SELF AND PERSONALITY

Concept of Self

- Self-Perception: Individuals have a sense of who they are and how they differ
from others. This self-awareness develops from childhood through interactions
with parents, friends, teachers, and other significant persons.
- Personal and Social Identity:
- Personal Identity: Attributes that make an individual unique (e.g., name,
qualities, capabilities).
- Social Identity: Aspects linking an individual to a social or cultural group (e.g.,
religion, ethnicity).

Self as Subject and Self as Object

- Dual Status of Self:

- Subject: The self as an active doer (e.g., "I am a dancer").
- Object: The self as a receiver of action (e.g., "I am easily hurt").

Kinds of Self

- Personal Self: Concerned with personal aspects like freedom, responsibility,

achievement.
- Social Self: Emphasizes relationships, cooperation, and affiliation.

Cognitive and Behavioural Aspects of Self

- Self-Concept: The way individuals perceive themselves, which can be positive or

negative.
- Self-Esteem: A person's judgment about their own value or worth, impacting
their behavior and social interactions.
- Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's ability to control life outcomes, influencing behavior
and risk-taking. Developed through positive experiences and modeling.
- Self-Regulation: Ability to organize and monitor one's behavior, essential for
achieving long-term goals. Techniques include:
- Observation: Monitoring one's own behavior.
- Self-Instruction: Guiding oneself through verbal instructions.
- Self-Reinforcement: Rewarding oneself for desired behaviors.

Culture and Self

- Cultural Differences in Self:
- Western Culture: Distinct boundaries between self and others, leading to
individualistic orientations.
- Indian Culture: Flexible boundaries between self and others, leading to a
collectivistic orientation and harmonious coexistence.

Concept of Personality

- Definition: Personality refers to the characteristic ways of responding to

individuals and situations, marked by consistent behavior, thoughts, and emotions
over time and across situations.
- Components:
- Traits: Unique qualities that characterize an individual's behavior.
- Consistency: Stable patterns of behavior that define personality.

Assessment of Personality

- Self-Report Measures: Asking individuals about themselves.

- Projective Techniques: Assessing personality through ambiguous stimuli.
- Behavioral Analysis: Observing and analyzing behavior in various contexts.

Major Approaches to the Study of Personality

TYPE APPROACHES

1. Categorical Classification: Individuals are grouped into distinct types based

on certain defining characteristics.
2. Ancient Roots: Historically, typologies such as Hippocrates’ four humors
classified people based on bodily fluids.
3. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): A modern example that categorizes
personalities into 16 types based on preferences in perception and
judgment.
4. Simplicity and Practicality: Useful in initial assessments and providing a
broad understanding of personality.
5. Type A and Type B Personalities: A well-known type approach distinguishing
between competitive, high-stress Type A and relaxed, low-stress Type B.
6. Holistic View: Emphasizes understanding the person as a whole rather than
in parts.
7. Limitations: May oversimplify personality, ignoring the nuances and the
spectrum of individual differences.

TRAIT APPROACHES
1. Dimensional Classification: Personality traits are seen as dimensions along
which individuals vary.
2. Gordon Allport: Identified thousands of traits and categorized them into
cardinal, central, and secondary traits.
3. Raymond Cattell: Reduced traits to 16 personality factors using factor
analysis.
4. Eysenck’s Three Dimensions: Proposed three major traits: extraversion-
introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.
5. Quantifiable: Traits can be measured and quantified using psychometric
tools.
6. Predictive Power: Traits are stable over time and can predict behavior in
various situations.
7. Criticism: May lack depth in explaining the origins and development of
traits.

FIVE-FACTOR MODEL (FFM)

1. Big Five Factors: Consists of five broad traits: Openness, Conscientiousness,

Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism (OCEAN).
2. Empirical Support: Strong research evidence supports the validity and
reliability of the FFM.
3. Cross-Cultural Applicability: Found to be applicable across different
cultures, suggesting universality.
4. Trait Spectrum: Each factor is a continuum, allowing for a nuanced
understanding of personality.
5. Predictive Validity: Effective in predicting a wide range of life outcomes,
including job performance and mental health.
6. Factor Analysis: Developed through rigorous statistical methods like factor
analysis.
7. Criticisms: May not capture all aspects of personality, and the origin of traits
is not fully explained.

PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH

1. Unconscious Influences: Emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind in

shaping personality.
2. Freud’s Structure of Personality: Id, ego, and superego are the three
components of personality.
3. Psychosexual Stages: Personality develops through a series of childhood
stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital).
4. Defense Mechanisms: Ego employs defense mechanisms to manage anxiety
and conflict.
5. Importance of Early Experiences: Early childhood experiences have a
profound impact on later personality development.
6. Projective Techniques: Uses methods like the Rorschach Inkblot Test and
Thematic Apperception Test to explore the unconscious.
7. Criticisms: Lacks empirical support and is considered too deterministic,
focusing heavily on pathology.

BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

1. Observable Behavior: Focuses on behaviors that can be observed and

measured.
2. Environmental Influence: Personality is shaped by interactions with the
environment.
3. Classical Conditioning: Learning through association (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs).
4. Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences (reinforcement and
punishment) as proposed by B.F. Skinner.
5. Social Learning Theory: Emphasizes the role of observational learning and
modeling (e.g., Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment).
6. Behavior Modification: Techniques derived from behavioral principles are
used to change undesirable behaviors.
7. Criticisms: May neglect internal processes and emotions, focusing too much
on external behavior.

CULTURAL APPROACH

1. Cultural Context: Personality is shaped by cultural norms, values, and

practices.
2. Collectivist vs. Individualist Cultures: Differentiates between cultures that
prioritize group harmony (collectivist) and those that prioritize individual
achievement (individualist).
3. Cross-Cultural Research: Studies how different cultures influence personality
traits and behaviors.
4. Ethnocentrism: Avoids the bias of interpreting behaviors through the lens of
one’s own culture.
5. Cultural Relativism: Recognizes that behaviors and traits must be
understood within their cultural context.
6. Intercultural Competence: Emphasizes the importance of understanding
and respecting cultural differences in personality research and practice.
7. Criticisms: May overemphasize cultural factors and underestimate biological
influences on personality.
 HUMANISTIC APPROACH

1. Inherent Goodness: Believes in the fundamental goodness and potential for

growth in humans.
2. Self-Actualization: The ultimate goal of realizing one’s full potential, as
proposed by Maslow.
3. Rogers’ Self Theory: Emphasizes the importance of self-concept and
unconditional positive regard.
4. Person-Centered Therapy: Developed by Carl Rogers, focuses on providing
a supportive environment to facilitate personal growth.
5. Holistic View: Considers the whole person and their subjective experiences.
6. Free Will: Emphasizes personal responsibility and the capacity for self-
directed change.
7. Criticisms: May lack scientific rigor and empirical support, focusing too
much on idealistic aspects of human nature.

Who is a Healthy Person?

- Characteristics: A healthy person demonstrates a well-integrated personality,

balanced self-regulation, and positive self-esteem, among other traits.