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A competitive anxiety review: Recent directions in sport psychology research

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In: Literature Reviews in Sport Psychology ISBN 1-59454-904-4
Editors: S. Hanton and S. D. Mellalieu, pp.1- © 2006 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

A COMPETITIVE ANXIETY REVIEW:

RECENT DIRECTIONS IN
SPORT PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH

Stephen D. Mellalieu,
Swansea University, United Kingdom
Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher
University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT
This chapter provides a review and discussion of the recent move towards the
positive aspects and consequences of competitive anxiety. Following a description of
competitive stress-related terminologies, conceptual and psychometric developments are
considered including the notion of directional anxiety interpretations. The commentary
then focuses on the theories and models that outline the potential positive aspects of
anxiety in relation to athletic performance. Applied implications and future research
directions are also discussed together with a number of explicatory statements regarding
the nature of the precompetitive stress experience in sport.

Keywords: Competitive stress response, sporting performance, positive consequences,

direction

Correspondence concerning this chapter should be addressed to Stephen D. Mellalieu, Department of Sports
Science, Swansea University, Swansea, SA2 8PP, United Kingdom. Tel: 44-1792-513-101, Fax: 44-1792-513-
171 E-mail: [email protected]
2 Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher

INTRODUCTION
The topic of competitive anxiety has enjoyed a large prominence in the sport psychology
literature, and is often cited as one of the most studied areas in the discipline (Biddle, 1997;
Jones, 1995a; Tenenbaum and Bar-Eli, 1995; Woodman and Hardy, 2001). A number of
reviews have been published that have periodically provided both a comprehensive and
contemporary review of the literature (e.g., Burton, 1998; Gould, Greenleaf, and Krane, 2002;
Hardy, Jones, and Gould, 1996; Jones, 1995a, 1995b; Smith, Smoll, and Wiechman, 1998;
Woodman and Hardy, 2001). Collectively, these offer an interesting and informative insight
into the relationship between competitive anxiety and performance, while separately each
emphasizes different aspects of the association. For example: Jones (1995a) commented on
measurement and design advances; Burton (1998) outlined the development of measures of
the state response; Smith et al. (1998) discussed the re-conceptualization of trait anxiety in
sport; Woodman and Hardy (2001) reviewed the cognitive aspects of the anxiety-performance
relationship; and Gould et al. (2002) presented an integrated perspective of the measurement
of arousal, activation, anxiety, and performance.
Since anxiety is a negative emotion, researchers have historically tended to focus on the
potentially negative effects on performance. However, a theme that emerges from some of the
reviews (e.g., Jones, 1995a; Woodman and Hardy, 2001) is that, under some circumstances,
anxiety can have positive consequences in performance environments. Jones (1995a)
remarked that:

The experience of competitive anxiety has, particularly in the North American sport
psychology literature, been viewed as negative and to have debilitative consequences for
performance. This view is, however, at odds with a body of literature which has emanated
from other areas of psychology which suggests that anxiety can sometimes have positive
consequences. (p. 462)

Despite acknowledging the importance of the benefits of anxiety in sport, no single body
of work has focused upon this area to any great extent. Consequently, in this chapter we
explore in greater detail the mechanisms by which such a negative emotional response might
have a positive effect on a performer’s psychological state and subsequent athletic
performance. To the best of our knowledge this review is the first to focus specifically on this
area and discuss recent directions in sport psychology research which examine this
phenomenon.
This chapter comprises five sections. The opening section summarizes the conceptual
distinctions in the terminology adopted in the study of competitive stress and provides a brief
overview of the extant literature examining competitive stressors in sport. The remainder of
this chapter focuses on the study of the competitive anxiety response itself. First, the major
historical, conceptual and psychometric developments are identified, such as state-trait and
multidimensional (i.e., cognitive and somatic) conceptualizations and the various instruments
developed to measure the construct. Next, we discuss recent advances in competitive anxiety
research, including frequency of symptoms experienced and performers’ directional
interpretations of symptoms associated with the response. Here, we describe the origins of
direction, the mechanisms underlying the concept, and its context in the competitive stress
process. The wealth of literature that has investigated potential moderators of the direction
 Competitive Anxiety in Sport 3

response is then discussed together with some key issues that have recently arisen relating to
positive consequences of symptom interpretation for performance. The next section then
describes the models and theories that consider these potentially positive aspects of anxiety
upon performance. Finally, the remainder of this chapter presents applied practice
implications and outlines future areas for research, including a series of explicatory
statements regarding the competitive stress experience in sport.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
The study of competitive stress and anxiety in sport has been hindered by a lack of
consistency in the use of key terms (Burton, 1998; Gould et al., 2002; Hardy et al., 1996;
Jones, 1995a; Jones and Hardy, 1990; Woodman and Hardy, 2001). For example, stress has
often been used interchangeably to describe a stimulus or a response of a person-environment
interaction. This is despite there being a clear conceptual distinction between the terms
‘stressor’ and ‘strain’ (Beehr, 1998; Beehr and Franz, 1987; Fletcher, Hanton, and Mellalieu,
this volume). ‘Stressors’ refer to events, situations or conditions, while ‘strain’ describes an
individual’s negative response to stressors. In the sporting arena, performers encounter a
variety of competitive demands and react in different ways.
Contemporary conceptualizations view ‘stress’ not as a factor that resides in either an
individual or the environment but rather as a relationship between the two (Lazarus, 1981).
Researchers have argued that a transactional, rather than an interactional perspective, should
be adopted to emphasize the relational meaning construed by an individual operating in a
particular environment (cf. Fletcher et al., this volume; Lazarus, 1999). Here, transaction
refers to the dynamic relationship that occurs between the environmental demands and a
person’s resources, while relational meaning describes the meaning a person construes from
his or her relationship with the environment. Stress has, therefore, been defined as:

An ongoing process that involves individuals transacting with their environments,

making appraisals of the situations they find themselves in, and endeavoring to cope with any
issues that may arise. (Fletcher et al., this volume)

In line with the conceptual standpoint adopted by Fletcher et al. (this volume), the
following definitions of competitive stress related terms are presented:

Competitive stress: an ongoing transaction between an individual and the

environmental demands associated primarily and directly with competitive
performance.
Competitive stressors: the environmental demands (i.e., stimuli) associated primarily
and directly with competitive performance.
Competitive strain: an individual’s negative psychological, physical and behavioral
responses to competitive stressors.
Competitive anxiety: a specific negative emotional response to competitive stressors.
4 Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher

For the purposes of clarification, the potential effects of competitive stressors on

individuals are not inherently negative. Indeed, the competitive stress process can result in
positive psychological and performance consequences. Traditionally, however, researchers
have tended to combine athletes’ perceived ‘sources of stress’ with their emotional responses,
rather than focusing on the relationship between aspects of the stress process (Fletcher et al.,
this volume; see also Hanton, Fletcher, and Coughlan, 2005). Arguably, this has led to an
assumption that all competitive stressors and responses are associated with negative
connotations.

COMPETITIVE STRESSORS
Investigations of competitive stressors have tended to focus on two main lines of inquiry,
namely the preperformance stressors encountered by athletes and the antecedents of the
competitive anxiety response. The study of competitive stressors largely emanates from a
body of literature that has used qualitative interviews to study elite athletes general
experiences or ‘sources of stress’ (e.g., Gould, Jackson, and Finch 1993a, 1993b; Hanton,
Fletcher, et al., 2005; Holt and Hogg, 2002; James and Collins, 1997; Noblet and Gifford,
2002; Scanlan, Ravizza, and Stein, 1989; Scanlan, Stein, and Ravizza, 1991). A range of
stressors have been identified including: the physical preparation of the athlete; the level of
opposition; pressures and expectations to perform; team atmosphere; relationship issues with
significant others; the nature of the event; and issues regarding self-presentation and social
evaluation. These potential sources of strain illustrate the highly demanding environment of
the competitive sport arena.
In a related line of inquiry, researchers have also examined the specific antecedents of
competitive anxiety (e.g., Anshel and Wells, 2000; Hammermeister and Burton, 1995, 2001;
Hanton and Jones, 1995, 1997; Jones, Swain, and Cale, 1990, 1991; Krane, Williams, and
Feltz, 1992; Lane, Terry, and Karageorghis, 1995). These include: perceptions of readiness
for peak performance (Hanton and Jones, 1995; Jones et al., 1990; Lane et al., 1995); the
performers’ attitude toward previous performances (Jones et al., 1990); and perceptions of
environmental conditions and position goal (Hanton and Jones, 1995, 1997; Jones et al.,
1990). Research also suggests that differences exist as a function of both personal and
situation characteristics, such as gender (Jones et al., 1991), skill level (Hanton and Jones,
1997), and the nature of the sport (Krane et al., 1992). For example, females’ cognitive
anxiety responses have been shown to be predicted by readiness to perform and the
importance of doing well, while males’ cognitive anxiety responses have been predicted by
their opponents’ ability in relation to themselves and their perceived likelihood of winning
(Jones et al., 1991).

COMPETITIVE ANXIETY
This section provides an overview of significant advances in the conceptualization and
measurement of competitive anxiety. It is not our intention here to comprehensively cover
these developments; more detailed descriptions can be found in other reviews such as Burton
 Competitive Anxiety in Sport 5

(1998), Jones (1995a) and Smith et al. (1990). A major advance occurred when researchers
identified anxiety as a response to specific situations rather than solely a unitary phenomenon
across all contexts. Situation-specific measures were subsequently developed in areas such as
test anxiety (Mandler and Sarason, 1952), audience anxiety (Pavio and Lambert, 1959), and
fear of negative evaluation, social avoidance and distress (Watson and Friend, 1969), and
found to be better predictors of behavior than general anxiety scales. In sport psychology, a
number of sport-specific instruments such as the Sports Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT;
Martens, 1977) and Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI; Martens, Burton, Rivkin,
and Simon, 1980) were also found to be better predictors of competitive anxiety than existing
general measures such as the STAI (see Burton, 1998; Martens, Vealey, and Burton, 1990).
Spielberger (1966) then developed a state-trait theory of anxiety in response to criticisms
that existing measures such as the Manifest Anxiety Scale (MAS; Taylor, 1953) and IPAT
scale (Cattell, 1957) assessed dispositional traits, and failed to consider fluctuations in
transitory or immediate emotional states (Smith et al., 1998). Spielberger (1966) described
state anxiety as varying from moment-to-moment and fluctuating proportionately to the
perceived threat in a situation. Trait anxiety refers to a predisposition to appraise situations as
threatening resulting in state anxiety. The State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger,
Gorsuch, and Luschane, 1970) was subsequently developed to assess both state and trait
components and has been adopted by researchers to assess responses across a range of
domains including sport (cf. Smith et al., 1998).
Another conceptual advance was the separation of anxiety into the components of
cognitive and somatic anxiety (Borkovec, 1976; Davidson, 1978; Davidson and Schwartz,
1976; Liebert and Morris, 1967; Schwartz, Davidson, and Goleman, 1978; Wine, 1971).
Morris, Davis, and Hutchings (1981) defined cognitive anxiety as ‘the cognitive elements of
anxiety, such negative expectations and cognitive concerns about oneself, the situation at
hand and potential consequences’ (p. 541); and somatic anxiety as ‘one’s perception of the
physiological-affective elements of the anxiety experience, that is, indications of autonomic
arousal and unpleasant feeling states such as nervousness and tension’ (p. 541). Following the
introduction into sport psychology of this multidimensional conceptualization of anxiety,
Martens and colleagues (Martens, Vealey, Burton, Bump, and Smith, 1990) developed the
Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) to measure the intensity of performers’
cognitive and somatic responses, and also self-confidence. Subsequent research employing
the CSAI-2 has provided evidence to support the separation of cognitive and somatic
components as a function of antecedents (Gould, Petlichkoff, and Weinberg, 1984; Jones,
Swain, and Cale, 1990; 1991), temporal characteristics (Gould et al., 1984; Jones et al., 1991;
Martens et al., 1990), performance outcomes (Burton, 1988; Gould, Petlichkoff, Simons, and
Vevera, 1987; Jones and Cale, 1989; Parfitt and Hardy, 1987, 1993), goal attainment
expectancies (Krane et al., 1992) and in response to interventions (Burton, 1990; Maynard
and Cotton, 1993). A trait version of the CSAI-2, the Competitive Trait Anxiety Inventory-2
(CTAI-2), and the Sports Anxiety Scale (SAS; Smith, Smoll, and Schutz, 1990) have also
been developed to assess multidimensional competitive trait anxiety (e.g., Albrecht and Feltz,
1987; Eubank, Collins, and Smith, 2002; Jones and Swain, 1995; Smith, Smoll, and Barnett,
1995; White and Zellner, 1996).
Up to this point researchers in competitive anxiety had solely focused on the assessment
of the ‘intensity’ of the response. Intensity refers to the amount or level of the symptoms
experienced by an athlete. Recent developments suggest, however, that a greater
6 Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher

understanding of the anxiety response may be gleaned by considering additional dimensions

of the response. Such an approach has also helped to explain the potential positive aspects of
the response to competitive stress. The next two sections consider research that has examined
the frequency with which anxiety symptoms are experienced and performers’ directional
interpretations of these symptoms with regard to performance.

Frequency of Cognitive Intrusions

Frequency of cognitive intrusions refers to the amount of time (expressed as a

percentage) that thoughts and feelings about the competition occupy a performer’s mind
(Swain and Jones, 1993). The conceptual rationale for the study of this dimension derives
from the temporal nature of the transaction process that views the competitive stress response
as a product over time (e.g., Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). Consequently, it is important that
psychologists consider the dynamics of the ongoing process in order to establish how stressful
events are managed (cf. Folkman and Lazarus, 1985). Interestingly, research also suggests
that individuals are able to more accurately recall the frequency over the intensity of their
responses (Diener, Sandevik, and Pavot, 1991; Kardum, 1999; Thomas and Diener, 1990).
Intensity information is suggested to be difficult to encode because there is no natural system
by which emotional intensity can be defined by the individual. Conversely, it is hypothesized
that humans are biologically more prepared to store and review frequency based information
(Diener et al., 1991).
Traditionally, the time to event paradigm has been adopted to examine the temporal
nature of performers’ anxiety responses at intervals prior to competition (i.e., 7 days, 48
hours, 24 hours and 1 hour). A wealth of research has examined how the intensity of an
athlete’s precompetitive response differs in the lead up to competition (for a review, see
Cerin, Szabo, Hunt, and Williams, 2000). Generated from Martens, Vealey et al.’s (1990)
work on Multidimensional Anxiety Theory (MAT), several predictions were proffered
regarding temporal changes in the intensity of symptoms. Somatic anxiety was hypothesized
to increase to a peak prior to competition and then subside, while cognitive anxiety and self-
confidence would remain relatively stable during the precompetition period as long as
expectations regarding performance remained unchanged. Findings from subsequent studies
broadly supported these predictions (e.g., Caruso, Dzewaltowski, Gill, and McElroy, 1990;
Gould et al., 1984; Krane and Williams, 1987; Martens, Burton, et al., 1990; Swain and
Jones, 1991, 1993; Wiggins, 1998) with several variables observed to moderate changes in
anxiety levels over time. These included: sex and gender role endorsement (Jones and Cale,
1989; Jones et al., 1991; Swain and Jones, 1991, 1993; Wiggins, 1998); skill level (Perkins
and Williams, 1994); sport type (Krane and Williams, 1987); level of competition (Davids
and Gill, 1995); competitiveness (Jones and Swain, 1992); success and failure (Caruso et al.,
1990; Jones et al., 1991); and perceived ability (Hall, Kerr, and Matthews, 1998).
In addition to the MAT predictions, Swain and Jones (1993) suggested that the intensity
of state anxiety one week when compared to one hour before performance did not equate to a
complete reflection of an athlete’s emotional state. In other words, a similar intensity of
symptoms does not necessarily mean that the overall affective state is identical. Based upon
their preliminary investigation in 1991, Swain and Jones (1993) added a frequency scale to
each item of the CSAI-2 asking the participant to respond to "How frequently do you
 Competitive Anxiety in Sport 7

experience this thought or this feeling at this stage?" on a continuum ranging from 1 ("never")
to 7 ("all of the time"). Change-over-time comparisons (2 days, 1 day, 2 hours, 30 minutes
prior to competition) revealed that while the intensity of cognitive anxiety remained stable
across the data collection points the frequency of such symptoms significantly increased as
the event approached. Temporal patterning for somatic anxiety intensity and frequency was
found to be congruent, with both dimensions showing progressive increases as the event
neared. For self-confidence both the intensity and frequency of responses remaining
unchanged over the 2 day pre-event period.
The implication from these findings is that researchers need to consider not only the
intensity of the competitive anxiety response but also the frequency with which symptoms are
experienced. An additional dimension that has received increasing attention -- and also
alludes to positive performance consequences -- is the notion of directional interpretations of
anxiety symptoms.

Directional Interpretation of Symptoms

The responsibility as England’s kicker does scare me. I worry all the time about it, but the
important thing is that I know I can worry about it. It's not a bad thing, or a detrimental thing,
to worry. As long as when I go to take the kick, my routine is there, and my visualization, I
can be as fearful as I like and think: ‘I’m really, really concerned about this’. But as long as
everything is in place, the ball will go where you want it to. (Wilkinson, 2003, p. 47)

This quote from Johnny Wilkinson, the England Rugby Union team’s goal-kicker,
illustrates the notion that anxieties associated with sport performance do not necessarily have
negative connotations with regard to performance. The first sport psychology investigation to
allude to the potential positive consequences of anxiety on performance was conducted by
Mahoney and Avener (1977). They compared the psychological skills used by United States
gymnasts who were either successful or unsuccessful in qualifying for the 1976 Olympic
Games, with qualifiers reporting that they used their anxiety as a stimulant to better
performance. This theme was resurrected in the early 1990’s following a series of
investigations that questioned the traditional view that increases in competitive anxiety were
negative to performance (cf. Martens, Burton, et al., 1990), instead suggesting that
performance can be enhanced by increases in intensity levels (e.g., Jones and Cale, 1989;
Jones, Cale, and Kerwin, 1988; Parfitt and Hardy, 1987). Consequently, Parfitt, Jones, and
Hardy (1990) and Burton (1990) suggested that anxiety-related symptoms could be perceived
by some athletes as facilitating mental preparation and performance.
Based on these suggestions Jones (Jones, 1991; Jones and Swain, 1992) introduced the
notion of ‘direction’ into the competitive anxiety literature. Directional interpretations refers
to the extent with which the intensity of the cognitive and perceived physiological symptoms
are labeled as either positive or negative to performance on a facilitative-debilitative
continuum. To examine the efficacy of directional interpretations within competitive anxiety,
Jones and Swain (1992) modified the original CSAI-2 by adding a debilitative-facilitative
scale to each item that rated whether the intensity of symptoms experienced were interpreted
as facilitative or debilitative towards future performance.
8 Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher

Stressor

Individual
differences

Control ?

Yes No

i.e. positive expectancies of i.e. negative expectancies of

(a) ability to cope (a) ability to cope
(b) goal attainment (b) goal attainment

Symptoms Symptoms
interpreted as interpreted as
Facilitative Debilitative

Figure 1: A model of debilitative and facilitative competitive state anxiety (reproduced with permission
from Jones, 1995).

Support for the notion of direction can be found in other areas of psychology (cf. Jones,
1995a). For example, in the test anxiety literature Alpert and Haber (1960) distinguished
between debilitating and facilitating anxiety and constructed a scale that measured both
dimensions of the response (i.e., the Achievement Anxiety Test; AAT; Alpert and Haber,
1960) and provided a stronger predictor of academic performance than conventional anxiety
scales. Other studies have also demonstrated the value of distinguishing between debilitative
and facilitative anxiety states (e.g., Carrier, Higson, Klimoski, and Peterson, 1984; Couch,
Garber, and Turner, 1983; Gaeddert and Dolphin, 1981).
 Competitive Anxiety in Sport 9

Initial attempts to explain the notion of direction came from Jones’s (1995a) control
model of facilitative and debilitative anxiety (see figure 1). Drawing on the work of Carver
and Scheier (1986, 1988), the model hypothesized that a combination of individual difference
variables and the performers’ ability to control a stressor determined how athletes’ interpret
anxiety associated symptoms (as debilitative or facilitative to performance). Control,
conceptualized as the cognitive appraisal of the degree of influence the performer was able to
exert over both the environment and the self, was viewed as the central mediating factor.
Individuals who appraised that they possessed a degree of control over the situation, were
able to cope with their anxiety, and achieve their goals (i.e., coping or positive expectancy of
goal achievement) were predicted to interpret symptoms as facilitative to performance. In
comparison, performers who appraised that they were not in control, could not cope with the
situation at hand, and possessed negative expectancies regarding goal attainment were
predicted to interpret such symptoms as debilitative (Jones, 1995a). Jones (1995a) suggested
that direction essentially represented an additional level of cognitive appraisal during which a
performer interpreted the meaningfulness of symptoms following an initial or earlier
appraisal.

Control Processes
Until recently, theorists have failed to explain in any detail the cognitive processes that
underlie the control element that leads to symptoms interpreted in a facilitative or debilitative
manner. A notable exception can be found in the recent work of Fletcher and Fletcher (2005)
and their meta-model of stress, emotion, and performance (see Fletcher et al., this volume).
The model divides the stress process into three stages: (1) the person-environment (P-E) fit;
(2) the emotion-performance (E-P) fit; and (3) the subsequent coping and overall outcome
(COO). The negative consequence of any incongruence in the first stage represents the
competitive anxiety response (i.e., psychological strain associated with a negative primary
and secondary appraisal of a competitive stressor). It is the second stage of the model, during
which tertiary and quaternary appraisal processes occur, that is purported to be analogous
with the notion of direction. This stage focuses on the E-P fit which represents an individual’s
ability to deal with his or her cognitive and somatic reactions to stressors (e.g., the level of
competitive anxiety intensity experienced).

Tertiary and Quaternary Appraisal

The second stage of the model is essentially a further aspect of an individual-environment
transaction and comprises tertiary (an evaluation whether the emotion experienced is relevant
to performance) and quaternary (evaluation of coping options) appraisal processes. These
processes contribute to a performer’s emotional orientation and whether stress responses are
interpreted as facilitative or debilitative to performance. Specifically, in the context of this
chapter, how an individual labels anxiety and its associated cognitive and somatic symptoms
will subsequently determine the overall nature of his or her preperformance feeling state.
According to this conceptualization, a negative emotion such as competitive anxiety may,
therefore, precede a positive emotional ‘orientation’ towards performance.
Similar to the perspective adopted by Jones (1995a) in his model of control, whereby
individual differences were hypothesized to influence symptom interpretation, the meta-
model (Fletcher and Fletcher, 2005; Fletcher et al., this volume) also predicts that the
competitive stress process is moderated by various personal and situational characteristics.
The next section reviews the extant research that has investigated the influence of individual
10 Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher

difference variables upon performers’ interpretations of their anxiety and associated

symptoms.

Individual Differences
Since the introduction of Jones’s (1995a) model of control the majority of direction
studies have focused on examining the individual difference element. A range of personal and
situational moderators have been identified and the following section views the relevance of
these variables in the interpretation of symptoms associated with competitive anxiety. For
convenience, we group the personal factors under the following subsections of trait anxiety,
cognitive bias, positive and negative affect, self-confidence, neuroticism and extraversion,
hardiness, coping strategies, psychological skills, achievement motivation, competitiveness,
and gender. The situational variables are under the subsections of skill level, competitive
experience, sport type, cohesion, locus of control, and performance level.

Trait Anxiety
The first personality factor to be considered is competitive trait anxiety. While several
studies have examined the potential moderators of the intensity and direction of the
competitive trait anxiety response (e.g., Hanton, O’Brien, and Mellalieu, 2003; Jones and
Swain, 1995; Perry and Williams, 1998) only one study has considered how competitive trait
anxiety may affect subsequent interpretations of state symptoms. Hanton, Mellalieu, and
Hall’s (2002) comparison of high and low trait anxiety in soccer players found that the high
trait group responded with significantly greater state intensity than the low trait group. With
regard to direction, however, no differences were found in the interpretation of cognitive and
somatic symptoms between high and low trait anxiety groups. The preliminary findings
regarding symptom intensity support Martens, Burton et al.’s (1990) premise that highly trait
anxious performers will generally respond to stressful situations by demonstrating high levels
of state anxiety. However, more research is needed to examine the role of trait anxiety and
symptom interpretation.

Cognitive Bias
One explanation for the moderating effects of trait anxiety upon symptom interpretation
is through the cognitive bias of an individual. This notion is based upon Beck’s (1976)
theoretical account of emotional vulnerability that suggests individuals who are vulnerable to
anxiety exhibit a cognitive processing bias for the threatening interpretation of ambiguous
information. In a series of investigations Eubank and colleagues (Eubank, Collins, and Smith,
2000, 2002) found that anxiety debilitators showed a processing bias for threatening
information, while anxiety facilitators were biased toward emotionally positive stimuli.
Eubank et al. explained these findings by suggesting that although facilitators of anxiety
symptoms are sensitive to positive interpretations of ambiguous stimuli they may be able to
keep negative affect under control by an effortful avoidance of threat, which could be viewed
as an effective strategy for coping with stress.
In a related study Jones, Smith, and Holmes (2004) investigated the bias in the processing
of anxiety related stimuli and differences in symptom interpretation due to the cognitive
defense mechanism characteristic of different personality types (high-anxious, low-anxious,
repressor and defensive high-anxious) which served to either magnify or minimize the threat
 Competitive Anxiety in Sport 11

experienced (cf. Eysenck, 1997). Jones et al. (2004) hypothesized that the tendency to report
symptoms as facilitative to performance would be characteristic of repressors (i.e., individuals
who report low anxiety levels as they genuinely believe they are not experiencing negative
affect) rather than high-anxious and low-anxious individuals. While repressors and low-
anxious individuals reported lower levels of anxiety intensity than the high-anxious group the
repressors also reported their symptoms experienced as more facilitative to performance than
the high-anxious individuals. Jones et al.’s findings suggest, therefore, that the cognitive
biases of repressors may serve to reduce the intensity of anxiety experienced rather than
influence the directional interpretation of symptoms.

Positive and Negative Affect

Positive and negative affect are two relatively independent personality variables that have
been identified in social psychological studies of affective structure and have been described
as an individual’s tendency to display adaptive or aversive mood states (e.g., Watson and
Clark, 1984; Watson and Tellegen, 1985). Positive affect reflects the extent to which a person
feels enthusiastic, active or alert, with high positive affect characterized by moods associated
with full concentration, eagerness and pleasurable engagement. Negative affect is viewed as a
general dimension of subjective distress, with high negative affect reflected by unpleasant
mood states, including anger, contempt, fear and nervousness. Jones et al. (1994) suggested
that a performer’s affective state may influence, or in someway be related to his or her
interpretation of anxiety symptoms. Subsequently, Jones, Swain, and Harwood (1996) found
that negative affect was related to the intensity of cognitive and somatic anxiety responses
while positive affect had a greater significant correlation than negative affect in the
interpretation of both cognitive and somatic anxiety symptoms. Similar findings were also
noted by Cerin (2004) with positive affect significantly predicting cognitive and somatic
anxiety direction. Finally, in a follow-up to Jones et al.’s (1996) study, Hanton and Mellalieu
(in press) compared facilitators and debilitators of symptoms associated with competitive
anxiety with positive affect and negative affect respectively, and found that debilitators
experienced lower positive affect and greater negative affect than their facilitating
counterparts.
Collectively, these findings suggest that performers’ symptoms interpretation may be
predicted by positive and negative affect (Jones et al., 1994). Specifically, high negative
affect individuals appear to consistently perceive symptoms as debilitative, while performers
high on positive affect tend to interpret their symptoms as more facilitative. Negative affect
therefore reflects a relatively stable disposition to experience negative emotional states, or a
‘vulnerability factor’, while high positive affect may be viewed as a ‘resiliency factor’
characterized by high levels of self-esteem and self-confidence. Interestingly, in Hanton and
Mellalieu’s (in press) study, facilitators of symptoms associated with competitive anxiety also
experienced greater levels of self-confidence than debilitators, a finding that appears to be
consistent across other direction studies (e.g., Jones et al., 1994; Jones and Swain, 1995;
Perry and Williams, 1998).

Self-confidence
One of the most robust findings to emerge from the direction literature is that facilitators
of symptoms associated with competitive anxiety report greater levels of self-confidence than
their debilitating counterparts (e.g., Hanton and Jones, 1997; Hanton, Jones, and Mullen,
12 Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher

2000; Jones et al., 1994; Jones and Swain, 1995; Perry and Williams, 1998). High
correlations have also been reported between the self-confidence and the direction subscales
of the CSAI-2 (Jones et al., 1993, 1996). Self-confidence has subsequently been suggested in
some way to act as a resiliency factor and protect against the debilitating effects of anxiety
(Hardy et al., 1996; Mellalieu, Neil, and Hanton, in press). In order to explore the nature of
this relationship Hanton, Mellalieu, and Hall (2004) conducted interviews with elite
performers regarding their experiences of precompetitive symptoms. Increases in cognitive
symptoms accompanied by low self-confidence were perceived as outside of the performers’
control and debilitating to performance, while the presence of high self-confidence and
cognitive symptoms led to positive perceptions of control and facilitating interpretations.
Although Hanton, Mellalieu et al.’s (2004) findings suggest self-confidence influences
symptom interpretation, the qualitative nature of their design prevented any inferences being
made regarding specific mediating or moderating effects. It is apparent, however, that above
all other individual difference variables self-confidence may be the most significant factor in
discriminating how athletes manage and interpret stressful situations (Hardy et al., 1996).

Neuroticism and Extraversion

Neuroticism is a personality trait that is characterized by the tendency to experience
negative affect, while extraversion is associated with the predisposition to experience positive
affect. Cerin (2004) has recently considered the influence of neuroticism and extraversion
upon anxiety intensity and symptom interpretation. Significant interactions were identified for
neuroticism and negative affect upon cognitive anxiety direction, and neuroticism and
somatic anxiety intensity upon somatic anxiety direction. For extraversion, a positive
relationship was identified with cognitive anxiety direction and a negative one with cognitive
anxiety intensity. In addition, individuals who were higher in extraversion interpreted their
symptoms as more facilitative to performance than the lower extraversion individuals. Cerin
noted that as neurotics tend to be more negativistic and ruminative than non-neurotics it is
possible that the accentuated self-awareness may make them more distractible and vulnerable
to fluctuations in body sensations and negative cognitions. Subsequently, this negativistic
attitude may contribute to a more negative appraisal of the influence of symptoms upon
performance. For extraverts, their higher levels of optimum stimulation, sensation seeking,
assertiveness, and tendency to experience positive emotions may lead to them reacting to
events in a more positive manner than that of non-extraverts. They may also perceive the
same symptoms as more facilitative to performance than non-extroverts because of their
tendency to be optimistic and behave proactively when confronted with problematic or
threatening situations (cf. Cerin, 2004).

Hardiness
Hardiness refers to an individuals’ ability to remain healthy in the face of stressful life
events and comprises the three elements of commitment, control, and challenge (Kobasa,
1979). Although the positive effects of a ‘hardy’ personality (such as reduced life stress) have
been demonstrated in clinical psychology only Hanton, Evans, and Neil (2003) have studied
the relationship with competitive anxiety symptoms. In an examination of the effects of skill
level and hardiness upon trait anxiety responses, elite athletes high in hardiness reported
lower competitive anxiety levels, more facilitative interpretations of these symptoms and
higher self-confidence levels when compared to their nonelite counterparts. These findings
 Competitive Anxiety in Sport 13

suggest that a hardy personality moderates how competitive anxiety is interpreted by

performers. A possible mechanism for this influence may be the hardy performer’s ability to
transform the appraisal of a stressor in a more positive fashion (cf. Hanton, Evans, et al.,
2003).

Coping Strategies
Studies investigating the relationship between coping and competitive anxiety direction
have examined the specific strategies employed by performers with either facilitating or
debilitating interpretations of symptoms (Eubank and Collins, 2000; Jerome and Williams,
2000; Ntoumanis and Biddle, 2000). For example, Ntoumanis and Biddle (2000) found that
facilitating interpretations of competitive anxiety symptoms were related to increased effort,
suppression of competing activities, and problem-focused coping including positive
emotional and motivational outcomes. Debilitating perceptions of symptoms were associated
with behavioral disengagement and an inability to regulate emotions. Jerome and Williams
(2000), and Eubank and Collins (2000), have also found that facilitators used more problem-
and emotion-focused coping strategies in response to stress; whereas, debilitators were
limited in their use of coping constructs. These findings support Jones’s (1995a) proposal that
coping is a key construct in the control individuals have over themselves and their
environment. Moreover, facilitating interpretations of symptoms appears to be a
representation that effective coping is taking place (Eubank and Collins, 2000).

Psychological Skills
A number of studies have investigated the relationship between psychological skills and
competitive anxiety. For example, Fletcher and Hanton (2001) examined the intensity and
direction of competitive state anxiety as a function of ‘high’ and ‘low’ psychological skill
usage in nonelite swimmers. Findings showed that performers who reported greater use of
relaxation strategies experienced lower levels of anxiety and interpreted symptoms as more
facilitative to performance than their low usage counterparts. Similar results were found by
Maynard and colleagues who employed an intervention approach with nonelite soccer players
(Maynard, Hemmings, and Warwick-Evans, 1995; Maynard, Smith, and Warwick-Evans,
1995). The relaxation strategy adopted was found to reduce the intensity of anxiety symptoms
and increase facilitative interpretations of symptoms and levels of self-confidence. Other
investigations that have adopted the use of psychological skill-based interventions, such as
mental imagery, have also reported increases in facilitative interpretations of symptoms (e.g.,
Hale and Whitehouse, 1998; Page, Sime, and Nordell, 1999).
A final line of inquiry has been to examine the effects of multimodal psychological skill
packages upon symptom interpretation. Hanton and Jones’s (1999b) multiple baseline design
used a combined goal setting, imagery, and self-talk package with elite swimmers who were
debilitated by cognitive and somatic symptoms. No changes were reported in the intensity of
symptoms but increases occurred in facilitative interpretations, self-confidence and
performance. Using a similar mental skill package combination to Hanton and Jones,
Mamassis and Doganis (2004) also showed increases in facilitating interpretations of
symptoms, self-confidence and performance in an experimental versus control group of junior
tennis players.
Taken together the studies that have considered the influence of psychological skills upon
symptom interpretation suggest that nonelite athletes use primarily relaxation strategies to
14 Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher

reduce and interpret anxiety intensity levels as facilitative, relying minimally on other
psychological skills. In contrast, elite athletes appear to maintain their intensity levels and use
a combination of psychological skills, including goal setting, imagery, and self-talk strategies
to restructure the interpretation of their symptoms as facilitative (Hanton and Jones, 1999a).

Achievement Motivation
Despite the wealth of investigations that have examined the relationships between
motivational constructs, such as achievement goal orientation, and the subsequent affective
responses (see Kingston, Spray, and Harwood, this volume) only Ntoumanis and Biddle
(1998) have considered the relationship with anxiety symptom interpretation. In their study,
Ntoumanis and Biddle examined achievement goal orientations, perceived motivational
climate, and perceptions of the intensity and direction of competitive state anxiety. While no
significant relationships were found between task orientation and direction, the effect of ego
orientation on the intensity and direction of cognitive and somatic anxiety was reported to be
exerted through self-confidence. In addition, no significant relationships were found between
motivational climates and competitive anxiety intensity and direction. These findings suggest
that motivational climates may have an indirect impact on affective responses through the
different goal orientations, while self-confidence again appears to be a powerful construct in
helping performers cope with the debilitating effects of stress.

Competitiveness
A further motivational construct that has been examined in relation to anxiety
interpretation is the competitive orientation or competitiveness of the performer. Here
competitiveness refers to the desire to enter and strive for success in sporting competition
(Gill and Deeter, 1988). In the first empirical study of direction, Jones and Swain (1992)
compared intramural athletes with high and low competitive orientations. No differences in
the intensity of the cognitive and somatic symptoms were reported, or in the somatic
symptom interpretation. However, the higher competitive group rated cognitive anxiety
symptoms as more facilitative to performance than the less competitive group.

Gender
Investigations that have examined the effects of gender upon the intensity of the
competitive anxiety response have generally found that females report higher levels of
competitive state and trait anxiety than males (e.g., Jones and Cale, 1989; Martens, Burton, et
al., 1990). However, only Perry and Williams (1998) have directly examined gender
differences in symptom interpretation. In their comparison of advanced, intermediate and
novice male and female tennis players the authors reported no differences in cognitive or
somatic anxiety intensity. Overall, though, males did report more facilitative interpretations of
their cognitive and somatic responses when compared to their female counterparts. Perry and
Williams’s findings suggest that male athletes may vary in their use of cognitive processes for
dealing with their respective precompetitive experiences. One explanation for these
differences could be due to the fact males also reported greater levels of self-confidence than
females which may in some way have helped them to protect against debilitating symptom
interpretations (cf. Hardy et al., 1996). Alternatively, it has been suggested that females
possess more willingness to report their feelings than males, particularly those of an
 Competitive Anxiety in Sport 15

unpleasant nature (cf. Jones, 1990). Females may therefore be more likely to present a more
accurate reflection of their symptoms as they feel a greater social acceptability of reporting
anxiety.

Skill Level
Skill level is one of the original and most frequently studied situation variables and
considers how elite and nonelite individuals may differ in their symptom interpretation
(Eubank, Collins, and Smethhurst, 1995; Jones et al., 1994; Jones and Swain, 1995). One of
the first studies conducted was by Jones et al. (1994) who reported no differences in the
intensity of cognitive and somatic state anxiety of elite and nonelite swimmers, but found that
the elite swimmers interpreted their symptoms as more facilitative to performance than their
nonelite counterparts. Similar findings have also been observed by Jones and Swain (1995)
and Eubank et al. (1995) in the sports of cricket and badminton respectively. A further degree
of skill level evaluation was adopted by Perry and Williams (1998) who compared the
intensity and direction of competitive trait anxiety responses of advanced, intermediate and
novice tennis players. While no differences were observed between groups for somatic
anxiety intensity the novice group reported lower cognitive anxiety intensity. For direction,
only advanced players reported more facilitative interpretations of cognitive and somatic
symptoms than their novice and intermediate counterparts, providing partial support for the
previous studies.
These and other recent findings regarding skill level (e.g., Hanton, Evans, et al., 2003;
Hanton and Connaughton, 2002) suggest that elite performers do not differ from their nonelite
counterparts in terms of the intensity of precompetitive anxiety responses experienced. It does
appear, however, that elite individuals typically have a more positive interpretation of these
symptoms in terms of their consequences for performance.

Competitive Experience
Whereas skill can be viewed as an objective individual ability and performance (Martens,
Vealey, et al., 1990) at a particular sporting level (e.g., national, international), the concept of
competitive experience is associated with the familiarity of the competitive environment
(Cerin et al., 2000). In their qualitative investigation of elite swimmers’ preparation for
competition, Hanton and Jones (1999a) noted that the acquisition of mental skills was a
gradual progression over the athletes’ careers with initial experiences of cognitive and
somatic symptoms associated with competitive anxiety viewed invariably as debilitating to
performance. Later, however, the development of cognitive skills and strategies underlying
the facilitative interpretation of symptoms were reported to be acquired via natural learning
experiences and various educational methods. Mellalieu et al. (2004) also considered the
notion of competitive experience while investigating the intensity and direction of symptoms
associated with anxiety as a function of the activities of a gross explosive (rugby) and fine
motor-skilled (golf) nature. In both sports the experienced performers reported lower intensity
and more facilitative interpretations of symptoms than their less experienced counterparts.
The observations of Hanton and Jones (1999a) and Mellalieu et al. (2004) suggest that
the level of competitive experience might be a more sensitive indicator of psychological skill
development than solely the achievement of elite status (i.e., skill level). In addition, although
higher skilled performers are generally assumed to possess greater competitive experience it
may be possible for an athlete to be categorized as highly skilled yet be very low in
16 Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher

experience due to a sudden rise in performance level. From a psychological development

perspective, such an increase in performance may be premature for the athlete if important
competitive experiences are absent.

Sport Type
A further situation variable that has been suggested to moderate anxiety direction is the
nature of the sport (Jones, 1995a; Jones et al., 1994). Differences in interpretation have been
compared as a function of activities that vary in terms of fine and gross motor skill
requirements (e.g., Hanton, Jones, and Mullen, 2000; Mellalieu et al., 2004). Collectively, the
findings suggest that while no differences exist in the intensity of competitive anxiety
symptoms, athletes who participate in relatively explosive motor skilled sports (e.g., rugby
union) report their competitive anxiety states as more facilitative to performance than
participants from sports of finely controlled skills such as pistol shooting and golf. These
findings clearly highlight the necessity to consider each sport separately when evaluating the
appropriate psychological preparation required for competition.

Cohesion
As well as the study of individual variables, the impact of group moderators upon anxiety
symptom interpretation has also been examined. Specifically, Eys, Hardy, Carron, and
Beauchamp (2003) compared the relationship between task cohesion and the intensity and
direction of competitive anxiety symptoms. Athletes who perceived their cognitive anxiety
symptoms as facilitative reported greater perceptions of task-related attraction to the group
(ATG-T) and task group-integration (GI-T) than athletes who perceived their cognitive
anxiety symptoms as debilitative. In addition, athletes who perceived their somatic anxiety
symptoms as facilitative also reported higher perceptions of GI-T. Although preliminary in
nature, these findings suggest that highly cohesive teams are likely to experience competitive
state anxiety differently than members of less cohesive teams. Furthermore, perceptions of
task cohesion appear to be related to individuals’ symptom interpretation. This highlights that
improvements or changes in the dynamics of the team may therefore enhance the
psychological state of the individual.

Control
The ability to control a stressor is pivotal in determining how athletes’ interpret anxiety
symptoms as debilitative or facilitative to performance (Jones, 1995a). Support has been
found in several studies that have measured control both indirectly, by using performers’ goal
attainment expectations (e.g., Hanton, O’Brien, et al., 2003; Jones and Hanton, 1996;
O’Brien, Hanton, and Mellalieu, 2005), and directly (Ntoumanis and Jones, 1998) through
measures such as the Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (I-E scale; Rotter, 1966). For
example, Jones and Hanton (1996) and Hanton, O’Brien et al. (2003) found that individuals
with positive expectancies of goal attainment reported their symptoms as more facilitative to
performance than those with negative expectations, who were debilitative. Ntoumanis and
Jones’s (1998) comparison of symptom interpretation in internal and external locus of control
groups found that those athletes with an internal locus of control perceived the intensity of
their trait anxiety symptoms as more facilitative to performance than those who viewed
themselves as having an external locus of control.
 Competitive Anxiety in Sport 17

While these studies provide some support for Jones’s (1995a) model the cross-sectional
nature of the designs employed means that no firm conclusion can be drawn about the
moderating or mediating effects of perceptions of control. Interestingly, several recent
qualitative investigations of the precompetitive stress experience have provided some
descriptive explication regarding this issue and the mechanisms underlying directional
interpretations. Specifically, anxiety responses perceived to be under the performers’ control
have been reported as having facilitative consequences for performance while symptoms
outside of control have been viewed as debilitative (Hanton and Connaughton, 2002, Hanton,
Mellalieu, et al., 2004).

Performance Level
Despite the apparent significance of the relationship between precompetitive symptom
interpretation and subsequent performance only a few studies have directly investigated this
association. One of the first was Jones, Swain, and Hardy’s (1993) comparison of club-level
gymnasts who were divided into good and poor performance groups based on their beam
competition scores. While no significant differences emerged in the intensity of responses, the
more successful gymnasts were found to experience greater facilitative interpretations of their
cognitive and somatic anxiety symptoms than their less successful counterparts.
Other studies have attempted to explain the relationship between symptom interpretation
and performance by assessing the amount of performance variance accounted for by the
direction subscale of the CSAI-2 (Edwards and Hardy, 1996; Jerome and Williams, 2000;
Swain and Jones, 1996) For example, Swain and Jones (1996) indicated that the direction
dimensions predicted more variance in basketball performance than the intensity dimension
alone, while the addition of the direction scales increased the amount of performance variance
explained on top of that predicted by the intensity scales (Swain and Jones, 1996). In contrast,
Edwards and Hardy (1996) reported that both direction subscales failed to explain any
variance in netball performance, while Jerome and Williams’s (2000) investigation of
recreational and semi-professional bowlers revealed that the only significant predictor of
performance was somatic anxiety direction.
One reason for the equivocal findings may be that previous studies have only assessed
anxiety symptoms preperformance rather than during competition. In an attempt to compare
pre and in-event measures, Butt, Weinberg, and Horn (2003) found that cognitive and somatic
anxiety direction and self-confidence intensity and direction predicted a significant amount of
performance variance for the 1st and 2nd halves of field hockey matches respectively. Further,
the results also indicated that the anxiety and self-confidence measurements obtained during
competition were more strongly related to performance than the pre-game measures.
Collectively, the studies investigating Jones’s (1995a) control model suggest consistent
trends between groups of individuals in relation to anxiety interpretation. Specifically, a
broad range of personal and situation variables moderate performers’ symptom
interpretations. Findings also support the value of distinguishing between the intensity and the
direction of symptoms experienced in competitive situations. Further, direction may actually
be a more sensitive variable in distinguishing between group differences when compared
solely with the intensity of the response (Hanton, Cropley, Mellalieu, Neil, and Miles, in
press; Jones and Hanton, 2001; Mellalieu, Hanton, and Jones, 2003; Swain and Jones, 1996).
18 Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher

Temporal Patterning

In addition to the consideration of other dimensions of the competitive anxiety response,

such as frequency and direction, researchers have highlighted the importance of adopting a
process orientated approach that emphasizes the study of stress longitudinally over time
(Cerin et al., 2000; Cerin, Szabo, and Williams, 2001; Hanton, Thomas, and Maynard, 2004;
Lazarus, 1999). As discussed earlier in the frequency of cognitive intrusions section, a wealth
of literature exists examining the intensity of the competitive anxiety responses in the lead up
to competition. Using a time to event paradigm general support has been found for Martens,
Vealey et al.’s (1990) predictions that cognitive anxiety and self-confidence remain
unchanged in the lead up to competition while somatic anxiety increases and peaks directly
prior to performance. The temporal nature of the intensity of the response has also been
shown to be moderated by several situation and individual difference factors (see Cerin et al.,
2000). Until recently limited attention had been given to assessing how the different
dimensions of anxiety unfold over time. This section therefore considers how researchers
have taken the study of the temporal nature of competitive stress over time further by
exploring the complexities of all three anxiety dimensions.
The first study to combine the assessment of more than one dimension using the time to
event paradigm was Wiggins’s (1998) examination of the intensity and direction of the
anxiety response in the period 24 hours prior to competition. Significant increases over time
were reported for somatic anxiety intensity, decreases for self-confidence, and no changes for
cognitive anxiety intensity or anxiety interpretation. This latter finding led Wiggins to
conclude that once athletes had interpreted their symptoms associated with competitive
anxiety as either facilitative or debilitative towards performance this interpretation did not
change. Similar findings were reported by Butt et al. (2003) in their examination of the
fluctuations in intensity and direction throughout competition (directly prior to competition,
first half, second half, directly postcompetition) using retrospective recall measures. Butt et
al. found that the only significant changes from pre to postcompetition occurred in cognitive
anxiety intensity and self-confidence, while during performance, self-confidence and the
intensity and direction of cognitive and somatic anxiety were reported to remain relatively
stable.
Recent research by Hanton and colleagues has combined the study of the intensity,
frequency and direction dimensions of the anxiety response (e.g., Hanton et al., 2002; Hanton,
Thomas, et al., 2004; Thomas, Maynard, and Hanton, 2004). The first of these was Hanton et
al.’s (2002) qualitative investigation of elite performers’ retrospective perceptions and causal
beliefs regarding temporal experiences of competitive anxiety and related symptoms in the
lead up to competition. While theoretical predictions were supported for the intensity and
frequency of the temporal patterning of anxiety, in contrast to Wiggins (1998) and Butt et al.
(2003), interpretations of symptoms were reported to change as the competition approached.
Specifically, cognitive and somatic symptoms were interpreted as facilitative during the
preparation phase for competition, but debilitative directly before performance. Hanton et al.
suggested this finding was potentially due to the athletes experiencing forms of both
preparatory and performance anxiety (cf. Burton, 1998; Mellalieu et al., 2003).
The next investigation of all three anxiety dimensions was an empirical study by Hanton,
Thomas et al. (2004) who examined the temporal patterns of symptoms in a 7 day
precompetition phase (7 days, 48 hours, 24 hours, 2 hours, 30 minutes) as a function of skill
 Competitive Anxiety in Sport 19

level (elite versus nonelite). Differences were found only in the direction dimension with elite
performers’ more facilitative in their interpretation of cognitive and somatic symptoms
through the week preceding competition. For both groups, greater temporal changes were
noted in the frequency of responses in the time leading up to the event. In an attempt to
further discriminate changes in symptoms as a function of anxiety interpretation Thomas et al.
(2004) examined competitive state anxiety responses in the lead up to competition across the
three dimensions in performers with varying symptom interpretations (i.e., ‘facilitators’,
‘debilitators’ and ‘mixed interpreters’). Facilitators displayed increased intensities of self-
confidence, more positive interpretations of cognitive and somatic symptoms, increased
frequency of self-confidence symptoms and decreased frequency of cognitive anxiety
symptoms than debilitators and mixed interpreters throughout the precompetition period.
Time-to-competition effects also indicated that directional interpretations of cognitive and
somatic responses became less positive close to competition and the frequency of cognitive
and somatic symptoms increased towards the event. Taken collectively, Thomas et al.’s
results appear to suggest therefore that debilitators differ in their symptom responses when
compared to facilitators (i.e., intensity and frequency). Not only do debilitators view anxiety
symptoms as negative towards performance, they also think about these symptoms more often
preceding competition. In addition, they experience lower levels of self-confidence and think
about these symptoms less often as competition moves closer.
To accompany the study of the temporal patterning of anxiety symptoms experienced
across the competition period researchers have developed abbreviated scales that allow faster
assessment of responses. These include the Mental Readiness Form (MRF; Murphy,
Greenspan, Jowdy, and Tammen, 1989), the Anxiety Rating Scale-Cognitive (ARS-C) and
Somatic (ARS-S) instruments (Cox, Russell, and Robb, 1998, 1999), and Immediate Anxiety
Measurement Scale (IAMS; Thomas, Hanton, and Jones, 2002). While some investigators
have questioned the psychometric properties of short form scales (e.g., Edwards and Hardy,
1995; Hardy, 1996) there appears to be consistent support for the adoption of abbreviated
scales where time may be limited and preclude the use of full length instruments (e.g., Butt et
al., 2003; Cox et al., 1999; Krane, 1994; Krane, Joyce, and Rafeld, 1994; Thomas et al.,
2002).

Key Issues

The recent emphasis towards the study of the positive effects of the anxiety response, and
in particular the notion of facilitating interpretations of symptoms associated with anxiety, has
stimulated considerable discussion among sport psychology researchers (e.g., Burton, 1998;
Burton and Naylor, 1997; Hardy, 1997, 1998; Jones, 1995a; Jones and Hanton, 2001;
Mellalieu et al., 2003). Within the discourse three main themes have emerged that relate to
measurement, rhetorical and theoretical issues.

Measurement
The first measurement issue relates to the utility of the modified CSAI-2 to accurately
assess direction (Burton, 1998; Burton and Naylor, 1997). Burton suggested that the modified
CSAI-2 creates a measurement confound because individuals rate the facilitative or
debilitative nature of their perceived anxiety symptoms in a constant fashion despite
20 Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher

experiencing variable levels of anxiety intensity. Specifically, different individuals may

experience a wide range of intensity levels yet may rate these levels to be equally facilitating
or debilitating to forthcoming performance. Similarly, one performer may experience a small
number of symptoms at an intense level while another may experience a large number of
symptoms at a lesser level of intensity, both which may be perceived as equally facilitating or
debilitating to performance. Clearly such cases represent different cognitive and somatic
symptoms experienced yet both will have similar scores as assessed by the modified CSAI-2.
The next measurement issue lies in the ambiguous wording of several items of the CSAI-
2 (Burton, 1998; Lane, Sewell, Terry, Bartram, and Nesti, 1999; Woodman and Hardy, 2001).
Woodman and Hardy (2001) noted that the use of the term “concern” in the item wording of
the cognitive anxiety scale is not necessarily a reflection of worry or cognitive anxiety, but
rather a perception of the importance of the upcoming event. This point is emphasized by
Cerin (2003), who suggested that the cognitive subscale of the CSAI-2 may be confounding
threat and challenge related appraisals (e.g., fear and worry versus excitement, interest or
eagerness). Further support for the concerns regarding the ambiguous wording of items has
come from studies examining of the factor structure of the CSAI-2 intensity subscales (e.g.,
Cox, Martens, and Russell, 2003; Iosifidou and Doganis, 2001; Tsorbatzoudis, Barkoukis,
Sideridis, and Grouios, 1998), the comparison of the CSAI-2 with other affective measures
(Cerin, 2003, 2004) and the completion of the scale in response to excited and anxious
scenarios (Jones and Uphill, 2004).
Woodman and Hardy (2001) also pointed out that some of the items originally selected
for the CSAI-2 might not reflect the most salient aspects of precompetitive anxiety for some
athletes. Indeed, the CSAI-2 and self-report measures in general can only assess the perceived
cognitive and somatic symptoms that are commonly associated with the competitive anxiety
response by certain but not all individuals. Consequently, while one athlete may view items
such as “my heart is racing” as reflecting somatic symptoms of anxiety, another may view “I
feel jittery” as irrelevant. Despite these measurement issues Woodman and Hardy (2001, p.
302) noted “…the CSAI-2 has been, and continues to be, the choice of predilection for most
researchers with an interest in competitive state anxiety.”

Rhetorical
One issue that has received little attention within this area relates to the rhetoric used by
researchers. Historically, there has been inconsistency with the use of terms (cf. Burton, 1998;
Burton and Naylor, 1997; Hardy, 1998; Jones, 1995a). Burton (1990), for example, noted that
anxiety states could be ‘positive’ and helpful in facilitating mental preparation and
performance, while Parfitt et al. (1990) suggested that positive performance effects could be
associated with cognitive and somatic anxiety. Parfitt et al. also discussed the notion that
some performers may ‘perceive’ or label symptoms as facilitating to performance. Later,
Jones (1995a) used the term ‘facilitative anxiety states’ to refer to how performers labeled
their cognitive and physiological symptoms in a positive manner in relation to performance.
He also noted, however, that a state in which symptoms were perceived as facilitating to
performance was unlikely to represent a state of anxiety.
Hardy (1997) also highlighted that athletes may interpret their symptoms as facilitative to
performance and that anxiety could, under certain circumstances, enhance performance. In
response, Burton and Naylor (1997) argued against Hardy’s assertion that anxiety can be
facilitative to performance. In a subsequent rebuttal, Hardy (1998) called for a
 Competitive Anxiety in Sport 21

reconceptualization of the competitive anxiety construct, but also maintained his position that
anxiety may result in improvements in performance.
These issues emphasize the importance of rhetoric in the competitive anxiety literature
and highlight three main areas: 1) the notion of ‘positive anxiety’ or ‘facilitative anxiety’, 2)
facilitative interpretations of competitive anxiety, and 3) the positive effects of anxiety on
performance. It is important, therefore, to clarify the rhetoric in order that researchers can
examine the different relationships that explain the positive consequences of anxiety states
upon performance. We suggest that the terms ‘positive anxiety’ and ‘facilitative anxiety’ are
oxymorons best avoided as they suggest anxiety is a positive emotion. We recommend that
‘facilitative interpretations of symptoms associated with competitive anxiety’ is more
appropriate and, importantly, accurate. This term refers to a specific negative emotion and
associated symptoms which are appraised by the individual as having a beneficial influence
on performance (Jones, 1995a). It is also important to distinguish this term from anxiety as a
negative emotion actually having a positive effect upon performance or the positive effect of
anxiety on performance. This refers to a specific negative emotion which has been deemed to
have a beneficial influence on performance – regardless of whether the individual appraises
the emotion as facilitative or debilitative (Hardy, 1997, 1998; Parfitt et al., 1990).

Theoretical
Following on from the rhetorical issues, three main theoretical issues emerge. First,
regarding the oxymoron of positive or facilitative anxiety, Burton (Burton and Naylor, 1997;
Burton, 1998) suggested that the direction approach confounded the labeling of anxiety with
other more positive emotions which had simply been mislabeled as facilitative anxiety.
However, Jones (1995a) discussed the notion of facilitative anxiety ‘states’, rather than that of
facilitative anxiety per se, whereby the overall affective state experienced was deemed as
facilitating to performance rather than anxiety itself being a positive emotion.
From this theoretical issue emerged the importance of considering the labeling of
thoughts and feelings in understanding performers’ positive and negative precompetitive
states. Consequently, the second theoretical issue regards the contention that the positive
effects of anxiety occur through performers’ facilitative interpretations of competitive anxiety
and its associated symptoms (Jones and Hanton, 2001). Evidence to explain this view can be
found in a series of recent studies conducted to compare the type and content of the
precompetitive affective response experienced (i.e., positive or negative) of facilitators and
debilitators of symptoms associated with competitive anxiety (Hanton and Mellalieu, in press;
Jones and Hanton, 2001; Mellalieu et al., 2003). Performers who identified symptoms on the
CSAI-2 as facilitative to performance reported greater positive and lower negative affective
responses. Conversely, debilitators of symptoms associated with competitive anxiety
indicated significantly higher scores on negative and lower scores on positive affective
responses. Facilitators also reported greater perceptions of mental readiness, self-confidence
and positive perceptions of physical state, while content analysis of the responses experienced
by performers revealed that 90% of the feelings experience were perceived as positive for
performance by facilitators, compared with a mere 30% of labels for debilitators (Mellalieu et
al., 2003).
These findings suggest that the way performers interpret competitive anxiety will
influence the ‘orientation’ (Fletcher and Fletcher, 2005) of their overall affective state. This
perspective differs subtlety from Burton’s (Burton, 1998; Burton and Naylor, 1997) and
22 Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher

Jones’s (1995a) views because it indicates that rather than anxiety being confounded with
positive emotions, performers can experience competitive anxiety symptoms while
experiencing positive feeling states. One explanation for this notion can be found in Fletcher
and Fletcher’s (2005, Fletcher et al., this volume) meta-model of stress, emotions and
performance. Performers may experience competitive anxiety as an initial consequence of
primary and secondary appraisal of a stressor. However, following further tertiary and
quaternary appraisal, this response may be interpreted as necessary and/or facilitative to
performance, leading to the generation of a positive feeling state (e.g., excitement). This
cognitive process accounts for findings that have shown performers can experience
ambivalent affect in the precompetitive period (Cerin, 2004; Hanton and Mellalieu, in press,
Jones and Hanton, 2001; Mellalieu et al., 2003). It also appears to explain how traditional
anxiety inventories, such as the CSAI-2, can easily confound a negative emotion with positive
feeling states (cf. Burton and Naylor, 1997; Burton, 1998).
The final theoretical contention addresses whether anxiety can actually have a positive
effect (i.e., outcome) on performance. In citing Lazarus’ (1991) model of emotion, Burton
(Burton and Naylor, 1997; Burton, 1998) suggested that negative emotions would always
have a negative affect on performance and positive emotions a beneficial effect (cf. Martens,
Burton, et al., 1990). In response, researchers have argued that negative emotions, such as
anxiety, can have a positive effect upon performance (Hardy, 1997, 1998; Woodman and
Hardy, 2001). Hardy (1997, 1998) has explained these direct effects through various anxiety-
performance approaches including processing efficiency theory (Eysenck and Calvo, 1992)
and catastrophe models (Hardy, 1990). In processing efficiency theory the presence of anxiety
symptoms signals to the performer the importance of the upcoming event, and the need to
muster all available resources in order to perform the necessary actions on the field (Hardy,
1997). In catastrophe models, under low levels of physiological arousal, rises in the intensity
of cognitive anxiety symptoms may lead to enhanced performance (Hardy and Parfitt, 1991).
The descriptions of such positive consequences of anxiety will be discussed in greater detail
in the next section that considers the various explanations for the anxiety-performance
relationship.

THE ANXIETY-PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP

A key issue pervading the literature that is of central concern to sport psychology
researchers and practitioners alike is the relationship between anxiety and performance. This
section discusses some of the theories and models that allude to the potential positive
consequences of this relationship. These include arousal-based explanations, the zone of
optimal functioning hypotheses, multidimensional anxiety theory, catastrophe models and
processing efficiency theory. Further detailed description of these and additional anxiety-
performance approaches can be found in other reviews of the topic (e.g., Burton, 1998; Gill,
1994; Jones, 1995a; Raglin, 1992; Woodman and Hardy, 2001).
 Competitive Anxiety in Sport 23

Arousal-based Approaches

Initial inquiries attempted to determine the anxiety-performance relationship through

arousal-based explanations. For example, drive theory (Spence and Spence, 1966) purported
that an increase in drive or arousal was associated with a linear increase in performance
providing that the learned dominant response was one of a correct skill execution. This
approach was superceded in sport psychology by the inverted-U hypothesis (Oxendine, 1970)
that described the relationship between arousal and performance through an inverted-U (see
Anshel, 1990; Landers and Arent, 2001). Increases in arousal up to an ‘optimal’ level were
suggested to result in positive performance gains, beyond which performance decrements
occurred. Optimal levels of arousal were also suggested to be dependent on the type of task,
with more complex tasks requiring lower arousal levels for optimal performance (cf. Landers
and Arent, 2001). Despite their intuitive appeal, however, drive theory and the inverted-U
hypothesis have been criticized for their simplistic nature and a failure to explain how arousal
affects performance (Gill, 1994; Hardy, 1990; Hardy et al., 1996; Krane, 1992; Neiss, 1988).
A recent approach that accounts for the positive aspects of the arousal-performance
relationship is that of reversal theory (Kerr, 1993). Based upon the work of Apter (1982,
1984), the theory suggests that motivation is influenced by changes or reversals between four
paired alternate meta-motivational states. In a telic state, high physiological arousal will be
interpreted as anxiety; whereas in a paratelic state, high physiological arousal will be
experienced as excitement. Equilibrium in the desired meta-motivational state is achieved
when minimal differences arise between an individual’s preferred and actual arousal state. In
addition, contingent upon the perceived pleasure or hedonic tone of the individual, performers
can also suddenly reverse from the experience of high arousal as excitement to one of anxiety
(Kerr, 1997). Unlike the inverted-U hypothesis, high levels of physiological or felt arousal
may not automatically lead to detrimental performance consequences and may actually be
beneficial.
Although some support exists for the tenets of reversal theory (see Kerr, 1997), and the
fact that it attempts to explain the more positive aspects of the individual’s competitive
affective experience, the approach has been suggested as offering little in terms of explaining
how and why anxiety (through changes in arousal states) might affect motor performance (cf.
Woodman and Hardy, 2001).

Zones of Optimal Functioning (ZOF)

To overcome the limitations of the nomothetic approach to the study of the anxiety–
performance relationship, Hanin (1980, 1986) introduced an intraindividual idiographic
method to explain how a given level of anxiety could lead to optimal performance. This
approach was initially developed as a practical tool for helping athletes ‘get in the zone’ and
determine their optimal levels of unidimensional anxiety within certain limits or bands known
as ‘zones of optimal functioning’ (ZOF) to maximize performance (Hanin, 1980, 1986, 1989).
Hanin proposed that every athlete possesses an optimal preperformance anxiety zone within
which performance levels were greatest. Anxiety levels below or above these bands were
proposed to be consistent with inhibited performance (see Robazza, this volume, for a full
description). Dependent upon athlete preferences, therefore, high levels of competitive
24 Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher

anxiety could lead to optimal performance. A number of investigations have partially

supported the ZOF hypothesis (e.g., Annesi, 1998; Gould, Tuffey, Hardy, and Lochbaum,
1993; Krane, 1993; Randle and Weinberg, 1997; Thelwell and Maynard, 1998; Turner and
Raglin, 1991; Woodman, Albinson, and Hardy, 1997). The theory itself is also intuitively
appealing as it helps to identify an optimal zone for anxiety by employing the individual as a
unit of analysis (due to the great variability amongst athletes) and has practical significance
for applied sport psychologists in that peak performance can be identified relatively easily
(Hardy et al., 1996).
Although ZOF has received criticizm (see Gould and Tuffey, 1996; Hardy et al., 1996;
Hardy and Parfitt, 1991; Woodman and Hardy, 2001) the approach has received considerable
success in its application to the investigation of a broader range of emotions rather than
anxiety alone (cf. Gould and Udry, 1994). A theoretical and methodological framework has
subsequently been developed to conceptualize, describe and assess zones of optimal
functioning of individuals’ emotional states (see Robazza, this volume).

Multidimensional Anxiety Theory (MAT)

In contrast to Hanin’s approach that suggests an appropriate emotional zone exists for
optimal performance (e.g., high levels of anxiety can have positive performance effects),
multidimensional anxiety theory (MAT; Martens, Burton, et al., 1990) describes the
relationship between the specific components of the competitive state anxiety response and
performance. While self-confidence is predicted to exhibit a positive linear association with
performance and somatic anxiety a quadratic or inverted-U relationship (i.e., performance
increases up to a given level of symptom intensity), cognitive anxiety is suggested to exhibit a
negative linear relationship with performance. Burton’s (1998) review of the relationship
between the separate components of anxiety and performance indicated that of the sixteen
studies examined, only two strongly supported the theoretical predictions (i.e., Burton, 1988;
Taylor, 1987); six provided moderate or partial support (i.e., Barnes, Sime, Dienstbeir, and
Plake, 1986; Gould et al., 1987; Jones and Cale, 1989; Krane, Williams, and Feltz, 1992;
Maynard and Cotton, 1993; Williams and Krane, 1993); and eight provided weak support that
was unable to demonstrate any anxiety-performance relationship (i.e., Caruso et al., 1990;
Gould et al., 1984; Hammermeister and Burton, 1995; Karteroliotos and Gill, 1987; Martin
and Gill, 1991; Maynard and Howe, 1987; Maynard, Smith, et al., 1995; McAuley, 1985).
Although MAT provides some indication of the positive influence that somatic anxiety
(up to moderate levels) and self-confidence can have upon performance, it hypothesizes that
elevated levels of cognitive anxiety will invariably be negative and detrimental, with no
positive consequences. In addition, the findings from recent meta-analyses suggest weak to
moderate relationships between the subcomponents of multidimensional anxiety and
performance (e.g., Craft et al., 2003; Woodman and Hardy, 2003) and emphasize both
conceptual and methodological shortcomings (see also Burton, 1988, 1998; Jones, 1995a,
1995b; Raglin, 1992; Woodman and Hardy, 2001). One particular criticism is that MAT
attempts to explain the additive as opposed to interactive effects of the competitive anxiety
subcomponents upon performance (see Hardy, 1990; Woodman and Hardy 2001).
 Competitive Anxiety in Sport 25

Catastrophe Models

Hardy and colleagues’ cusp catastrophe model describes the interactive effects of
cognitive anxiety and physiological arousal on performance (Hardy, 1990; Hardy, 1996;
Hardy and Parfitt, 1991). Specifically, in contrast to MAT, elevations in cognitive anxiety can
have positive performance consequences contingent upon physiological arousal levels. When
cognitive anxiety levels are low, variations in physiological arousal invoke relatively small
performance effects characterized by a mild inverted-U type reaction. However, under
conditions of high cognitive anxiety, increasing levels of physiological arousal, up to a certain
point, will lead to positive effects on performance. Continued increases in physiological
arousal may, however, eventually result in dramatic performance decrements characterized by
a ‘catastrophic’ drop in performance levels.
Although a growing body of research has examined the predictions of the catastrophe
model the findings are equivocal (e.g., Edwards and Hardy, 1996; Edwards, Kingston, Hardy,
and Gould, 2002; Hardy, 1996; Hardy and Parfitt, 1991; Hardy et al., 1994; Krane, Joyce, and
Rafeld, 1994; Woodman et al., 1997). This has been suggested to be due in part to
methodological issues (see Cohen, Pargman, and Tenenbaum, 2003) and the fact that the
catastrophe approach is a model and not a theory and cannot therefore explain the
mechanisms through which the anxiety components may interact to effect performance
(Hardy, 1996; Woodman and Hardy, 2001).
In their reexamination of the cusp catastrophe model, Cohen et al. (2003) failed to find
any empirical and theoretical support for the model’s predictions. They also highlighted the
need to consider more sophisticated multidimensional approaches and account for potential
mediating variables such as self-confidence, effort, coping and other self-regulatory
mechanisms. The five-dimensional butterfly model (Hardy and Parfitt, 1991), incorporating
self-confidence and task complexity, would appear to be such a model to assist in
understanding how high cognitive anxiety levels may lead to positive performance effects.
While no direct test of the butterfly model has as yet been conducted Hardy, Woodman, and
Carrington’s (2004) preliminary investigation has found some support for the role of self-
confidence in such a catastrophe framework.

Processing Efficiency Theory

A further theoretical approach to explain the notion that high anxious individuals may
sometimes perform better than their low anxious counterparts is processing efficiency theory
(PET; Eysenck and Calvo, 1992). Based upon Eysenck’s (1986) work in the field of cognitive
psychology, the experience of high anxiety symptoms is suggested to lead to positive
performance consequences (cf. Hardy 1997). Eysenck (1992) purported that cognitive anxiety
served two principal functions. Firstly, it consumed some of an individual’s attentional
capacity for the task, effectively reducing working memory capacity due to task irrelevant
cognitive activity or worry, thereby impairing processing efficiency. Secondly, cognitive
anxiety or worry also signals the importance of the task to the individual and may lead to an
increased investment in the task if a below par performance is perceived. This reduction in
effective capacity can be countered by an increased effort (Eysenck, 1986) and while
processing efficiency is impaired, performance effectiveness may therefore be maintained or
26 Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher

even enhanced under conditions of high anxiety but at the expense of utilizing a greater
proportion of the available resources. Preliminary research has supported the application of
PET in sport psychology (see Murray and Janelle, 2003; Williams, Vickers, and Rodrigues,
2002), particularly in those sports that tax working memory (cf. Woodman and Hardy, 2001).

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
This section will focus upon the practical implications that emanate from the literature
that has examined the positive aspects of competitive anxiety and in particular, the recent
emphasis upon directional interpretations associated with the symptom response.
Traditionally, stress management strategies have adopted the matching hypothesis (Davidson
and Schwartz, 1976) to align individual treatments to specific problems (i.e., cognitive,
somatic) via mental skill packages aimed at symptom reduction (e.g., Burton, 1989; Maynard
and Cotton, 1993; Prapavessis, Grove, McNair, and Cable, 1992). However, the recent
investigation of other anxiety dimensions, such as frequency and direction, has altered how
applied sport psychologists practice their profession. Here we discuss two significant practical
aspects relating to the type (i.e., approaches to help the performer appraise symptoms in a
positive way) and timing (i.e., when these symptoms occur) of stress management
interventions.

Type of Stress Management Intervention

When tailoring interventions to deal with the effects of competitive stress, practitioners
should consider the numerous personal and situational variables that have been identified to
moderate the competitive anxiety response. For example, while support has been found for
the efficacy of psychological strategies (e.g., relaxation techniques) in reducing competitive
anxiety intensity and debilitating interpretations of associated symptoms (e.g., Hale and
Whitehouse, 1998; Maynard, Hemmings, et al., 1995; Maynard, Smith, et al., 1995) such
methods may not be appropriate for the activation and arousal demands of certain sports. In
particular, the reduction of anxiety intensity may decrease the performer’s activation state,
and subsequent mental and physical readiness for competition. Indeed, it may not be possible,
or even desirable, to reduce such symptoms via stress management techniques due to the
relative high levels of activation states required for task performance (Hanton and Jones,
1999a, 1999b; Hanton et al., 2000; Hanton, Wadey, and Connaughton, 2005; Mellalieu et al.,
2004). In these circumstances practitioners should attempt to initiate a cognitive strategy that
restructures negative interpretations of competitive state anxiety, rather than reducing
symptom intensity per se. Performers may need to reduce symptom intensity, restructure
cognitions, and then reactivate to appropriate levels, particularly if individuals possess
insufficient confidence to protect against negative interpretations of symptoms. Such a
strategy may be relevant for nonelite athletes who consistently report lower self-confidence
levels and debilitating symptom interpretations when compared to their elite counterparts
(Fletcher and Hanton, 2001; Hanton and Jones, 1999b; Jones et al., 1994). Elite performers
who are debilitators may however be better advised to implement some cognitive
 Competitive Anxiety in Sport 27

restructuring techniques using psychological skills and strategies to interpret their anxiety as
facilitative to performance including a combination of goal setting, self-talk, and imagery
(Hale and Whitehouse, 1998; Hanton and Jones, 1999a, 1999b; Hanton, Wadey, et al., 2005;
Jones and Hanton, 1996).
A final practical implication regarding the type of strategy utilized arises from the
consistent finding in the individual difference literature that facilitators of symptoms
associated with the anxiety response report greater levels of self-confidence than debilitators
(cf. Hanton, Mellalieu, et al., 2004). Above all other individual difference variables self-
confidence may therefore be the most significant factor in discriminating how athletes
manage and interpret stressful situations (Hardy et al., 1996). Indeed, recent meta-analyses by
Hardy and Woodman (2003) and Craft et al. (2003) have reported that self-confidence
displays the strongest and most consistent relationship with performance over and above the
intensity of competitive anxiety symptoms experienced.
The nature by which athletes use self-confidence to manage stress was identified in
Hanton, Mellalieu et al.’s (2004) qualitative investigation of the relationship between self-
confidence and competitive anxiety intensity and symptom interpretation. In this study, elite
performers reported using cognitive confidence management strategies including mental
rehearsal, thought stopping, and positive self-talk to protect against debilitating interpretations
of competitive anxiety. The performers also highlighted that the specific antecedents of self-
efficacy, in particular, images of enactive mastery, were utilized when employing cognitive
confidence enhancement strategies. Hanton, Mellalieu et al.’s (2004) findings suggest that
practitioners should focus upon developing confidence protection strategies that build robust
perceptions of the athlete’s enactive mastery or performance accomplishments, as they appear
to have the most salient influence upon self-confidence symptoms and protection against
anxiety debilitation. In conjunction with the use of mental imagery, individual-specific mental
skill packages should therefore be developed that incorporate other forms of efficacy
enhancement. These may include forms of verbal persuasion such as positive self-talk or
external encouragement from the coach or significant others.

Timing of Stress Management Intervention

When considering suitable stress management interventions practitioners also need to

account for the temporal nature of the stress response from both a macro and micro
perspective. At a macro level we can consider the temporal nature of how performers’
responses change across their career, while at a micro level we can explore the temporal
patterning of the precompetitive response in the build up to a specific event or competition.
One example of the study of temporal responses at a macro level is Hanton and Jones’s
(1999a) investigation of the cognitive skills and strategies underlying elite swimmers’
interpretations of prerace thoughts and feelings, from early experiences through to their
current status. In their study the authors identified that the development of positive
perceptions of prerace symptoms occurred via natural experiences and various educational
methods. Specifically, the swimmers reported that at an early age they were told prerace
nerves could be positive and subsequently, with experience, they began to interpret their
symptoms in a facilitating manner towards performance. The implications of these findings
are that at an early stage in their careers athletes need to be educated that emotions and
28 Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher

thoughts and feelings experienced in the precompetition period as unpleasant or

discomforting may not necessarily be debilitative or harmful to competition. Consequently
they should be taught the key psychological skills, such as the use of goal setting, self-talk,
and imagery, as part of the mental preparation element of their prerace routine to enable
effective stress management (Hanton and Jones, 1999a).
At a micro-level, several studies have identified that the patterns of change in the
cognitive labeling of affective states in the precompetition period may be as significant as the
type and intensity of feeling reported by an athlete (e.g., Hanton, Thomas, et al., 2004;
Mellalieu et al., 2003; Thomas et al., 2004). For the practitioner these findings suggest that a
detailed assessment of an athlete’s precompetitive temporal patterning state is required. This
will allow the implementation of a series of carefully designed cognitive intervention
strategies to manage not only the intensity but also the frequency and direction of the
performers’ thoughts and feelings across a temporal range beyond that of the traditional hour
before competition. One such approach was adopted by Hanton and Jones (1999b) whose
multi-modal intervention with competitive swimmers consisted of teaching the psychological
skills of goal setting, imagery and self-talk in order to change interpretations of symptoms
associated with anxiety from debilitative to facilitative in the pre-race phase over the course
of a competitive season.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS
In light of the recent the body of literature that has investigated the positive consequence
of the anxiety response upon performance and the study of the cognitive and motivational
processes underpinning this relationship several areas are apparent for further study. These
include the conceptualization and measurement of competitive stress, the study of existing
and additional moderators of symptom interpretation, and the integration of theoretical
approaches to explain the anxiety-performance relationship.

Conceptualization and Measurement

The conceptual issues outlined briefly in this chapter and discussed in detail by Fletcher
et al. (this volume) reveal a number of important implications for future research. First, the
competitive stress process should be viewed as a dynamic rather than a static event (Lazarus,
1999). Methods and instruments need to be designed to assess the overall phenomenon and
incorporate the competitive stressor, affective response, coping strategy, and subsequent
behavior (Cerin et al., 2000). These may include full and single item psychometric measures,
interviews, experience sampling methods (ESM), and possible behavioral assessment
techniques. Although such procedures are common in the applied and professional practice
literature, comparison of one method to the other or several methods collectively, have not
specifically been examined. Recent advancements have been made towards the use of such
measures through the adoption of short form and in-event assessment (Cerin et al., 2001;
Eubank and Collins, 2000; Thomas et al., 2002), and retrospective recall (Tenenbaum, Lloyd,
Petty, and Hanin, 2002; Wilson, Raglin, and Harger, 2000).
 Competitive Anxiety in Sport 29

Recent research examining the competitive stress process also suggests that anxiety alone
accounts for little variance in performance when compared to the ‘recipe of emotions’ that
constitute the broader affective precompetitive response (Cerin, 2003; Gould and Udry, 1994;
Robazza, this volume). Performers not only appear to differ in the type of affective state
experienced but also in the labeling of that response towards performance (Fletcher et al., this
volume; Hanton and Mellalieu, in press; Jones and Hanton, 2001; Mellalieu et al., 2004).
Rather than focusing exclusively on the anxiety component of the stress process future studies
should consider designs that incorporate the idiosyncratic nature of mental states (Hanin,
1997, 2000) and the range of cognitive, affective, and behavioral experiences that have been
identified in the lead up to competition. One example is Cerin’s (2004) recent multilevel
mixed idiographic/nomothetic interactional study of the intensity and direction of competition
anxiety and affect in the week leading up to competition in Tae Kwon Do practitioners. Cerin
considered the interaction of both personal (positive and negative affect) and situational
factors (temporal proximity) in moderating the relationship with anxiety direction, affective
responses and proximity to competition. The adoption of such designs in future will allow
researchers to identify and explain both the intra- and inter-individual differences that may
occur in the competitive stress process.

Individual Differences

A further line of research into the study of competitive anxiety is to continue to examine
the individual difference factors that predict debilitated and facilitated symptom
interpretations in performers. In our earlier section we summarized the findings and key
implications from these individual differences and in this section we highlight three potential
lines of enquiry emphasized by several of these authors in relation to the study of perceived
control, psychological skills usage, and the development of competitive experience
respectively. We then draw attention to some additional situation and personal variables that
are also considered worthy of future investigation.
Although the notion of control is central to Jones’s (1995a) model of debilitative and
facilitative anxiety and while behavioral, affective, and physiological consequences are
suggested to be influenced as a function of locus of control beliefs, little empirical evidence
exists regarding the direct relationship between control perceptions and athletic performance
(Ntoumanis and Jones, 1998). Several qualitative and empirical investigations have provided
indirect support for the model (e.g., Hanton and Connaughton, 2002; Hanton, Mellalieu, et
al., 2004; Hanton, O’Brien, et al., 2003) but few studies have assessed its relationship with
the stress response directly and with contemporary measurement procedures (cf. Fink,
Johnson, and Porter, 2001; Ntoumanis and Jones, 1998). The underlying mechanism for this
process, particularly how symptoms are appraised in a positive manner towards performance,
presents an area worthy of further consideration. Ntoumanis and Jones (1998) also
recommended exploring the individual difference factors which can mediate the adoption of a
particular locus of control.
Another area worthy of attention is the psychological skills used by performers to
maintain a degree of control over the competitive stressor. Fletcher and Hanton (2001)
suggested that future research in this area should examine the effectiveness of different
interventions in eliciting positive symptom interpretations and performance improvements,
30 Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher

particularly the efficacy of one strategy versus another, or the effects of combining different
strategies to form a psychological skills package. They also highlighted the need to identify
which psychological skill, or their combination, most contributes to the affective response in
conditions of competitive stress.
A further important avenue to pursue is how performers learn to develop the necessary
psychological skills in order view their precompetitive symptoms experienced in a positive
manner towards performance. Hanton and Jones’s (1999a) qualitative investigation of elite
swimmers suggested that psychological skills were developed via a combination of natural
learning experiences and various educational methods. The authors recommended that future
investigation was needed to corroborate and detail these learning experiences across other
sport type samples and classifications. One such study by Mellalieu et al. (2004), for example,
has found that differences existed in symptom interpretation in several sports as function of
the level of experience. Hanton and Jones (1999a) have also highlighted the need to identify
the time scale and amount of competitive experience required in order for a performer to
develop the necessary psychological skills to interpret cognitive and somatic symptoms as
facilitative even in the most stressful of environments.
In addition to the investigation of existing moderators of the competitive stress response
the study of other potential factors is also worthy of attention. With regard to situational
factors, the wider effects of psychosocial factors upon the competitive stress response would
seem to be a fruitful area of inquiry. While there has been considerable development in the
understanding of the constructs that contribute to the development of positive dynamics in
teams such as cohesion (see Loughead and Hardy, this volume) and collective efficacy (cf.
Feltz and Lirgg, 1998; Spink, 1990), there has been little or no study of the potential negative
effects of competitive stress. For example, Hanin (1986) has discussed the notion of inter-
group anxiety among teams and groups, while negative relationships have been observed
between perceptions of group dynamics and intra-individual competitive anxiety responses
(Beauchamp, Bray, Eys, and Carron, 2003; Eys et al., 2003).
As well as the examination of situational factors, there is also a need to consider the
specific effects of personal moderators upon the competitive stress response. Preliminary
investigations of resilience traits such as self-confidence, hardiness, extraversion, and positive
affectivity would appear to suggest differences in coping behaviors and stress responses (e.g.,
Cerin, 2004; Hanton, Evans, et al., 2003; Hanton and Mellalieu, in press). The study of these
and other traits such as determination, optimism and enthusiasm (cf. Carver and Scheier,
1999) that represent some form of psychological resilience or mental toughness may allow
researchers greater comprehension of athletes’ psyche. Evidence from the personality
literature in a variety of organizational and social environments also suggests powerful
predictive potential of general theories of personality, such as the big five (McCrae and Costa,
1996). Given these recent advancements in the assessment of dispositional traits (cf. McCrae
and Costa, 1997) clear potential exists for a re-examination of the role of personality in sport.
There is also a need to consider the effects of individuals with repressive coping styles on the
accuracy of self-report anxiety questionnaires (cf. Jerome and Williams, 2000; Jones et al.,
1994). Indeed, a failure to account for individuals who deny having elevated levels of
symptom intensity may result in cases of individuals being denoted as low-anxious on self-
report items when in fact they are actually repressors.
 Competitive Anxiety in Sport 31

Theoretical Integration

While this chapter has alluded to several theories and models that purport to explain the
positive effects of anxiety in relation to competition, such as ZOF, MAT, catastrophe models,
and PET, there is a need to incorporate these existing conceptual approaches to provide an
integrated explanation for the anxiety-performance relationship. Davis and Cox (2002) for
example, combined the assessment of ZOF and anxiety direction in their investigation of
anxiety-performance relationships in competitive swimmers, while other researchers (e.g.,
Edwards et al., 2002; Woodman and Hardy, 2001) have highlighted the potential shared
variability in catastrophe models and PET and between specific theories such as the conscious
processing hypothesis (Masters, 1992) and the theory of ironic processes of mental control
(cf. Wegner, 1997) to explain the potential positive consequences of anxiety-upon
performance.
Further progress must also be made in relation to the mechanisms by which anxiety and
related symptoms (see Robazza, this volume) actually influence performance (cf. Janelle,
2002; Jones, 2004; Mellalieu, 2003). For example, in acknowledging existing stress-
performance theories Janelle (2002) pointed out that there is little empirical evidence to
document the mechanisms that underlie the proposed performance changes. Existing theories
merely purport attentional mechanisms to be responsible for how fluctuations in emotional,
cognitive and physiological states might manifest themselves in performance variability.
Janelle (2002) has provided some progress to overcome these and other limitations in order to
account for the variation in athletic performance through his description of the relationship
between anxiety, arousal and visual attention.
In attempting to explain anxiety effects on performance, there is also a need to examine
the influence upon each of the individual components of performance (Parfitt et al., 1995;
Parfitt and Hardy, 1993). Parfitt and Pates’s (1999) adoption of a broadband approach to the
investigation of the anxiety performance relationship (i.e., the effect of one stressor on several
sub-components of performance) has identified that different competitive state responses
(cognitive and somatic anxiety, self-confidence) exert differential effects upon aspects of
actual performance (anaerobic power, working memory). The adoption of an interdisciplinary
approach may be particularly useful here, for example, Collins and colleagues (Collins, Jones,
Fairweather, Doolan, and Preistly, 2001) have used movement kinematics to evaluate changes
in movement patterns associated with concurrent changes in anxiety levels. Among their
findings support was found for the notion that one of the mechanisms via which anxiety
influences performance was through the interaction of task constraints and individual
movement control parameters, which lead to consequent changes in action. Combining these
and other interdisciplinary methods provides an interesting avenue and challenge for
researchers to assess the apparent complex explanations for the mechanisms by which the
competitive stress response influences performance.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
This review is the first to consider in detail the beneficial side to competitive anxiety in
sport, and the positive consequences associated with the competitive stress response as
32 Stephen D. Mellalieu, Sheldon Hanton and David Fletcher

opposed to the traditional focus on the potentially negative effects on performance.

Specifically, we explored the mechanisms by which such a negative emotional response
might have a positive effect on a performer’s psychological state and subsequent athletic
performance. Based on the literature reviewed here, and the predictions of the meta-model of
stress, emotions and performance (Fletcher and Fletcher, 2005; Fletcher et al., this volume),
we outline five statements that summarize our current position regarding competitive anxiety
and sport performance:

1. Competitive stressors are not inherently positive or negative.

2. Performers’ appraise these stressors resulting in positive and/or negative responses.
3. Competitive anxiety is an example of a specific negative emotional response.
4. Cognitive and somatic symptoms of competitive anxiety (together with other
competitive stress-related emotions) are further appraised as facilitative or
debilitative to performance, resulting in positive or negative feeling states.
5. These feeling states can have a positive or negative effect on performance.

We hope these statements serve to provide a clear basis for future conceptualization of
the competitive stress process, and the relationship between anxiety and athletic performance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This review is part of an ongoing program of work currently being undertaken by the
authors addressing conceptual and measurement issues within the context of stress and
anxiety in sport. We would like to thank the reviewers for their excellent contributions to this
chapter.

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