Design Of Bridges MODULE1 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Types of bridges 1.2Computation of discharge 1.3 Afflux 1.4 Scour depth 1.5Loads 1.6 As ment Questions 1.7 Further study Bridge Engineering The first bridges were made by nature — as simple as a log fallen across a stream. The first bridges made by humans were probably spans of wooden logs or planks and eventually stones, using a simple support and crossbeam arrangement. Most of these early bridges could not support heavy weights or withstand strong currents. It was these inadequacies which led to the development of better bridges. The oldest surviving stone bridge in China is the Zhaozhou Bridge, built from 595 to 605 AD during the Sui Dynasty. This bridge is also historically significant as it is the world's oldest open-spandrel stone segmental arch bridge. The first book on bridge engineering was written by Hubert Gautier in 1716. With the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron were developed for larger bridges, but iron did not have the tensile strength to support large loads. With the advent of steel, which has a high tensile strength, much larger bridges were built, many using the ideas of Gustave Eiffel Bridges are classified on the basis that how the four forces namely shear, compression, tension, and moment are distributed in the bridge structure. Generally speaking, bridges can be divided into two categories: standard overpass bridges or unique-design bridges over rivers, chasms, or estuaries. This article describes features common to both types, but it concentrates on the unique bridges because of their greater technical, economic, and aesthetic interest. Definition A structure built to span and provide passage over a river, chasm, road, or any other physical hurdle. The function required from the bridge and the area where it is constructed decides the design of the bridge. 1.2 Types of bridges Bridges can be categorized in several different ways. Common categories include the type of structural elements used, by what they carry, whether they are fixed or movable, and by the materials used. Structure typeDesign Of Bridges Bridges may be classified by how the forces of tension, compression, bending, torsion and shear are distributed through their structure. Most bridges will employ all of the principal forces to some degree, but only a few will predominate. The separation of forces may be quite clear. Ina suspension or cable-stayed span, the elements in tension are distinct in shape and placement. In other cases the forces may be distributed among a large number of members, as in a truss. Beam bridges: are horizontal beams supported at each end by substructure units and can be either simply supported when the beams only connect across a single span, or continuous when the beams are connected across two or more spans. When there are multiple spans, the intermediate supports are known as piers. The earliest beam bridges were simple logs that sat across streams and similar simple structures. In modern times, beam bridges can range from small, wooden beams to large, steel boxes. The vertical force on the bridge becomes a shear and flexural load on the beam which is transferred down its length to the substructures on either side They are typically made of steel, concrete or wood. Girder bridges and Plate girder bridges, usually made from steel, are types of Beam bridges. Box girder bridges, made from steel, concrete, or both are also beam bridges. Beam bridge spans rarely exceed 250 feet (76 m) long, as the flexural stresses increase proportional to the square of the length (and deflection increases proportional to the 4th power of the length) A truss bridge: is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of a truss. This truss is a structure of connected elements forming triangular units. The connected elements (typically straight) may be stressed from tension, compression, or sometimes both in response to dynamic loads. Truss bridges are one of the oldest types of modern bridges. The basic types of truss bridges shown in this article have simple designs which could be easily analyzed by nineteenth and early twentieth century engineers. A truss bridge is economical to construct owing to its efficient use of materials. Cantilever bridges: are built using cantilevers—horizontal beams supported on only one end Most cantilever bridges use a pair of continuous spans that extend from opposite sides of the supporting piers to meet at the center of the obstacle the bridge crosses. Cantilever bridges are constructed using much the same materials & techniques as beam bridges. The difference comes in the action of the forces through the bridge Arch bridges: have abutments at each end. The weight of the bridge is thrust into the abutments at either side. The earliest known arch bridges were built by the Greeks, and include the Bridge. With the span of 220 metres (720 ft), the Solkan Bridge over the Soéa River at Solkan in Slovenia is the second largest stone bridge in the world and the longest railroad stone bridge. It was completed in 1905. Its arch, which was constructed from over 5,000 tonnes (4,900 long tons; 5,500 short tons) of stone Tied arch bridges have an arch-shaped superstructure, but differ from conventional arch bridges. Instead of transferring the weight of the bridge and traffic loads into thrust forces into the abutments, the ends of the arches are restrained by tension in the bottom chord of the structure. They are also called bowstring arches. age 2Design Of Bridges Suspension bridges: are suspended from cables. The earliest suspension bridges were made of ropes or vines covered with pieces of bamboo. In modem bridges, the cables hang from towers that are attached to caissons or cofferdams. The caissons or cofferdams are implanted deep into the bed of the lake, river or sea. Sub-types include the simple suspension bridge, the stressed ribbon bridge, the under spanned suspension bridge, the suspended-deck suspension bridge, and the self-anchored suspension bridge. There is also what is sometimes called a "semi-suspension" bridge, of which the Ferry Bridge in Burton-upon-Trent is the only one of its kind in Europe Cable-stayed bridges: like suspension bridges, are held up by cables. However, in a cable- stayed bridge, less cable is required and the towers holding the cables are proportionately higher 1,3 Computation of discharge Hydraulics is the essential feature of bridge design. Fair assessment of flood levels, maximum flood discharge expected to occur at bridge site during design life of bridge, and maximum scour levels are essential aspects of bridge hydraulics. Faulty determination of these parameters may lead to failure of structures. While doing hydraulic calculations attention should be paid to the following: 1. The river cross section should be truly representative. The cross section should not be vitiated by artificial cuts ete. 2. If the bridge site is along the existing natural crossing, the cross section for hydraulics should be across the nearby natural undisturbed channel. The cross section within 100 m U/S or D/S may be quite useful 3. Spill channels should be properly located, marked and catered for. 4, Appropriate coefficient of rigidity should be used. The same rigidity coefficient should not be used for bed and banks, as the nature of stream changes according to properties of material and vegetation growth etc. 5. The reasonableness of computed velocity should be judged in relation to bed material for e.g existence of boulders in the stream and low velocity of flow do not generally go together. 6. In tidal creeks the possibility of high tides and floods coinciding should be kept in view. In such cases discharge by usual ways ie. by Manning’s formula should be carefully worked out and tallied with Inglis discharge. 7. The adoption of either the observed H.F.L. obtained by local enquiry or the computed H.F.L. as design level should be done judiciously. The observed H.F.L. may be effected by obstructions like rice fields, bunds, blocking of spill channels etc. Higher of the two values be adopted as design H.F.L.Design Of Bridges 8. Details of various levels is explained as below. + HFL (observed) Highest flood levels ever recorded. (50 years record) + HFL(Inglis) Flood level giving Manning’s discharge equal to Inglis discharge + HFL(Modified Inglis) Flood level giving Manning’s discharge equal to Modified Inglis discharge. * O.FL. Ordinary flood level. This is level of flood when cleared by bridge (without submergence of bridge) that will not give more than permissible interruption to traffic during floods. 9. Maximum permissible interruptions for various standards of roads are as follows- National Highways — No interruptions. 1.4 Affluy Bridges are built across a waterway and the structure may be of single span or multiple spans, In a multiple span bridge piers need to be constructed in the river bed. These piers obstruct the natural flow. If the obstruction is considerable, the level of water on the upstream rises slightly compared to that at the downstream This rise in level is called afflux. Designer's calculate the afflux and incorporate the same in the design of sub structure so as to keep the superstructure clear of flood water Afflux is defined as heading up of water when they hit any obstruction. In bridges the water hit at u/s side. When hiring the water rises. In design the height of bridge the afflux is taken into consideration with HEL. Hope u will understand. This picture helps u for understanding Bridge > hy: normal water depth hic: upstream surface elevation hex: downstream surface elevation he > 5 Afflux can be estimated by using several empirical equations e.g. IRC:89 (1985) Nagler (1918) Rhebock (1921), Yarnel (1934), Rao (1997) ete. IRC-SP 13 recommends use of wier /orifice formula for computing flow with known afflux or vice versa. For shallow channels with wide flood planes (as observed in most of the rivers across Page 4Design Of Bridges the bridges on this roadway a rough first approximation of finding afflux can be obtained from the following expression, (Bradley 1970). h*1=3(1- M) V43/2 ¢ where M=Qy/Q where Qb ~is that portion of the total discharge Q in the approach channel within a width equal to the projected length of the bridge Vio ~ O/Aw Ag:vis the gross area of waterway under the bridge opening below normal stream depth corresponding to design flood discharge IRC:S and 89 recommend use of Molesworth’s equation for computing approximate afflux given below h=¢ /17.88 + 0.01524} x {(A/a)*— 1 For minor and medium bridges, weir and orifice formula given in IRC:SP-13 can be used for computing afflux depending on whether the flow under the bridge is choked or free For choked weir type flow: Q = Cy Ley (Dy + w" /2g)°* if hI ®Dy > 0.25 For orifice flow Q= Cy Ley Dy V2g. hl* if "Dy 0.2. Where Cd & Co are the coefficients of discharges for weir and orifice type Hows respectively Cd and Co values are given in the IRC code. h* 1 =afflux ~ (Dy-Da) D, and Dyare the upstream and downstream depths measured from the lowest bed level under the bridge taken as datum 1 ur depth Scouring can be defined as a process due to which the particles of the soil or rock around the periphery of the abutment or pier of the highway bridge spanning over a water body. gets eroded and removed over a certain depth called scour depth, Scouring usually occurs when the velocity of the flowing water increases or crosses the limiting value that the soil particles can easily handle Scouring can be easily observed during the flood being passed through that water body. Scouring is initiated at the nose of the piers or at the sharp bends. Estimation of scour depth is very important for the design of foundation for abutment or pier. Scouring compromises the structural integrity and thus causes failure of the structure, It has been estimated that over 60 % of the highway bridges are being collapsed due to scouring, Page 5Design Of Bridges When the discharge within the water body passes the allowed discharge: which is usually the case when flood is there: the scour is initiated: the scour depth can easily be obtained after the flood by finding the depth of the scour in reference with the surroundings or existing structures. If this is not possible the mean depth of scour may be easily obtained by a mathematical formula for natural streams in the alluvial depth y Ymax [(0.0685 Vm‘0.8) / (Yh*04 Se *0.3)-1] Where Ygs ~ general scour depth (ft), Ymax is maximum depth of flow, Vm is the average velocity of flow(ft’s Yh is hydraulic depth of flow (ft) and Se is the energy slope (or bed slope foruniformflow),(fi)From actual field measuring scour depth charts to estimate scour depth, This method is applicable only for coarser sands where the bed slope ranges from 0.004 ft to 0.008 ft. Other empirical methods are also there like Neil, Blench and Lacey for estimation of the scour depth 1.6 Types of Loads for Design of Bridge Structures Various design loads to be considered in the design of bridges are: 1. Dead load Live load Impact load Wind load Longitudinal forces Centrifugal forces Buoyancy effect Effect of water current CarIraAKnrRoDN Thermal effects 10. Deformation and horizontal effects 11. Erection stresses 12. Seismic loads 1. Dead Load The dead load is nothing but a self-weight of the bridge elements. The different elements of bridge are deck slab, wearing coat, railings, parapet, stiffeners and other utilities. It is the first design load to be calculated in the design of bridge. Page 6Design Of Bridges 2. Live Load The live load on the bridge, is moving load on the bridge throughout its length, The moving loads are vehicles, Pedestrians etc. but it is difficult to select one vehicle or a group of vehicles to design a safe bridge. So, IRC recommended some imaginary vehicles as live loads which will give safe results against the any type of vehicle moving on the bridge. The vehicle loadings are categorized in to three types and they are + IRC class AA loading « IRC class A loading + IRC class B loading + IRC Class AA Loading This type of loading is considered for the design of new bridge especially heavy loading bridges like bridges on highways, in cities, industrial areas ete. In class AA loading generally two types of vehicles considered, and they are + Tracked type + Wheeled typeDesign Of Bridges IRC Class A Loading This type of loading is used in the design of all permanent bridges. It is considered as standard live load of bridge. When we design a bridge using class AA type loading, then it must be checked for class A loading also. IRC Class B Loading This type of loading is used to design temporary bridges like Timber Bridge etc. It is considered as light loading, Both IRC class A and Class B are shown in below figure. Page 8Design Of Bridges aa ne ne 6 6 6 ao a |2) Se vew detats ey (0 Termvene plcerert fw w + . Movement 3 teaser him 2am lan 3. Impact Loads The Impact load on bridge is due to sudden loads which are caused when the vehicle is moving on the bridge. When the wheel is in movement, the live load will change periodically from one wheel to another which results the impact load on bridge. To consider impact loads on bridges, an impact factor is used. Impact factor is a multiplying factor which depends upon many factors such as weight of vehicle, span of bridge, velocity of vehicle etc. The impact factors for different IRC loadings are given below. For IRC Class AA Loading and 70R Loading Page 9Design Of Bridges Span Vehicle type Impact factor ae 25% up to 5m and linearly reducing to 10% from 5 mto 9m. Less than 9 meters Wheeled vehicle 25% up to. 9 m Tracked vehicle (RCC 5 bridge) 10% up to. 40 m Wheeled vehicle (RCC ° bridge) 25% up to 12m Greater than 9 meters: Tracked vehicle (steel bridge) 10% for all spans Wheeled vehicle (steel 9 bridge) 25% up to 23 m If the length exceeds in any of the above limits, the impact factor should be considered from the graph given by IRC which is shown below. 5060 40 20 Impact factor in % = =——* 30 10 0 10 20 30 40 45—~«50 Spantnm ————+ For IRC class A and class B loadings Page 10Design Of Bridges Bridge type A B RCC 45 6.0 Steel 9.0 13.50 Impact factor Ir= A/(B+L) Where L = span in meters A and B are constants Apart from the super structure impact factor is also considered for substructures + For bed blocks, Ir= 0.5 + For substructure up to the depth of 3 meters Ir= 0.5 to 0 « For substructure greater than 3 m depth Ir=0. 4, Wind Loads Wind load also an important factor in the bridge design. For short span bridges, wind load can be negligible. But for medium span bridges, wind load should be considered for substructure design. For long span bridges, wind load is considered in the design of super structure. 5. Longitudinal Forces The longitudinal forces are caused by braking or accelerating of vehicle on the bridge. When the vehicle stops suddenly or accelerates suddenly it induces longitudinal forces on the bridge structure especially on the substructure. So, IRC recommends 20% of live load should be considered as longitudinal force on the bridges. Page 11Design Of Bridges 6. Centrifugal Forces If bridge is to be built on horizontal curves, then the movement of vehicle along curves will cause centrifugal force on to the super structure. Hence, in this case design should be done for centrifugal forces also Centrifugal force can be calculated by C (kN/m) = (WV7)/(12.7R) Where W = live load (KN) V = Design speed (kmph) R = Radius of curve (m) 7. Buoyancy Effect Buoyancy effect is considered for substructures of large bridges submerged under deep water bodies. Is the depth of submergence is less it can be negligible 8. Forces by Water Current When the bridge is to be constructed across a river, some part of the substructure is under submergence of water. The water current induces horizontal forces on submerged portion. The forces caused by water currents are maximum at the top of water level and zero at the bottom water level or at the bed level. The pressure by water current is P= KW [V?/2g] Where P = pressure (kN/m?) K = constant (value depending upon shape of pier) W = unit weight of water V = water current velocity (m/s) G = acceleration due to gravity (m/s’) Page 12Design Of Bridges 9, Thermal Stresses Thermal stresses are caused due to temperature. When the temperature is very high or very low they induce stresses in the bridge elements especially at bearings and deck joints. These stresses are tensile in nature so, concrete cannot withstand against this and cracks are formed. To resist this, additional steel reinforcement perpendicular to main reinforcement should be provided. Expansion joints are also provided 10. Seismic Loads When the bridge is to be built in seismic zone or earthquake zone, earthquake loads must be considered. They induce both vertical and horizontal forces during earthquake. The amount of forces exerted is mainly depends on the self-weight of the structure. If weight of structure is more, larger forces will be exerted. 11. Deformation and Horizontal Effects Deformation stresses are occurred due to change is material properties either internally or externally. The change may be creep, shrinkage of concrete etc. similarly horizontal forces will develop due to temperature changes, braking of vehicles, earthquakes etc. Hence, these are also be considered as design loads in bridge design. 12. Erection Stresses Erection stress is induced by the construction equipment during the bridge construction. These can be resisted by providing suitable supports for the members. 1.7 Assigininment Questions? 1. Explain different types of bridges 2. Explain different types of load on bridges? Page 13