or other researchers have discovered + To reinterpret past events that have been studied. Steps involved in historical research «Identifying and delineating the problem + Developing hypothesis or hypotheses that one is interested in testing. * Collecting and classifying resource materials, determining facts by internal and extemal criticism. Organizing facts into results + Interpreting data in terms of stated hypothesis or theory. + Synthesizing and presenting the research in an organized form: 3. The current status of a phenomenon is determined not by asking but by observin g. This helps to collect objective information Steps involved in observational research + Selection and definition of the problem. + Sample selection + Definition of the observational information + Recording observational information + Data analysis and interpretation 1 Non-participant observation The observer is not directly involved in the situation to be observed. 2 Naturalistic Observation Behaviour is studied and recorded as it normally occurs. 3 Simulation observation The researcher creates the situation to be observed and tells subjects to be ob served what activities they are to engage in. Disadvantage ~ the setting is not natural and the behaviour exhibited by the subjects may not be the behaviour that would occur in a natural setting, 4 The observer becomes part of or a participant in the situation. May not be ethi cal 5 Case studies A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, institution or “] T_| L phenomenon. It aims to determine factors and relationships among the factor s that have resulted in the behaviourunder study. Content analysis It involves observation and detailed description of objects, items or things tha t comprise the sample. The purpose is to study existing documents such as books, magazines in order to determine factors that explain a specific pheno menon, Steps + Decide on theunit of analysis + Sample the content to be analyzed * Coding + Data analysis © Compiling results and interpretations. Advantages «Researchers are able to economize in terms of time and money. * Errors that arise during the study are easier to detect and correct. + The method has no effect on what is being studied Disadvantages + Itis limited to recorded communication, + tis difficult to ascertain the validity of the data. The Value of Acquiring Research Skills Managers in today's organisations require research skill in order to:- To gather more information before selecting a course of action + To doa high-level research study * Tounderstand research design + To evaluate and resolve a current management dilemma + To establish a career as a research specialist + Population: it refers to an entire group of individuals, events or objects havi ng a common observable characteristic. Sample: itis a smaller group obtained from the accessible population ic. it isa subset of the population. + Sampling: It is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals selected represent the population. + Variable: Itis 2 measurable characteristicthat assumes different values a mong the subjects. They can be dependent, independent, intervening, conf ounding or antecedent variables + Data: refers to all information a researcher gathers for his or her study. Can be secondary data or primary data. + Parameter: It is a characteristic that is measurable and can assume differe “] T= nt values in the population. L + Statistics: itis the science of organizing, describing and analyzing data. De sctiptive and inferential statistics. + Objective: it refers to the specific aspects of the phenomenon under study that the researcher desires to bring out at the end of the research study. + Literature review: It involves locating, reading and evaluating reports of pr evious studies, observations and opinions related to the planned study. + Hypothesis: It is a researcher's anticipated explanation or opinion regardin g the result of the study. + Theory: It is a set of concepts or constructs and the interrelations that are assumed to exist among those concepts. it provides the basis for establish ing the hypothesis to be tested in the study. + A construct is an image or idea specifically invented fara given research a nd/or theary-building purpose * A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certa in events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors. Concepts have bee 1n developed over time through shared usage Research originates in the decision process. A manager needs specific informatio n for setting objectives, defining tasks, finding the best strategy by which to carry out the tasks, or judging how well strategy is being implemented. A dilemma-cent ered emphasis - the problem's origin, selection, statement, exploration and refine ment ~ dominates the sequence of the research process. A management dilemm can originate in any aspect of an organisation. A decision ta do research can be inappropriately driven by the availability of coveted tools and databases. To be re searchable, a problem must be subject to observation or other forms of empirical data collection. Generally, the various include: 1 2, Statement ofthe problem. “| TAmanagement dilemma triggers the need for a decision. The management questi on (its origin, selection, statement, exploration and refinement is very critical. A m anager needs specific information for setting objectives, defining tasks, finding th e best strategy by which to carry out the tasks or judging how well the strategy is being implemented. Whether the researcher is involved in basic or applied researc h, a thorough understanding of the management question is fundamental to suce ess in the research enterprise. The management dilemma is usually a symptom of an actual prob lem such as ri sing costs, declining sales, increasing employee tumover in a restaurant, increase dumber of complaints about post purchase service etc. Identifying managemen 1 dilemma’s is rarely difficult (unless the organisation fails to track its performanc e factors like sales, profits, employee tumover, manufacturing output and defects, on-time deliveries, customer satisfaction etc). However, choosing one dilemma on which to focus may be difficult. Choosing incorrectly will direct valuable res ource s (time, manpower, money and equipment) on a path that may not provide critical decision-making inf ormation. The manager must proceed from the management dilemma to the management + What should be done to reduce employee turnover? + What should be done to reduce costs? Management questions are numerous but they can be categorized to: + Choice of purpose or objectives + Generation and evaluation of solutions + Troubleshooting or control situation Choice of purpose or objectives: The general question is "What do we want to achieve?" Example + What goals should XYZ Co tty to achieve in its next round of labour n egotiations? Generation and evaluation of solutions: The general question is "How can we achieve the ends we seek?" “] TL + How can we achieve our five-year goal of doubled sales and net profit 3? + What should be done to reduce post purchase service complaints? Troubleshooting or control situation The problem usually involves monitoring or diagnosing various ways in which an organisation is failing to achieve its established goals Example: + Why does our department incur the highest costs? «How well is our program meeting its goals? Theresearch process starts by formulating a research problem that can be investi gated through research procedures. The first step in selecting a research problem is to identify the broad area that one is interested in. Such an area should be related to the professional interests and g als of the researcher e.g. low-cost housing, productivity of workers, small-scale b usinesses ete. The second step is to identify a specific problem within it that will form the basis of the research study. The research problem should be an important onei.e. it sho uld + Lead to findings that have widespread implications in a particular area Challenge some commonly held truism + Review the inadequacies of existing laws, views or policies + Cover a reasonable scope €.g. not too narrow or tao general Aresearch problem refers to some difficulty which the researcher experiences int he context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a soluti on forthe same.| L The following points must be observed by a researcher in selecting a research pro blem or a subject of study Subject which is overdone should not be norma lly chosen, for it will be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a case. Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researc her. Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that t he related research material or sources of research are within onés reach. The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a res earcher, the costs involved and the time factor must be considered. The selection of a study must be preceded by a preliminary study. Defining the problem involves the task of laying down boundaries within which a researcher shall study the problem with a predetermined objective in view. Certain factors determine the scope of a research study. These include: “] Statement of the problem in a general way Understanding the nature of the problem: Understand the origin and natur eof the problem eg. by discussing it with those who raised it in orderto fi nd out how the problem originally came about. The researcher should kee Pin view the environment within which the problem is to be studied and u nderstood. Surveying the available literature: the researcher must be well conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other rele vant literature. Developing ideas through discussions: Rephrasing the research problem: Its putting the research problem in as s pecific terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of working hypotheses Technical terms and words or phrases with special meanings used in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined Basic assumptions or postulates if any relating to the research problem s hould be clearly stated Astraight forward statement of the value of the investigation should be p rovided. The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem. The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem r+ The time available to carry it out + The money available to carry it out + The availability of equipment if needed to camry it out + The availability of subjects or the units of study 1. Existing theories 2. Existing literature 3. Discussions with experts 4, Previous research studies 5. Replication 6. Themedia 7. Personal experiences Assuming that we want to carry out a study, we have to start by identifying the br oad area. Our broad area in our case can be Finance or management science. . W e can identify a specific problem that will form the basis of the study like inventor y management. Since we have many inventory control techniques, we can either a nalyse all the techniques or just narrow down to one technique like the just in tim e. Theresearch topic can be formulated 2s AATSSISiS Stee iTaetOrslsCtinGIH Aresearch study starts with a brief introductory section. The researcher introduce s briefly the general area of study, and then narrows down to the specific problem to be studied. Characteristics of a good problem statement + It should be written clearly andin such a way that the reader's interest is captured immediately. + The specific problem identified in the problem statement should be obje ctively researchable + The scope of the specific research problem should be indicated + The importance of the study in adding new knowledge should be stated clearly + The problem statement must give the purpose of the research.| L Activity 2.2 For the topic identified above state the problem 3. Stating the Purpose The purpose of a study crystallizes the researcher's inquiry into a particular area 0 f knowledgein a given field. If the purpose is accurately expressed, the research pr acess will be carried out with ease. The purpose of the study should meet the following criteria: It must be indicated clearly, unambiguously and in a declarative manner. The purpose should indicate the concepts or variables in the study Where possible, the relationships among the variables should be stated The purpase should state the target papulation The variables and target population given in the purpose should be consist ent with the variables and target population operationalised in the methods section of the study. Examples Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate the various inventory control technique ‘sused in manufacturing firms and to analyze the extent of the use of JIT. In stating the purpose of the study, the researcher should choose the right words t o convey the focus of the study effectively. Use of subjective or biased words or s entences should be avoided. Examples Biased To show To determine To prove To compare To confirm | To investigate To verify To differentia To check te To explore Research objectives are those specific issues within the scope of the stated purpo se that the researcher wants to focus upon and examine in the study. + Specific: “] [_| L + Measurable + Achievable + Reliable + Time bound Objectives guide the researcher in formulating testable hypotheses. In stating the objectives of the study, the researcher should choose the right words to convey the focus of the study effectively. Use of subjective or biased words or s entences should be avoided Example Objectives © To find out the inventory control techniques used in manufacturing firms in Kenya, © To assess the extent of the application of JIT inventory control techniques in manufacturing firms in Kenya * To determine the factors characterizing manufacturing operations that pot entially inhibit the use of JIT. * To suggest ways of improving the application of JIT inventory control tech niques in manufacturing firms in Kenya + For the problem identified above, state at least three objectives for your study. 5. Research Questions The way in which one structures the research questions sets the direction for the project. A management problem or opportunity can be formulated as a hierarchic al sequence of questions. At the most general level is the management dilemma This is tran slated into a management question and then into a research question ~ the major objective of the study. The research questions can further be expande dinto investigative questions. Example: + Which inventory control techniques do manufacturing firms use? + Which factors inhibit the application of JIT within the manufacturing fir ms? + What are the requirements needed before the implementation of JIT? + How can the application of JIT inventory control techniques be improve d in manufacturing firms? ae—E L Ahypothesis is a researcher's prediction regarding the outcome of the study. It sta tes possible differences, relationships or causes between two variables or concept s. Hypothesis are derived from or based on existing theories, previous research, pe rsonal observations or experiences. The test of a hypothesis involves collection a nd analysis of data that may either support or fail to support the hypothesis. If th e results fail to support a stated hypothesis, it does not mean that the study has f ailed but it implies that the existing theories or principles need to be revised or rete sted under various situations. Purpose of hypothesis According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), the purpose of hypothesis in researc hare 1. It provides direction by bridging the gap between the problem and the evide nce needed for its solution. 2. It ensures collection of the evidence necessary to answer the question pose d in the statement of the problem 3. It enables the investigator to assess the information he or she has collecte d from the standpoint of both relevance and organisation. 4, It sensitizes the investigator to certain aspects of the situation that are rele vant regarding the problem at hand 5, It permits the researcher to understand the problem with greater clarity and use the data to find solutions to problems. 6. It guides the collection of data and provides the structure for their meaning ful interpretation in relation to the problem under investigation. 7. It forms the framework for the ultimate conclusions as solutions. Agood hypothesis should have the following properties: + Hypotheses should be constructed in such a way that they lend themsel ves to the Scientific Method. + They should be empirical statements; never normative or value stateme nts about what should or should not be. + Abypothesis should describe a general phenomena not a particular oce urrence. + A good hypothesis should be plausible. There should be some logical re ason for thinking it possible. + A good hypothesis is specific. The concepts used are clearly defined. A n example of a bad hypothesis is to say that there is a relationship betw een personality and political attitudes. Which personality type? What att itudes? A good hypothesis is more specific, e.g., People who feel alienat ed are not likely to have a strong trust in government. “] T_| + Agood hypothesis is testable. There must be evidence that is obtainabl e which will indicate whether the hypothesis is correct or not Examples «The type of product produced and sold determines the inventory control t echnique used by a firm + Instability of demand and Supplier unreliability inhibits the effective appli cation of Just in time technique. Types of hypotheses Null hypothesis (H,): The null hypothesis is a statement about the value of a population parameter. it should be stated as” Thereis no significant difference between...........". It should always contain an equal sign «Alternate Hypothesis (Hy): The alternate hypothesis is a statement that i s accepted if sample data provide enough evidence that the null hypothes isis false. Activity Formulate at least two hypotheses for your study. 7. Assumptions and Limitations An assumption is any fact that a researcher takes to be true without actu ally verifying it. It puts some boundary around the study and provides the reader with vital information, which influences the way results of the stud y are interpreted. * limitation is an aspect of a research that may influence the results nega tively but over which the researcher has no control. A common limitation i n social science studies is the scope of the study, which sometimes may not allow generalizations. Sample size may also be another limitation. CHAPTER EXERCISES 1 2 3 4 5. 6 7, 8 Describe some of the factors that affect the scope of a study. Differentiate between the null and the alternative hypothesis. Explain the characteristics of a good problem statement. Explain the characteristics of a good objective Explain the purpose of hypothesis in research Discuss the characteristics of a good hypothesis. Differentiate between an assumption and a limitation in research. Describe the various components of research.Introduction @Stigated| It should be extensive and thorough because itis aimed at obtaining de tailed knowledge of the topic being studied. Knowledge is cumulative: every piece of research will contribute another piece to it. That is why itis important to comm ence all res earch with a review of the related literature or research, and to determin e whether any data sources exist already that can be brought to bear on the probl em at hand. Theliterature review should provide the reader with an explanation of the theoretic al rationale of the problem being studied as well as what research has already be en done and how the findings relate to the problem at hand. The quality of the lite rature being reviewed must be carefully assessed. Not all published information is the result of good research design, or can be substantiated. Indeed, a critical asse ssment as to the appropriateness of the methodology employed can be part of th e literature review. This type of secondary research is also extremely helpful in exploratory research. | tisan economical and often easily accessible source of background information that can shed light on the real scope of the problem or help familiarize the researc her with the situation and the concepts that require further stud. According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), the purpose of literature review is to: o Avoid unnecessary and unintentional duplication. 0 Form the framework within which the research findings are to be int erpreted. 0 Demonstrate his or her familiarity with the existing body of knowled ge. “] T2. &f found useful in investigating the problem in question. This will help the researc her to: o Avoid mistakes that have been made by other researchers o Benefit from other researchers experiences o Clarify how to use certain procedures, which one may only have lear ned in theory. 3. Helps it6! sides! thie procedUres|and approaches, which will help, improve the research study. 4, Parniliarizes the researcher With [previous STUAIES| which facilitates interpretatio nof the results of the study. If there is a contradiction, the literature review might p rovide rationale for the discrepancy. 5. The researcher may be alerted to research possibilities, which have been overlooked in the past. 7. review. 8, Specific suggestions and recommendations for further research can be found b y reviewing iterawre, 8. Itpulls together integrates and summarizes what is known in an area. Thus bel ping to reveal gaps in information and areas where major questions still remain 1. Familiarize yourself with the library before beginning the literature review. 2. Make a list of key words or phrases to guide your literature search 3. With the key words and phrases related to the study, one should go to the s ource of literature. 4, Summarize the references on cards for easy organisation of the literature. 5. Once collected, the literature should be analyzed, organized and reported in an orderly manner. 6. Make an outline of the main topics or themes in order of presentation. 7. Analyze each reference in terms of the outline made and establish where it will be most relevant 8. The literature should be organized in such a way that the more general isc overed first before the researcher narrows down to that which is more speci fic to the research problem Sources of literature 1. (PRMSASOUFEE. are direct descriptions of any occurrence by an individu al who actually observed or witnessed the occurrence. 2. (SBE0RUAR/ SUPE! they include any publications written by an author wh ‘owas not a direct observer or participant in the events described “] T_| Examples «Scholarly journals Theses and dissertations * Government documents * Papers presented at conferences = Books «References quoted in books «Intemational indices « Abstracts « Periodicals «The Africana section of the library «Reference section of the library © Grey literature # Interlibrary loan © The British lending library The internet Microfilm_| L Research design is the strategy fora study and the plan by which the strategy is t obe carried out. It specifies the methods and procedures for the collection, measu rement, and analysis of data. The design > > > > > Is an activity and time based plan Is always based on the research question Guides the selection of sources and types of information Is a framework for specifying the relationships among the study's variables Outlines procedures for every research activity. Research can be classified using eight different descriptors as shown in the table below: Category Options The degree to which the research > Exploratory study questions has been crystallized | > Formal study The method of data collection | = Monitoring > Interrogation / communicati on The power of the researcher to pr| > Experimental oduce effects in the variables un | ~ Expost facto der study The purpose of the study > Desciiptive > Causal The time dimension > Cross-sectional > Longitudinal The topical scope - breath and d/ = Case epth of the study > Statistical study The research environment > Field setting > Laboratory research = Simulation The participants perceptions of re | > Actual routine search activity > Modified routine_| L 1. Degree to which the research questions has been crystallized Astudy may be viewed as exploratory study or formal study. The essential distinc tions between these two options are the degree of structure and the immediate ob jective of the study > Exploratory studies tend toward loose structures with the objective of discover ing future research tasks. Its immediate purpose is to develop hypotheses or q uestions for further study. > Formal study begins where the exploration leaves off- it begins with a hypothe sis or research question and involves precise procedures and data source spec ifications. Its goal is to test the hypotheses or answer the research questions p osed. 2. Method of data collection > Monitoring: It includes studies in which the researcher inspects the activities o f a subject or the nature of some material without attempting to elicit response s from anyone e.g. an observation of the actions of a group of decision maker s. > Interrogation / communication: the researcher questions the subjects and coll ects their responses by personal or impersonal means. The collected data may result from i. Interview ortelephone conversations ii, Self-administered or self-reported instruments sent through the mail, left in convenient locations, or transmitted electronically or by other means iii. Instruments presented before and / or after a treatment or stimulus c ondition in an experiment. 3. Researcher control of variables > Experimental: the researcher attempts to control and / or manipulate the varia bles in the study. It is appropriate when one wishes to discover whether certain variables produce effects in other variables. Experimentation provides the mos t powerful support for a hypothesis of causation > Ex post facto: Investigators have no control aver the variables in the sense of b ing able to manipulate them. They can only report what has happened or wh at is happening. itis important that the researcher's using this design do not in fluence the variables since doing so will introduce bias. The researcher is limit ed to holding factors constant by judicious selection of subjects according to strict sampling procedures and by statistical manipulation of findings 4, Purpose of the study r> Descriptive study: it is a research that is concerned with finding out who, what, where, when, or how much. > Causal study: It is concerned with learning why i.e. how one variable produces changes in another. It tries to explain the relationships among variables. 5. The time dimension > Cross-sectional studies: they are carried out once and represent a snapshot of one point in time. > Longitudinal studies: are repeated over an extended period. It tracks changes over time. 6. The topical scope > Statistical studies: they are designated for breadth rather than depth. They attempt to capture a population's characteristics by making inferences from a sample's characteristics. Hypotheses are tested quantitatively. Generalizat ions about findings are presented based an the representativeness of the sa mple and the validity of the design > Case studies: they place more emphasis on a full contextual analysis of fe wer events or conditions and their interrelations. Although hypotheses are o ften used, the reliance on qualitative data makes support or rejection more difficult. An emphasis on detail provides valuable insight for problem solvin g, evaluation and strategy. This detail is secured from multiple sources of in formation. it allows evidence to be verified and avoids missing data 7. The research environment ‘eld setting: itis where the research occurs under actual environmental condi tions > Laboratory research: itis where the research occurs under staged or manipula ted conditions > Simulation: To simulate is to replicate the essence of a system or process. Si mulations are increasingly used in operations research. The major characterist ics of various conditions and relationships in actual situations are often repres ented in mathematical models. Role-playing and other behavioural activities m ay also be viewed as simulations 8. Participants’ perceptions Theusefulness of a design may be reduced when peoplein a disguised study per ceive that research is being conducted. Participants’ perceptions influence the out comes of the research in subtle ways. There are three levels of perception: > Participants perceive no deviations from everyday routines > Participants perceive deviations, but as unrelated to the researcher. “] T_| L > Participants perceive deviations as researcherinduced In all research environments and control situations, researchers need to be vigilant to effects that may alter their conclusions. Participant's perceptions serve as are minder to classify one’s study by type, to examine validation strengths and weakn esses and to be prepared to qualify results accordingly. (a) Exploratory studies Exploration is particularly useful when researchers lack a clear idea of the proble ms they will meet during the study. Through exploration researchers develop conc epts more clearly, establish priorities, develop operational definitions and improve the final research design. Other factors that necessitate the use of exploration are > To save time and money If the area of investigation is new Important variables may not be known or thoroughly defined Hypothesis forthe research may be needed A researcher can explore to be sure if it is practical to do a formal study in the area > > > > Despite its obvious value, researchers and managers give exploration less attentio ni that it deserves. Exploration is sometimes linked to old biases about qualitative research i.e. subjective ness, non-representativeness and non-systematic design. When we consider the scope of qualitative research, several approaches are adapt able for exploratory investigations of management questions: > In-depth interviewing ~ usually conversational rather than structured > Participant observation ~ to perceive first hand what participants in the settin g experience > Films, photographs and videotapes ~ to capture the life of the group under stu dy. > Case studies ~ for an in-depth contextual analysis of a few events or conditio ns > Document analysis ~ to evaluate historical or contemporary confidential or pu blic records, reports, government documents and opinions Where these approaches are combined, four exploratory tech niques emerge with wide applicability for the management researcher: - i. Secondary data analysis “] T_| L ii, Experience surveys ili, Focus groups iv. Two-stage designs An exploratory research is finished when the researchers have achieved the follow ing: > Established the major dimensions of the research task > Defined a set of subsidiary investigative questions that can be used as a guid e toa detailed research design. > Developed several hypotheses about possible causes of a management dilem ma. Learned that certain other hypotheses are such remote possibilities that t hey can be safely ignored in any subsequent study. > Concluded additional research is not needed or is not feasible. (b) Descriptive Studies ltis the process of collecting data in order to test hypotheses or to answer questio ns conceming the current status of the subjects in the study. It determines and rep orts the way things are. It attempts to describe such things as possible behaviour, attitudes, values and characteristics. () Causal Research Itis used to explore relationships between variables. It determines reasons or ¢ auses for the current status of the phenomenon under study. The variables of i nterest cannot be manipulated unlike in experimental research, Advantages of causal study > Allows a comparison of groups without having to manipulate the indepe ndent variables > Itcan be done solely to identify variables worthy of experimental investig ation > They are relatively cheap. Disadvantages of causal study %& Interpretations are limited because the researcher does not know whethe ra particular variable is a cause or result of a behaviour being studied > Theremay bea third variable which could be affecting the established r elationship but which may not be established in the study (4) Correlation Methods It describes in quantitative terms the degree to which variables are related. Ite xplores relationships between variables and also tries to predict a subject's sc ore on one variable given his orher score on another variable. “] T_| L Advantages of the correlational method > Peimits one to analyze interrelationships among a largenumber of variabl es in a single study. > Allows one to analyze how several variables either singly or in combination might affect a particular phenomenon being studied > The method provides information concerning the degree of relationship bet ween variables being studied Disadvantages of the correlational method > Correlation between two variables does not neces sarily imply causation alt hough researchers often tend to interpret such a relationship to mean causa tion. > Since the correlation coefficient is an index, any two variables will always s how a telationship even when commonsense dictates that such variables ar e not related. > Thecorrelation coefficient is vety sensitive to the size of the sample. LECTURE FIVE EXERCISES I. Define the term research design I Describe the basic steps of research design Ill Explain the major descriptors of research design IV. Explain the relationships that exist between variables in research design an d the steps for evaluating those relationships V. Discuss the major types of research design Themethod section of a research study describes the procedures that are to be fo llowed in conducting the study. The techniques of obtaining data are developed Definitions of key terms Population: is a complete set of individuals, cases or objects with some observabl e characteristics. census is a count of all the elements in a population, sample Asampleis a subset of a particular population. The target population is that pop ulation to which a researcher wants to generalize the results of the study. There m ust bea rationale for defining and identifying the accessible population from the t arget population, “] T_| L Sampling: I's the process of selecting a sample from a population. The Sample Design Itrefers to the techniques of the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Factors to consider in developing a sample design 1. Type of universe; finite or infinite 2. Sampling unit; geographic: state, district or village, construction unit: house, fl at. Social unit: family, club, school or individual 3. Source list: sampling frame- contains all the names of all items of a universe. The list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate. 4. The size of the sample. Should be efficient, representative, reliable and flexibl e. 5. Parameters of interest. 6. Budgetary constraint 7. Sampling procedure. Criteria for selecting a sampling procedure Two costs are involved in a sampling analysisi.e. the cost of collecting the data a nd the cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the data. Two causes of incort ect inferences are systematic bias and sampling error. A systematic bias results fr om errors in the sampling procedures and it cannot be reduced or eliminated by in creasing the sample size. Systematic bias is the result of the following factors Inappropriate sampling frame Defective measuring device Non-respondents Indeterminancy principle ~ individuals act differently when kept under observ ation. Natural bias in reporting data e.g. government tax - downward bias, social or ganizations — upward bias. Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample estimates around a true population parameter. It decreases with the increase in the size of the sample and it happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of a homogenous population. Wh ile selecting a sampling procedure, the researcher must ensure that the procedure causes a relatively small sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias i na better way. vy vy v Steps in sampling design Identification of the: - “] TvYYVYYVY Relevant population Type of universe i.e. finite or infinite Parameters of interest Sampling frame Type of sample i.e. probabilistic or non-probabilistic Size of the sample needed_ L Characteristics of a good sample design > Mustresultin a truly representative sample > Must result in a small sampling error > Must be viable in the context of funds avail able for the research study > Must ensure that systematic bias is controlled in a better way > Must be such that the results of the sample study can be applied in general for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence. 1 Reasons for sampling > Cost > Time: Greater speed of data collection +> Destructive nature of certain tests > Greater accuracy of results > Physical impossibility of checking all items in the population > Availability of population elements. 1.2 Characteristics of a good sample > Accuracy. i's the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. An unbiased sa mple is the one in which the underestimators and the overestimators are balanced among the members of the sample. > Precision of estimate: Precision is measured by the standard error of estimate a ty pe of standard deviation measurement. The smaller error of estimate, the higher is the preciseness of the sample. 1.3. Factors that influence the sample size > Dispersion / variance. The greater the dispersion or variance within the population, t he larger the sample must be to provide estimation precision. > Precision of the estimate. the greater the desired precision of the estimate, the large r the sample must be. > Interval range: The narrower the interval range, the larger the sample must be. > Confidence level The higher the confidence level in the estimate, the larger the sam ple must be > Number of subgroups. The greater the number of subgroups of interest within a sa mple, the greater the sample size must be, as each subgroup must meet minimum s ample size requirements. > If the calculated sample size exceeds 9% of the population, sample size may be red uced without sacrificing precision. “d [_ L 1.4 Ways of determining the sample size: If the target population is greater than 10,000 the following formula is used to determine the sample size; where n= the desited sample size z= the standard normal deviate at the required confidence level P = the proportion in the target population estimated to have characteristics being measured. Q=1-p D = the level of statistical significance set. If the target population is less than 10,000 the following formula is used to determine th esample size; Gen) Where. i, = the desired sample size( when the population is less than 10,000) 1 = the desired sample size( when the population is greater than 10,000) N = the estimate of the population size 1.5 Sampling procedures: There are two major ways of selecting samples; > Probability sampling methods > Non - Probability sampling methods Samples are selected in such a way that each item or person in the population has a kno wn (Nonzero) likelihood of being included in the sample. “d [“] ‘Types of Probability sampling methods 41. Simple Random Sampling Asampleis selected so that each item or person in the population has the same cha nce of being included Advantages > Easy to implement with automatic dialing and with computerized voice respon se systems. Disadvantages Requires a listing of population elements * Takes more time to implement Uses larger sample sizes > Produces larger errors > Expensive 2. Systematic Random Sampling: Theitems or individuals of the population are arranged in some manner. A random st arting point is selected and then every kt” member of the population is selected for th esample. Advantages > Simple to design > Easier to use than the simple random > Easy to determine sampling distribution of mean or proportion > Less expensive than simple random Disadvantages > Periodicity within the population may skew the sample and results. > If the population list has a monotonic trend, a biased estimate will result based on the start point 3. Stratified Random Sampling: Apopulationis divided into subgroups called strata and a sample is selected from e ach stratum. After the population is divided into strata, either a proportional or a non- proportional sample can be selected. In a proportional sample, the number of items i neach stratum is in the same proportion as in the population while in a non-proportio nal sample, the number of items chosen in each stratum is disproportionate to the re spective numbers in the population Advantages > Researcher controls sample size in strata > Increased statistical efficiency La > Provides data to represent and analyze subgroups. > Enables use of different methods in strata Disadvantages > Increased error will result if subgroups are selected at different rates > Expensive especially if strata on the population have to be created Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into internally heterogeneous subgroups and some are ran domly selected for further study. It is used when it is not possible to obtain a samplin g frame because the population is either very large or scattered over a large geograph ical area. A multi-stage cluster sampling method can also be used. Advantages > Provides an unbiased estimate of population parameters if properly done. = Economically more efficient than simple random = Lowest cost per sample, especially with geographic clusters > Easy to do without a population list. Disadvantages > More error (Lower statistical efficiency) due to subgroups being homogeneous r ather the heterogeneous. Itis used when a researcher is not interested in selecting a sample that is representative of the population. 1. Convenience or Accidental Sampling “] Involves selecting cases or units of observation as they become available to the rese archer e.g. asking 2 question to the radio listeners, roommates or neighbours Purposive Sampling Allows the researcher to use cases that have the required information with respect to the objectives of his or her study e.g. educational level, age group, religious sect ete. Quota Sampling The researcher purposively selects subjects to fit the quotas identified e.g > Gender: Male or Female. > Class Level: Graduate or Undergraduate > School: Humanities, Science or human resource development,_ L > Religion: Muslim, Protestant, catholic, Jewish: > Fratemal affiliation: member or nonmember. > Social economic class: Upper, middle or lower Advantage > Widely used by pollsters, marketers and other researchers. Disadvantages > It gives no assurance that the sample is representative of the variables being studie d > The data used to provide controls may be outdated or inaccurate. > Thereis a practical limit on the number of simultaneous controls that can be applic d to ensure precision. > Since the choice of subjects is left to field workers, they may choose only friendly lo oking people. 4, Snow ball sampling ltis used when the population that possesses the characteristics under study is not w ell known and can be best located through referral networks. Initial subjects are identi fied who in turn identify others. Commonly used in drug cultures, teenage gang activi ties, Mungiki sect, insider trading, Mau Mau ete. It’s the difference between a sample statistic and its corresponding population param eter. The sampling distribution of the sample meansis a probability distribution of po ssible sample means of a given sample size. The central limit theorem If samples of a particular size are selected from any population, the sampling distrib ution of the sample means is approximately anormal distribution. The approximatio nimproves with larger samples Point estimates and confidence intervals > Point estimate is the value computed from sample information that is used to es timate the population parameter. > Confidence interval is a range of values constructed from sample data so the par ameter occurs within that range at a specified probability (level of confidence). “d [ 1_ ‘The standard error of the mean (c,) The standard eroris a measure of the variability of the sampling distribution of the sam ple mean. Its size is affected by > Standard deviation: the larger the standard deviation, the larger the standard error > Sample size: as the sample size increases, the standard ertor decreases. The standard error ofthe mean, s Confidence interval fora mean xt z-* vn LECTURE SIX EXERCISES 1 12 13 14 15 Differentiate between a sample and the population Discuss the reasons for sampling Explain the factors that affect the size of a sample Explain the probabilistic and non-probabilistic sampling techniques Explain the conditions under which norrprobabilistic techniques may be preferred to the probabilistic sampling techniques. _ L