1

Navigation

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Index

S.No. Chapters Page No.

1. The Earth 3 – 14

2. Wind Triangle 15 – 19
3. Convergency, Conversion Angle & Departure 20 – 22
4. Payload 23

5. Solar System 24 – 29
6. Maps & Charts 30 – 49
7. CP/PNR 50 – 49

8. Pressure Instruments 50 – 66
9. Gyro Instruments 67 – 76
10. Magnetism & Compass 77 – 82
11. VASI/PAPI 83 – 85

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Chapter 1 – The Earth

Sphere

It is a solid body bounded by a surface upon which all points are equidistant from a
fixed point known as centre. In other words, the radius / diameter of a sphere is
constant.

Poles

The earth rotates about an axis. The two ends of this axis are called poles. This axis
is called polar axis. The polar diameter is smaller than the equatorial diameter by 27
SM (23.2 NM).

Compression Ratio

Equatorial diameter – Polar diameter = 6890.4 – 6867.2 nm = 1

Equatorial diameter 6890.4 nm 297
2.) The smaller arc of great circle joining two points represents the shortest distance
Shape of Earth

The Earth is not a perfect sphere, it can be described as oblate spheroid (but for all practical
purposes, the earth can be considered to be a sphere).

Great Circle

It is a circle on the surface of the earth whose centre and radius are the same as that of the
earth.

Properties
between of great
them.circle -

3.) Only one great circle can be made to pass through two points which are not
1.) Itdiametrically opposite.
divides the earth in two equal halves.
Small Circle

It is circle on the surface of the earth whose centre and radius are not the same as
that of the earth.

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Equator
It is a great circle on the surface of the earth whose plane is at right angles to the axis of
rotation of the earth. It divides the earth equally into two hemispheres.

Meridians

Meridians are semi great circles joining the poles. Every great circle passing through the poles
forms a meridian and its anti – meridian.

Prime Meridian

The meridian passing through Greenwich is called Prime Meridian.

Parallel of Latitude

These are small circles whose plane is parallel to the plane of equator. The parallel of latitudes
cut all meridians at 90°.
Graticule

The network of meridians and parallel of latitude drawn on the

earth is called the graticule.

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Latitude

Latitude of a place is the arc of meridian intercepted between

the equator and the place. It is measured from equator in
degrees (0-90) N/S of equator.
Latitude is angular distance along meridians.

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Longitude

Longitude is the smaller arc of Equator intercepted between the prime meridian & the
meridian passing through the place. It is measured from prime meridian in degrees
(0–180) E/W of Prime Meridian.
Longitude is the angular distance along Equator.

Position on the Earth

Position of the earth may be defined in the following ways:-

1.) Place Name

2.) Bearing and distance
3.) By Latitude and Longitude

While defining position by Lat & Long, by convention, lat. is written first and then long. Latitude
is written in 4 figures group and longitude is written in 4 or 5 figure groups. The position of Palam
Airport can be written as:-

2834 N 7707 E – Indicating 28° 34 Min. North of Equator and 77° 07 Min. East of Prime Meridian.

A place at 8° S and 4° 2’ W will be written as – 0800S 0402W.

Change of Latitude (D Lat / CH Lat)

Change of latitude between two points is the arc of meridian intercepted between their parallels of
latitudes. It is named N/S depending upon the direction of change.

Change of Longitude (D Long / CH Long)

Change of longitude between two points is the smaller arc of equator intercepted between the
meridians of the two points. It is annotated E/W depending upon the direction of change.

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MEASUREMENT OF DIRECTION

Cardinal Points

The direction in which the earth rotates is called East. West is the opposite direction
of East. North and South define the axis about which the earth is rotating, when
facing East, North is towards left and South is towards right. The directions North,
South, East & West are known as cardinal directions. And these points are called
cardinal points.

True Direction

Direction on the earth is measured in degrees clockwise, through 360 from north.
When the datum is the north end of Earth’s axis, it is referred to as true direction. To
denote it, abbreviation (T) is used. Thus

North is referred as 000 (T)

South is referred as 180 (T)
East is referred as 090 (T)
West is referred as 270 (T)

Note:- The direction is always expressed in three figures group. Ex- Zero Degree will
be written as 000, 5 Degrees will be written as 005.

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True North

The direction indicated by the position of North Geographical pole is called True
North. The meridians pass through North Pole and South Pole. Hence they
represent True North/South Direction.

Magnetic North

A freely suspended magnet is influenced by the Earth’s magnetic field and aligns
itself, with the magnetic meridian. The direction indicated by the freely suspended
magnet is called Magnetic North.

Magnetic Direction

Magnetic direction is measured from Magnetic North in a Clockwise direction through

360 and is denoted by letter (M). Ex - 183 (M), 315 (M) etc.

The magnetic needle of an aircraft compass is influenced by another Magnetic field

created with in the aircraft due to magnetic components and electrical circuits. This
magnetic field with in the aircraft is in addition to Earth’s magnetic field. Hence the

Variation

It is the angular difference between the direction of True North and Magnetic North at any
place. Variation is measured in degrees East or West of True North depending upon whether
Magnetic North lies to the East or West of True North.

If the value of variation is known it can be used to change from True direction to Magnetic
direction and vice versa. The following thumb rule should be remembered:

Variation EAST - Magnetic LEAST

Variation WEST - Magnetic BEST
Example:- True Direction 090 090
Variation 5E 5W
Magnetic Direction 085 095

Compass North
compass points to a different direction called the Compass North.

Compass Direction

Compass direction is measured from Compass North in a Clockwise direction

through 360 and is denoted by letter (M). Ex - 132 (C), 015 (C) etc.

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Deviation

It is the angular difference between the direction of Magnetic North and Compass
North at any place. Deviation is measured in degrees East or West of Magnetic
North depending upon whether Compass North lies to the East or West of Magnetic
North.

If the value of Deviation is known it can be used to change from Magnetic direction to
Compass direction and vice versa. The following thumb rule should be remembered:

Deviation EAST - Compass LEAST

Deviation WEST - Compass BEST

Example:-

Magnetic Direction 090 090

Deviation 5E 5W
Compass Direction 085 095
Compass Error

Compass error is the algebraic sum of variation and deviation. The following thumb rule
should be remembered:

 East – Add
 West - Subtract  East – Add
 West - Subtract 
 
 

C D M V T
Compass Deviation Magnetic Variation True
Subtract – East  Subtract – East 
 Add – West   Add – West  

MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE

Distance
It is linear displacement of two points expressed in linear units.
Statute Mile
A length of 5280’ is accepted by British Law as one mile is called as Statute Mile.

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Nautical Mile

It is the length of arc which subtends an angle of one minute at the center of the
earth. Its average length is equal to 6080’. One nautical mile is the length of one
minute of great circle arc.

Kilometer

One kilometer is the length of 1/10000 the part of average distances between the
equator and either pole. It is equal to 3280’.

The following relationship between the units should be remembered

1 NM = 6080’
1 SM = 5280’
1 KM = 3280’

Rhumb Line
It is a regularly curved line which cuts all meridians at the same angle. It is always
concave to the nearer pole.

All parallels of latitude are Rhumb Line.

Meridians and Equator are the only examples of great circles which are also Rhumb
Line.

Isogonal

Line joining the places of equal variation.

Agonic Line

Line joining the places of zero variation.

Heading

Heading is the direction in which the fore and aft axis of aircraft is pointing. It is
measured in degrees with reference to North. It can be True, Magnetic or Compass
depending upon the reference datum i.e. True, Magnetic or Compass North.

Track

It is the path followed by the aircraft with reference to the ground. It is always
expressed as True (unless otherwise mentioned).

Track Required: - It is the track the aircraft is supposed to follow on the ground while
flying from one point to another.

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Track Made Good (TMG): - It is the actual track that the aircraft is following on the
ground during flight; Track could be Rhumb Line Track or Great Circle Track.

Track Error: - It is the difference between Track Required and TMG measured in
degrees Port or Starboard from Track Required.

Drift

It is the angular difference between the heading and the TMG. It is expressed in
degrees Port or Starboard of heading.

Bearing

The direction of one point from another is called its bearing. It may be expressed as
True, Magnetic or Relative.

Back Bearing

The direction with reference to North, observed from an aircraft, of a place over which
it has flown over, without any intervening alteration of heading or TAS, is called Back
Bearing. Normally, it’s expressed as True.

Back bearing gives TMG.

Relative Bearing

Bearing measured clockwise through 360 from the fore and aft axis of the aircraft is called
Relative Bearing.

RB + Hdg (T) = True Bearing (QUJ) RB +

Hdg (M) = Magnetic Bearing (QDM)

QUJ: It gives True track to reach the ground station.

QDM: It gives magnetic track to reach the ground station.

QTE: It is the True bearing of the aircraft from the ground station.

QDR: It is the Magnetic bearing of the aircraft from the ground station.

QTE ± 180 = QUJ

QDR ± 180 = QDM
QDR ± VAR = QTE
QDM ± VAR = QUJ

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Wind Velocity

Velocity implies both speed and direction. Wind Velocity is therefore made up of two
distinct components:-

1.) The direction from which the wind is flowing.

2.) Speed of wind in knots.

Thus, if wind is flowing from the East at a speed of 20 Knots, it is expressed as

090/20.

Note – A Westerly wind blows towards East.

Speed
The rate of change of position is called speed. There

are three units of measurement of speed:- 1.) Knots

Nautical Miles per hour (K).

2.) Miles per hour (MPH).

3.) Kilometers per hour (KMPH).
Air Speed
It is the speed of a/c at which it flies through the air.

IAS (Indicated Air Speed) – It is the speed of a/c as indicated by the Air Speed Indicator.

RAS (Rectified Air Speed) – It is the Indicated Air Speed of a/c corrected for Instrument and
Pressure Error.

EAS/CAS (Equivalent/Corrected Air Speed) – It is the Rectified Air Speed of a/c

corrected for Compressibility Error.

TAS (True Air Speed) – It is the Equivalent Air Speed of a/c corrected for Density
Error.

Ground Speed

It is the speed of a/c measured in relation to the ground.

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Ground Position

It is position on the ground directly beneath the aircraft at any time.

Pin Point – It is the ground position of a/c obtained by direct visual reference of the
ground.

Fix – It is the ground position of a/c obtained by means of position lines from different
navigation aids.

DR (Dead Reckoning) Position – It is the position of a/c at any time deduced from
the knowledge of previous information available regarding the progress of flight.

Position Lines

Position line is a line along which an a/c is supposed to have been at a particular time.

There are 3 types of position lines:-

1.) Visual Position Line – The position line obtained by the visual observation of ground is
known as Visual Position Line.

2.) Radio/Radar Position Line – The position line taken from radio aids like VOR, ADF,
DME etc.

3.) Astro Position Line – The position line obtained by astronomical observations.

These are not in the syllabus.

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FORMULAS

 East – Add
 West - Subtract  East – Add
 West - Subtract 
C D M V T
Compass Deviation Magnetic Variation True
Subtract – East  Subtract – East 
 Add – West   Add – West  

 RB + Hdg (T) = True Bearing (QUJ)

 RB + Hdg (M) = Magnetic Bearing (QDM)
 QTE ± 180 = QUJ
 QDR ± 180 = QDM
 QDR ± VAR = QTE

 QDM ± VAR = QUJ

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Chapter 2 – Wind Triangle

Heading

The direction in which aircraft’s longitudinal axis is aligned or the direction in which
aircraft’s nose is pointing.

Track

A physical path being followed or to be followed on earth’s surface.

Drift
The angular difference between the heading and the track measured from the heading.

Velocity

Velocity is the rate of change of position in a fixed direction. As long as speed and direction
remains constant, velocity remains constant, with the change of either of these the
velocity changes.

TAS (True Air Speed)

It is the speed of a/c at which it flies through the air.

Ground Speed (G/S)
It is the speed of a/c measured in relation to the ground.

Wind Velocity

Velocity implies both speed and direction. Wind Velocity is therefore made up of two
distinct components:-

1.) The direction from which the wind is flowing.

2.) Speed of wind in knots.

Thus, if wind is flowing from the East at a speed of 20 Knots, it is expressed as

090/20.

Note – A Westerly wind blows towards East.

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Triangle of Velocities

An aircraft is subject to two component velocities i.e. its own velocity and the wind
velocity. Both of these combine to produce a resultant velocity which is the direction
and speed of aircraft over the ground. These velocities are

1.) TAS and Heading

2.) Wind Speed and Direction

3.) These two produce a resultant which is Ground Speed and Track

Wind Triangle

The above three vectors make a triangle which is also called the wind triangle. The
wind triangle consists of six variables which are Heading, TAS, Track, Ground
Speed, Wind Direction & Wind Speed. Out of these variables if any four are known,
the other two can be calculated by solving the wind triangle.

Track Error

Angular difference between the Track Required and the Track Made Good (TMG).

If TMG is right of Track Required, it is called Starboard Track Error and when TMG is
left of Track Required it is call Port Track Error.

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Cross Wind or Beam Wind – Winds 90 to Track

In this case, G/S < TAS.

Winds 90 to Heading

In this case, G/S > TAS.

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1:60 RULE

 = Arc .
60 Radius

Or  = Arc X 60, It is applicable where  ≤ 20.

Radius
 It is used mostly for calculating Time to Station and Track Error.

Relative Motion
When two bodies are moving towards each other, their speeds are added and when
two bodies are moving away from each other, their speeds are subtracted.

Relative Speed = A + B = 200 + 150 Kts. = 350 Kts.

Distance = 400 nm
So, Time to meet = 400/350 = 1 Hour and 9 Minutes

Relative Speed = A - B = 200 - 150 Kts. = 50 Kts.

Distance = 400 nm
So, Time to meet = 400/50 = 8 Hours

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FORMULAS

 Track Error = Track Required – TMG

 1 in 60 Rule

 = Arc .
60 Radius

Or  = Arc X 60, It is applicable where  ≤ 20.

Radius

 Conversion of Units Litre

X SG = Kg

IG X SG X 10 = Lbs.

Kg X 2.2 = Lbs. 1

IG = 4.54 Lit

1 USG = 3.78 Lit IG

= USG X 1.2

Where IG = Imperial Gallon, USG = U.S. Gallon, SG = Specific Gravity, Lbs. = Pounds

 Relative Motion
When 2 bodies are moving towards each other, their speeds are added and when 2
bodies are moving away from each other, their speeds are subtracted.

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Chapter 3 – Convergency, Conversion Angle &

Departure

Convergency

The Meridians are parallel at Equator. All the meridians meet at poles. This means
that the meridians are inclined towards each other.

The angle of inclination between meridians is called Convergency.

Convergency is not constant over the globe. It depends upon the following two
factors:-

1.) Latitude

2.) D Long

Convergency depends upon latitude of the place. It is zero at equator and is

maximum at poles. Therefore convergency varies as the Sine of Latitude.

Convergency will increase with the increase of D Long.

Mathematically

C = D Long X Sin (Mean Lat)

where C = Convergency

Conversion Angle (CA)

Through any two points on the earth we can draw a great circle as well as a Rhumb
Line. Except in a few cases (Equator and Meridian) both are different lines.

Conversion angle is the angular difference between the direction of a Great Circle
and Rhumb Line between two places.

Conversion Angle (CA) is half of Convergency.

CA = ½ C or

CA = ½ D Long X Sin (Mean Lat)

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Departure

Departure is distance between two meridians along a Parallel of Latitude in

East/West direction expressed in Nautical Miles. At Equator, the distance between
two meridian is maximum at the pole the distance between two meridian is zero.

Therefore the distance between meridians is reducing at the rate of Cos of Lat.

Departure = D Long x Cos Lat

Where Departure is in NM
D Long is in Mts.

Example:-

Q.) Find departure between –

6000 N 4500 E and 6000 N 6500 E

A.)

D Long = 65 – 45 = 20 = 20 X 60’ = 1200’

Departure = D Long X Cos Lat.

= 1200 X Cos 60

= 1200 X .5

= 600 nm.

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FORMULAS

 Convergency (C) = D Long X Sin (Mean Lat)

 Conversion Angle (CA) = ½ C

 Departure = D Long (in Mts.) X Cos Lat

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Chapter 4 – Payload

Basic Empty Weight (BEW)

It is the weight of the a/c without fuel and payload.

TOW = BEW + Total Fuel + Payload

Empty Weight

It is the weight of the a/c without fuel, payload and oil.

Max Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW)

It is the max permissible weight of the a/c including everything except fuel. Above this
weight, if any load has to be carried, it should be only in the form of fuel.

TOW = ZFW + Total Fuel

Max Take-Off Weight (MTOW)
It is the max permissible weight of the a/c for Take-Off.
Max Landing Weight (MLW)
It is the max permissible weight of the a/c for Landing.

TOW = LW + Usable Fuel

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Chapter 5 – Solar System

Kepler’s Law

1.) All planets revolve around sun on an elliptical orbit with sun as its one of the foci.

2.) Line vector joining planet to sun, sweeps equal area in equal time. Orbital velocity
of earth is not constant in its orbit, it is fastest when closest and slowest when
farthest.

3.) t2 = r3

Day/Night - Rotation

Season - Tilt in earth’s axis by 23.5

Year – Revolution

Solstice SchemeS

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Year

1.) Sidereal Year

2.) Tropical Year

1.) Sidereal Year – It is the time elapsed between two successive conjunction of the
Earth from the Sun and a fixed point in space such as Star or Aries. It is of 365
Days 5 Hours 48 Mins and 45 Sec.

2.) Tropical Year – It is the length of time that the Sun takes to return to the same
position in the cycle of seasons, as seen from Earth; for example, the time
from summer solstice to summer solstice. It is used as calendar year as it relates
to season.

 Every 4th year is a leap year.

 Every 100th year is not a leap year.
 Every 400th year is a leap year.

Day

1.) Sidereal Day

2.) Apparent Day
3.) Mean Solar Day

1.) Sidereal Day – It is the time interval elapsed between two successive transits of a
fixed point in space or two successive transits of a fixed point in Aries over an
observer meridian. The length of Sidereal Day is 23:56.

2.) Apparent Day – It is the time interval elapsed between two successive transits of
true sun over an observer’s meridian. The length of Apparent Day varies from
23:44 to 24:14.

3.) Mean Solar Day – It is measured w.r.t. an imaginary sun which goes around the
earth over the equator at a constant velocity. This is used because length of
apparent Solar Day is not constant. The length of Mean Solar Day is taken as
24:00.

Q. Sun will appear at same latitude –

a.) Once a year.

b.) Twice a year.
c.) Once a day.
d.) Twice a day.

A. Option (b) is the correct answer.

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Time

Mean solar day = 24 hours

Longitude = 360
24 Hours = 360
1 Hour = 15
60 Minutes = 15
4 Minutes = 1

1.) LMT (Local Mean Time)

2.) GMT (Greenwich Mean Time) or UTC (Co-ordinated Universal Time)
3.) Zone Time
4.) Standard Time

1.) LMT – Time kept at a meridian w.r.t. position of sun at observer’s anti-meridian is
called LMT. This is done in order to avoid changing the date at local noon. Any place east of
observer will be ahead in LMT, any place west of observer will be behind LMT.

2.) UTC – It is the local mean time at Greenwich Meridian and can be converted to LMT for
any other meridian precisely as stated above by the following formula-

LMT = UTC + Long E

LMT = UTC - Long W

3.) Zone Time - 360 Longitudes are divided into 24 time zones with each zone of 15,
starting from A to Z except I & O.

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Zone No. – It is a no. which is to be added algebraically (in Zone Time) to find GMT.

For 5.5 or less, use lower zone no. (5).

82 E = 82/15 = 5.46 which means zone 5.

82.5 E = 82.5/15 = 5.5 which means zone 5.

83 E = 83/15 = 5.53 which means zone 6.

4.) Standard Time – Time kept with respect to a particular meridian is called
Standard Time. Ex. – Time for Indian meridian is called IST (Indian Standard
Time).

International Date Line –

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The Greenwich anti-meridian is the central meridian of zone 12. One half of this zone
therefore, is an Easterly Zone (Longitude 172.5 E - 180), the other half a Westerly
Zone (Longitude 172.5 W - 180). In the Easterly Zone, the Zone Time will be 12
hours ahead of UTC and in the Westerly Zone, the Zone Time will be 12 hours
behind UTC. Therefore, there will be a difference of 24 hours between places in
Easterly Zone and Westerly Zone.

When we cross the IDL from Easterly Zone – Westerly Zone i.e. on an easterly track
– We reduce a date and gain a day.

When we cross the IDL from Westerly Zone – Easterly Zone i.e. on a westerly track
– We increase a date and lose a day.

Twilight Period

It is the period when sun goes below the horizon but still it can be seen due to Total Internal
Reflection. Different Twilight Periods are -

1.) Civil Twilight – When sun is 0 - 6 below the horizon, it can still be seen. This is called
Civil Twilight.

2.) Nautical Twilight – When sun is 7 - 12 below the horizon, it can still be seen.
This is called Nautical Twilight.

3.) Astronomical Twilight – When sun is 13 - 18 below the horizon, it can still be seen.
This is called Astronomical Twilight.

 Visible Horizon – A horizon which is below Sensible Horizon is called Visible Horizon. It is
not visible to naked eyes.

 Sensible Horizon – A horizon which is above Visible Horizon is called Sensible Horizon. It is
visible to naked eyes.

 When edge of anybody rises above the Visible Horizon, it is said to be risen.
When it goes below Visible Horizon, it is said to be set.

 Sun rise and Sun set are measured w.r.t. Civil Twilight.

 Civil twilight is related to Visible Horizon.

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Moon

1.) One revolution of moon is completed in 291/2 days. It only revolves and not
rotates.

2.) Because direction of rotation of Earth and direction of revolution of Moon is same,
there is one day in a month when there is no Moon rise and one day when there
is no
3.) Every day Moon rise or set is approximately 50 minutes late.

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Chapter 6 – Maps & Charts

Map

It is a flat sheet of paper having a graticule on which natural ground features like
hills, rivers, lakes etc. and man-made features like roads, canals, cities etc. are
shown.

A topographical map is the one that has detailed graphic representation of ground
features.

Chart

It is a flat sheet of paper having a graticule on which minimum ground features like
mountains, rivers, lakes etc. are shown.

Scale
Scale of Map/Chart is the ratio between the Map Distance to the corresponding Earth
Distance both expressed in the same units.

Scale = Map Distance .

Earth Distance
Scale can be indicated in one or more of the following three ways:-
1.) Representative Fraction – It is a fraction whose numerator is always one and the
denominator has a number (Ex. – 1/1000000, 1:1000000). This means that one unit on the
map represents one million similar units on the Earth.

2.) Statement in Words – Ex. – One inch to a mile. This means that one inch on the map
indicates one mile on the Earth.

3.) Graduated Scale – On most topographical maps, a scale of the statute miles/ nautical
miles/ Kilometers is provided in the margin map sheet as shown below.

The amount of details that can be shown on the map depends upon the scale. The
larger the scale, more are the details. On a large scale map, a given distance on
map will represent a smaller distance on the ground as compared to a small scale
map. Ex. – When comparing 1/4 map & 1/1 map, 1/1 map is a large scale map and

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1/4 map is small scale. When comparing 1/4 map and 1/1000000 map 1/4 map is a
large scale map.

Method of showing relief on Topographical Maps

Relief means the nature of terrain. The height of ground above mean sea level
(elevation) and the nature of terrain (Relief) is shown on the map in following ways:-

1.) Contour and Form Lines

2.) Spot Heights

3.) Layer Tinting

4.) Hachures

5.) Hill Shading

1.) Contour and Form Lines – Contours are lines joining the places of equal elevation.
Where due to inaccurate survey the contours have only approximate value, they are called
Form Lines and are depicted on map by dotted lines. The interval of height at which the
contours are drawn depends upon the scale of the map. The larger the scale, the smaller is
the interval between contours and vice versa.

2.) Spot Heights – In order to depict the highest point of a hill as a distinct feature, a
figure stating the height of such a point in the locality is shown. The feature is boxed
or circled as shown below

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3.) Layer Tinting – In order to give a quick pictorial view and to lay emphasis on
relief, the area between different heights is given a tint of different shade. The
shades of colour chosen for this purpose normally become darker with increase in
height.

4.) Hachures – Hachures are short tapered lines drawn on the map radiating from
peaks and high ground. They serve to show slopes and are only used to
topographical maps of incompletely surveyed areas.

5.) Hill Shading – This method is used to give a stereoscopic appearance to the map by
optical illusion. Hill shading is produced by assuming a straight line shining across the map
so that shadows are cast by high ground. The shadows cover other details hence this
method is not extensively used.

Projection
A projection is any method of representing the surface of a sphere or other three-
dimensional body on a plane. Map projections are necessary for creating maps. All
projections distort the surface in some fashion. Depending on the purpose of the map,
some distortions are acceptable and others are not; therefore different map projections
exist in order to preserve some properties of the sphere-like body at the expense of
other properties. There is no limit to the number of possible map projections.

Projections are classified in 2 ways as per the mode of construction:-

1.) Perspective Projections

A flat surface, cylinder or a cone is placed on the surface of the reduced earth and a
light source is placed at the center of the earth or at one of the poles. This projects a
graticule on the surface. The point where the surface touches the reduced earth is
known as Point of Tangency and the place where the light source is placed is
known as Point of Projection.

2.) Non – Perspective Projections

These are mathematically constructed.

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Perspective Projections

The perspective projections can be further divided into three categories according to
the orientation of the paper:-

1.) Cylindrical Projection – Type of surface is cylinder.

2.) Conical Projection – Type of surface is cone.

3.) Zenithal Projection – Type of surface is a plane sheet of paper.

Use of Projections in Aviation

In aviation, we generally use projections for two purposes i.e. Navigation plotting and
Map Reading. For each of these we look for the following properties:-

1.) Scale should be constant and correct.

2.) It should be orthomorphic i.e. the property of correct representation of bearings. 3.) R/L

should be a straight line.

4.) G/C should be a straight line.

5.) Distance measurement should be easy. 6.)

Shapes should be correctly shown.

7.) It should show equal area at different places.

8.) It should have worldwide coverage.

9.) Adjacent sheets should fit each other. The

projections in common use are:-

1.) Mercator

2.) Lambert

3.) Polar Stereographic

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MERCATOR’S PROJECTION

It is a cylindrical projection.

It is a perspective projection and is a mathematical modification to the simple

cylindrical projection.

Line of Tangency is the equator and the point of projection is the center of Earth.

Appearance

Meridians are parallel straight lines perpendicular to Equator and are equidistant
from each other.

Parallel of Latitude are parallel straight lines perpendicular to the meridians. The
distance between them increases from Equator to Poles.

Properties

1.) Scale is correct along the equator. Both the parallel and meridians scales expand at the rate of
Secant of latitude from equator towards the poles.

Scale at Lat x = Scale at Equator X Sec (Lat x)

2.) It is an orthomorphic projection.

3.) Rhumb Line is a straight line (Unique property of this projection).

4.) Great Circle is a curve concave to the Equator.

5.) Shapes are correctly represented. But in higher latitudes due to greater scale
expansion the shapes tend to get distorted.

6.) It is not an equal area projection.

7.) The coverage is limited to 70-75 North and South of Equator.

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8.) The adjacent sheets will fit.

Uses

1.) As a Navigation Plotting Chart.

2.) For Rhumb Line sailing.

Disadvantages

1.) Plotting of Radio Bearings is difficult as Radio Bearings follow Great Circle path.

2.) Great Circle tracks cannot be flown.

3.) A constant scale cannot be used for measurement of distances.

4.) It cannot be used in higher latitudes.

Great Circle & Rhumb Line Relationship

The Great Circle always lies between the Rhumb Line and the nearer pole. That means that in
NH, the Great Circle will be to the North of Rhumb Line; in the SH the Great Circle will be to
the South of Rhumb Line. On the Earth and on a Mercator Chart, the Great Circle & the
Rhumb line will look as shown in the diagram below.

Great Circle & Rhumb Line as they appear on the Earth

Great Circle & Rhumb Line as they appear on the Mercator Chart

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The Parallels of Latitude lie in East/West direction. Therefore, if two places are on
the same parallel of latitude they will be on a Rhumb Line bearing of 090/270 from
each other the bearing can be determined from the following. (Going from A to B)

If Easterly Longitude increases Bearing is 090. If Easterly Longitude

decreases Bearing is 270. If Westerly Longitude increases Bearing is
270. If Westerly Longitude decreases Bearing is 090.

Similarly if two places are on the same meridian, they lie on a Bearing of 000/180 from each other. The
bearing can be determined by the following rule.

If Northerly Latitude increases Bearing is 000/360. If Northerly

Latitude decreases Bearing is 180. If Southerly Latitude increases
Bearing is 180.

If Southerly Latitude decreases Bearing is 000/360.

Bearing of B from A in the following cases has been determined by the above rule.

A B R/L Bearing
4000 N 4000 N
090
2520 E 4540 E
6000 S 6000 S
270
4855 W 9520 W
4810 N 2415 N
180
7815 E 7815 E
2410 S 1218 S
000
2515 W 2515 W

Having known the R/L Bearing, the great circle bearing can be found by the
application of CA. Application of CA will depend upon the hemisphere and the direction in which
the bearing is to be measured. The diagram shown below indicates how the CA is to be used to
convert from R/L bearing to G/C bearing & vice versa.

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Note: - In the above diagram, straight line represents a R/L and curved lines
represent G/C.
Example – 1

G/C brg A from B is 090, CA = 2, Hemisphere = NH

R/L brg A from B = 090 + 2 = 092

R/L brg B from A = 092 + 180 = 272
G/C brg B from A = 272 + 2 = 27

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PLOTTING OF RADIO BEARING ON MERCATOR CHART

Example – 2

G/C brg A from B is 090, CA = 2, Hemisphere = SH

R/L brg A from B = 090 - 2 = 088 R/L

brg B from A = 088 + 180 = 268 G/C
brg B from A = 268 - 2 = 266

All Radio Bearings are great circle bearings. However, on a Mercator chart a straight
line represents a Rhumb Line. Therefore the G/C bearing must be converted in to
R/L Bearing before plotting.

Firstly, the CA must be found out.

Secondly, draw a simple sketch on the lines explained above.

The application of CA is different for different type of bearing.

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1.) For QTE/QDM etc., the CA is applied at the ground, Station before plotting –

QTE ± CA = BTP (Bearing To Plot)

Example:-

QTE = 080, CA = 5


NH SH
QTE + CA = BTP QTE – CA = BTP
BTP = 080 + 5 = 085 BTP = 080 – 5 = 075


QDM – VAR W (+ VAR E) ± 180 ± CA = BTP

QDM = 262, VAR = 2W, CA = 5

 262 – 2 -180 + 5 (NH) = 085 = BTP

 
2.) For the Bearing measured at the aircraft viz. ADF (Radio Compass) / LSR (Loop Scale
Reading), the CA is applied at the a/c position.

LSR + QC (Quadrantal Error) + HDG (T) ± CA ± 180 = BTP

Example:-

LSR = 259, QC = +1, HDG (T) = 040, CA = 5 259 +

1 + 040 = 300 (QUJ)

NH:– 300 – 5 = 295 – 180 = 115 BTP

SH:- 300 + 5 = 305 – 180 = 125 BTP

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LAMBERT’S PROJECTION

It is a conical projection with two standard parallels. Though the base is conical
projection but it is mathematically constructed. The radius of parallels is calculated
by an orthomorphic formula.

Points of tangency are the two standard parallels and the point of projection is the
center of the Earth.

Out of the total D-Lat of the chart, 2/3 is contained between the two standard
parallels, 1/6 is North of one Standard Parallel & 1/6 is other South of the Standard
Parallel.

Appearance

1.) Parallels of latitude are arcs of concentric circles, not equidistant from each other.

2.) Meridians are straight lines and converge towards the Pole.

1.) Scale is correct along the two standard parallels. It contracts in between them
and expands outside them. However, the scale errors are small and are less than
Properties
one percent.

2.) It is an orthomorphic projection (It is also called a conformal).

3.) Rhumb Line is a curve concave to the nearer pole.

4.) Great Circle is a curve concave to the latitude of origin. However, the divergence
of G/C from a straight line is very small and for all practical purposes it is taken to be
straight line.

5.) Shapes are correctly represented provided the D-Lat between the two standard
parallels is not very large.

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6.) It is not an equal area projection.

7.) It is used in lower middle & higher latitudes. However projection has limitation in
N/S direction.

8.) Adjacent sheets will fit each other provided same scale and standard parallels are
used.

Uses

1.) Navigation plotting chart.

2.) Topographic Map

3.) Radio Navigation Chart

4.) Met Charts

5.) Airway Charts

Advantages over Mercator Chart

1.) Plotting of Radio Bearings is easier.

2.) Constant scale can be used to measure the distances. 3.)

Great Circle tracks can be flown.

4.) Can be used in higher latitudes.

Disadvantages

1.) An artificial grid is required to be superimposed for plotting purposes.

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IMPP (INTERNATIONAL MODIFIED POLYCONIC PROJECTION)

IMPP is a polyconic projection. Each sheet is separately prepared and has two
standard parallels and two standard meridians. The top and bottom parallel of each
sheet is a standard parallel. Two meridians, 2 East and 2 West of the Central
Meridian are the standard meridians.

Appearance

1.) Parallels of Lat are curves drawn from different centers and are equidistant from
each other.

2.) Meridians are straight lines converging towards the poles.

3.) Rhumb Line is a curve concave to the nearer pole.

4.) Great Circle is a center concave to equator. However, the divergence of G/C from
straight line is very small and for all practical purposes, it can be considered as a
Great Circle over short distances.

5.) Shapes are correctly represented.

6.) It is not equal area projection.

7.) It has worldwide coverage. From Equator to 60 N/S, each sheet has 4 of D-Lat
and 6 D-Long. Between 60 to 88 N/S, each sheet has 4 D-Lat and 12 D-
Long. The areas between 88 and 90 N/S is covered by two polar caps.

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8.) Adjacent sheets will either fit N/S or E/W but four sheets will not fit N/S as well as
E/W.

Uses

It is used as topographical map throughout the world.

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POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

It is a Zenithal projection and is a perspective projection.

The point of Tangency is Pole and the point of projection is the other pole.

Appearance

1.) Parallels of Lat are concentric circles not equidistant from each other. The
distance between them increases as you go from pole to the equator.

2.) Meridians are straight lines radiating from poles.

Properties

1.) Both the Parallels & Meridians scales at the rate of Sec2(Colat/2). (Colat = 90 –
Lat)
2.) Meridians and Parallels cut each other at 90.

3.) It is an orthomorphic projection.

4.) Rhumb Line is a curve concave to the nearer pole.

5.) Great Circle is a circle concave to the nearer pole. But in the polar regions for all
practical purposes it is taken to be straight line.

6.) Shapes are correct in the polar regions.

7.) It is not an equal area projection.

8.) Its use is limited to polar region only.

Uses

Used as navigation plotting chart in Polar Regions.

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POLAR GNOMONIC PROJECTION

It is a Zenithal projection.

The point of Tangency is Pole and the point of projection is the center of the earth.

Appearance

1.) Parallels of Lat are concentric circles drawn with pole as center and are not
equidistant from each other. The distance between them increases as you go
from pole to the equator.

2.) Meridians are straight lines radiating from the poles.

Properties

1.) Both the Parallels & Meridians expand at different rates from pole towards the
equator.

2.) Meridians and Parallels cut each other at 90.

3.) It is not an orthomorphic projection. However the bearings measured from the
poles are correct.

4.) Rhumb Line is a curve concave to the nearer pole.

5.) Great Circle is a straight line.

6.) Shapes are not correctly shown.

7.) It is not an equal area projection.

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8.) Its use is limited to polar region only.

Uses

It is used for Great Circle sailing in the polar regions.

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TRANSVERSE MERCATOR

Transverse Mercator projection is a cylindrical projection.

The point of projection is the center of Earth.

The points of tangency are the two poles, and the Great Circle of tangency is any
selected meridian.

Appearance

1.) Meridians: - Meridian of tangency (Central Meridian) appears as a straight line

perpendicular to the equator. Two meridians 90 away from the central meridian
also appear as straight lines parallel to the equator. Other meridians are complex
curves concave to the central meridian. The distance between them increases
away from the central meridian.
2.) Parallels of latitudes: - Equator appears as a straight line at three places on the projection.
Other parallels are curves which are nearly circles close to the poles, their curvature
decreases from pole towards the equator.

Properties

1.) Scale is correct along the meridian of tangency. It expands at the rate of secant
of great circle distance away from the central meridian. However within 480 nm.
East & West of the central meridian, the scale expansion is very small and for all
practical purposes within this region the projection is considered to be nearly at a
constant scale.

2.) It is an orthomorphic projection.

3.) Rhumb Line is a curve concave to the nearer pole.

4.) Great Circle is a curve concave to the meridian of tangency.

5.) Shapes are correct within 480 nm. East & West of the central meridian.

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6.) The practical coverage is limited to 480 nm. East & West of the central meridian.
However, the projection can be used all over the world by selecting the desired
central meridian.

Uses

Used as a topographical map, to map those countries which have a large

North/South coverage and a small East/West coverage. Ex. – Italy, Japan, UK,
Chile.

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Chapter 7 – CP/PNR

Critical Point (CP) / Point of Equal Time (PET)

It is a point en route from which it takes equal time to either go to destination or

come back to place of departure.

 It takes equal time, it is not equidistant.

 CP is calculated primarily for emergency of engine failure & a/c has to fly on
reduced TAS.

H = G/S Home, O = G/S Out, D = Total Distance

DCP = Distance to CP, TCP = Time to CP

t1 = t2

DCP = DH / (O+H)

TCP = DCP / O

 Distance to CP is calculated on Reduced TAS and Time to CP is calculated on

Full TAS

 DCP always move into the wind. That means it increases in Head Wind and
decreases in Tail Wind.

Point of No Return (PNR) / Point of Safe Return (PSR)

It is the max distance up to which an a/c can fly out and still be able to return to place
of departure within safe endurance of a/c. This is calculated for emergency or
condition of non-availability of destination.

 It is purely dependent on Fuel or Endurance.

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H = G/S Home, O = G/S Out

E = Endurance (in Hours) or

E = Flight Fuel / Fuel Consumption = (FOB – Reserved Fuel) / Fuel Consumption

DPNR = Distance to PNR, TPNR = Time to PNR

DPNR = EOH / (O + H)

TPNR = DPNR / O

 Distance to PNR will be maximum in Nil Winds condition.

 Any type of wind will cause distance to PNR to reduce.

 If Flight Fuel changes by certain percentage, distance to PNR also changes by

same percentage.

 If Flight Fuel increases, distance to PNR also increases.

 If Reserve Fuel increases, distance to PNR reduces.

 DCP and DPNR will be same when fuel is just sufficient for flight. As fuel
increases, DPNR will also increase.

Still Air Range (SAR)

It is the maximum distance up to which an a/c can fly out in nil winds while
consuming all fuel on board.

SAR = (FOB / FC) X TAS

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Chapter 8 – Pressure Instruments

Types of Pressure Instruments

1.) Altimeter

2.) ASI – Air Speed Indicator

3.) VSI – Vertical Speed Indicator

4.) Mach meter

5.) ADC – Air Data Computer

ALTIMETER

Principle

The pressure altimeter is an aneroid barometer that measures the pressure of the
atmosphere at the level where the altimeter is located, and presents an altitude
indication in feet. It gives the height of a/c with respect to the set Datum by calculating
the pressure difference between them.

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Working of Simple/Service Altimeter

The static pressure is obtained from static vents and fed to the casing. The capsule
is partially evacuated. So, when the height increases pressure falls in the casing.
The capsule starts expanding which is connected to the dial (calibrated in feet) via
mechanical linkages. As the capsule expands/retracts, it shows on the dial as
increase or decrease in reading.

Drawbacks of Simple Altimeter -

1.) It becomes insensitive at higher altitude because of reduction in rate of fall of

pressure.

2.) Lag Error – All the function is done through the mechanical linkages which makes
changes to pointer knob.

Sensitive Altimeter

1.) Usingis more

Principle same than one capsule
as Service Altimeterinbut
series to increase
sensitivity response
is improved by to pressure change.

2.) By employing vibrator or rocking device or knocking mechanism.

Drawback of Sensitive Altimeter

It suffers from Lag Error.

Lag Error is because of two reasons -

1.) Hysteresis Error – Inertia of capsules.

2.) Mechanical Linkages

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Servo Altimeter

Both Service and Sensitive Altimeter have lag error due to mechanical linkages. Lag
error is virtually eliminated from servo assisted altimeter by using Induction Pick off
Device or Electromechanical Pick off Device or Transducer.

Advantage – Lag error is virtually eliminated.

Sub - Scale Setting

1.) QNH – Pressure prevailing at MSL (Mean Sea Level). If QNH is set on the sub
scale, the altimeter will indicate height above MSL. Thus, when the aircraft is on the
airfield the altimeter will indicate airfield elevation above MSL and when the aircraft is
in air the indication is referred as altitude.

2.) QFE – Pressure prevailing at an airfield at a given time. If QFE is set on the sub scale, the
altimeter will indicate zero when on ground and height above the airfield when airborne.

3.) QNE (Standard Altimeter Setting) – When altimeter sub scale is set to fixed setting of
1013.2 Hpa/29.92 in., indications are referred to as Flight Level or Pressure Altitude.

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 Lowest Altitude in India is 4000'

 Thickness of Transition Layer is 1499'
 Lowest Flight Level in India is FL50

Density Altitude
It is the altitude at which the prevailing density will occur in ISA Condition or It is pressure
altitude corrected for non-standard ISA temperature.

Higher the prevailing temperature, more is the density altitude and vice-versa.

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True Altitude

It is actual altitude of aircraft from MSL.

True Altitude = PA + [4 X ISA Deviation X PA]/1000

True Altitude = PA + [4 X (Actual Temp – ISA Temp) X PA]/1000

Errors

1.) Blockage Error – If the static vents of the aircraft become blocked, the altimeter
will cease to indicate changes of static pressure, and therefore of altitude. The
effect will be that the altimeter will continue to indicate the reading at which the
blockage occurred.

2.) Lag Error – There is inevitably a delay between an atmospheric pressure change and the
response of the aneroid capsules, with the result that the movement of the instrument
pointer lags behind a change in altitude.

3.) Instrument Error – As with any mechanical device, the pressure altimeter is
manufactured with small tolerances in its moving parts and these give rise to small
inaccuracies in its performance. They are usually insignificant, but in some cases a
correction table may be supplied with the instrument.

4.) Position Error – The static source is positioned at a point on the airframe where
disturbance to the airflow is minimal, so that the static pressure measured is as close
as possible to the undisturbed ambient static pressure. However, there is usually some
small error due to the positioning of the static source.

5.) Barometric Error – It is also known as Pressure Error and Subscale-Setting Error.
This occurs when the actual datum pressure differs from that selected on the subscale
setting of the altimeter.
6.) Temperature Error – The altimeter is calibrated to assume a Standard
Atmosphere temperature lapse rate of 1.98 C per 1000 ft. Actual temperatures
at any given altitude usually differ from this assumption and the altimeter will be
in error. In cold air the density is greater than in warm air and a given pressure
will occur at a lower altitude than in warmer air. Consequently, the altimeter will
overread and, with QNH set, the aircraft will be lower than indicated, with the
error increasing from zero at MSL to a significant amount at altitude.

True Altitude = PA + [4 X ISA Deviation X PA]/1000

True Altitude = PA + [4 X (Actual Temp – ISA Temp) X PA]/1000

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The following rule can be remembered -

High – Low – High

When going from high temperature to low temperature, the altimeter will over read.

Low – High – Low

When going from low temperature to high temperature, the altimeter will under read.

Tolerance -

For altimeters with Range up to 30000 ft. - ±60 ft.

For altimeters with Range up to 50000 ft. - ±80 ft.

ASI – AIR SPEED INDICATOR

Principle

It gives air speed by measuring Dynamic Pressure which is the difference between Pitot and
Static Pressure

Working

Airspeed indicators work by measuring the difference between static pressure,

captured through one or more static ports; and pitot pressure due to "ram air",
captured through a pitot tube. This difference in pressure due to ram air is called
dynamic pressure. Pitot pressure is fed to the capsule and the Static pressure is fed
to the casing. The capsule expands/retracts as the difference between the two
pressures increase/decrease. The capsule is connected to the dial through

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mechanical linkages. So change in capsule causes the reading on dial to

increase/decrease.

V Speeds

VS0 – Stalling Speed in landing configuration VS1 –

Stalling Speed in clean/flying configuration VFO –

Max Flaps Operating Speed

VFE – Max Flaps Extended Speed

VNO – Normal operating speed (Can be exceeded only in Smooth Air) VNE –

Never Exceed Speed

VMO – Max operating speed

MMO – Max operating Mach No

Range of Arcs

White Arc – VSO - VFE

Green Arc – VS1 - VNO

Yellow Arc – VNO - VNE

Red Arc – VNE

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Errors

1.) Blockage Error – If the static vents of the aircraft become blocked, the ASI will
under read while climbing and the ASI will over read while descending. Following
thumb rule can be remembered -

High – Low – High

Low – High - Low

If the Pitot tube becomes blocked, the ASI reading will freeze at the same level.
The ASI reading will increase while climbing and reading will decrease while
descending. It will work like an altimeter.

2.) Lag Error – There is inevitably a delay between an atmospheric pressure change
and the response of the aneroid capsules, with the result that the movement of
the instrument pointer lags behind a change in altitude.

3.) Instrument Error – As with any mechanical device, the ASI is manufactured with
small tolerances in its moving parts and these give rise to small inaccuracies in
its performance. They are usually insignificant, but in some cases a correction
table may be supplied with the instrument.

4.) Position Error – The static source is positioned at a point on the airframe where
disturbance to the airflow is minimal, so that the static pressure measured is as
close as possible to the undisturbed ambient static pressure. However, there is
usually some small error due to the positioning of the static source.

5.) Density Error – A/C flying from area of high density to low density will cause ASI
to under read or for some IAS, TAS will increase or vice-versa.

6.) Compressibility Error – At TAS of 300 Knots and above the air is brought to rest
in pitot tube and is compressed causing increase in total pressure. It causes ASI
to over read. Correction for compressibility error is subtracted.

ASIR (Air Speed Indicator Reading) + Correction for Instrument Error = IAS
(Indicated Air Speed)

IAS + Correction for Position/Pressure Error = RAS (Rectified Air Speed/CAS

(Corrected Air Speed)

RAS + Correction for Compressibility Error = EAS (Equivalent Air Speed)

EAS + Correction for Density Error = TAS (True Air Speed)

TAS + Correction for Winds = Ground Speed

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Tolerance -

Typical required accuracy for the ASI is ± 3 Knots

MACH METER

Principle

It gives Mach No. indication by measuring ratio of dynamic to static pressure.

Mach No = (P-S)/S = D/S

Mach No. - It is the ratio of TAS to LSS (Local Speed of Sound)

Mach No = TAS/LSS

LSS = 39√TAbsolute

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If pitot is blocked -

Climb – Mach Meter over reads

Constant IAS TAS ↑ M. No. ↑ RAS Constant

Constant TAS IAS ↓ M. No. ↑ RAS ↓

Constant M. No. TAS ↓ IAS ↓ RAS ↓

Constant RAS TAS ↑ M. No. ↑ IAS Constant

Constant IAS TAS ↑ M. No. Cant Say RAS Constant

Constant TAS IAS ↓ M. No. ↓ RAS ↓

Constant M. No. TAS ↑ IAS ↑ RAS ↑

Constant RAS TAS ↑ M. No. Cant Say IAS Constant

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Climbing in Isothermal Atmosphere

Constant IAS TAS ↑ M. No. ↑ RAS Constant

Constant TAS IAS ↓ M. No. Constant RAS ↓

Constant M. No. TAS Constant IAS ↓ RAS ↓

Constant RAS TAS ↑ M. No. ↑ IAS Constant

Descending in Normal Atmosphere

Constant IAS TAS ↓ M. No. ↓ RAS Constant

Constant TAS IAS ↑ M. No. ↓ RAS ↑

Constant M. No. TAS ↑ IAS ↑ RAS ↑

Constant RAS TAS ↓ M. No. ↓ IAS Constant

Constant IAS TAS ↓ M. No. Cant Say RAS Constant

Constant TAS IAS ↑ M. No. ↑ RAS ↑

Constant M. No. TAS ↓ IAS ↓ RAS ↓

Constant RAS TAS ↓ M. No. Cant Say IAS Constant

Constant IAS TAS ↓ M. No. ↓ RAS Constant

Constant TAS IAS ↑ M. No. Constant RAS ↑

Constant M. No. TAS Constant IAS ↑ RAS ↑

Constant RAS TAS ↓ M. No. ↓ IAS Constant

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VSI – VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

Principle

It gives Rate of Climb or Descend by measuring the differential static pressure i.e.
the difference between the static pressure inside the capsule and outside the
capsule.

Working

The instrument consists essentially of a sensitive capsule, a metering unit and a

suitable magnifying linkage. The static pressure is directly fed to a capsule which is
kept in an air tight case. The case is also fed with the static pressure but through a
metering unit which incorporates a calibrated delay. Hence the pressures withing the
case and within the capsule will be different and the capsule will expand/contract.
The movement of the capsule are picked up, magnified and presented on a dial
through a mechanical linkage. During a climb, the pressure inside the capsule is
lower and the pressure inside the case is higher due to the lag caused by the
metering unit and the capsule contracts. During a descend, the pressure inside the
capsule is higher than the pressure inside the case due to the lag caused by the
metering unit. Therefore capsule will expand.

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Errors

1.) Blockage Error – With the static blocked the VSI will show zero reading.

2.) Lag Error – There is a time delay of few seconds before the pressure difference develops
for the instrument to show ROC/ROD.

3.) Instrument Error – As with any mechanical device, the VSI is manufactured with small
tolerances in its moving parts and these give rise to small inaccuracies in its
performance. They are usually insignificant, but in some cases a correction table may
be supplied with the instrument.

4.) Position Error – The static source is positioned at a point on the airframe where
disturbance to the airflow is minimal, so that the static pressure measured is as close
as possible to the undisturbed ambient static pressure. However, there is usually some
small error due to the positioning of the static source.

5.) Transonic Jump – When aircraft reaches close to Mach 1, normal shock wave causes
static pressure to drop. Therefore, VSI shows a jump.

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IVSI – Instantaneous VSI

Lag Error is removed by installing dash pod accelerometer which causes instant
change in capsule pressure.

Drawbacks

1.) Shows climb during turn.

2.) During turbulence it keeps on oscillating.

ADC – AIR DATA COMPUTER

The Air Data Computer receives pitot and static pressure from the normal and
alternate sources and converts these into electrical signals and transmits them to the
various indicators and systems. The centralised air data computer can also be
programmed to apply the necessary corrections for pressure error, barometric
pressure changes and compressibility effects. With the addition of air temperature
data inputs, true airspeed can be calculated by the computer.

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The diagram shows the data inputs and outputs of a typical ADC.

TAT = SAT + Ram Rise in Temperature

TAT = SAT + [TAS/100]2

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Chapter 9 – Gyro Instruments

Gyroscopic instruments are of great importance in aircraft navigation because of
their ability to maintain a constant spatial reference and thereby provide indication of
the aircraft’s attitude. The principal instruments that use the properties of the
gyroscope are the directional gyro, the artificial horizon or attitude indicator and the
turn and bank indicator.

Gyroscopic Properties

The gyroscope comprises a rotor, or wheel, spinning at high speed about an axis passing
through its centre of mass and known as the spin axis. A rotor is generally contained in a
supporting structure called frames. A spinning rotor exhibits two properties, known as rigidity
and precession.

Rigidity

The rotor has mass and angular velocity which produces angular momentum. According to
Newton’s First Law of Motion, any moving body tends to continue

moving until and unless there is an external force applied to it. The same property in
gyro is also known as Rigidity. Rigidity is directly proportional to Rotor Speed and
Inertia (mass x radius2) and inversely proportional to External force.

Precession

Precession is defined as the angular change in direction of the spin axis when acted
upon by an applied force. This means that any angular force applied to the rotor will
act 90 in the direction of rotation. Precession is inversely proportional to Rigidity.

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Types of Gyroscope

1.) Free/Space Gyro – It has freedom of movement in all 3 planes and Gyro axis is maintained
in its position w.r.t. a fix pt. in space. This is used in INS (Inertial Navigation System) /IRS
(Inertial Reference System).

2.) Tied Gyro – It has freedom of movement in all 3 planes and Gyro axis is maintained or
controlled by an external force. It is used in DGI.

3.) Earth Gyro – It has freedom of movement in all 3 planes and Gyro axis is controlled by
force of gravity. It is used in Attitude Indicator/Artificial Horizon.

4.) Rate Gyro – It has freedom of movement in 2 plane and gives indication in 3rd plane. It is
used in TSI/Turn Coordinator.

 A Gyro does not give useful indication around its axis of Rotation.
 Artificial Horizon – Indicates Pitch & Roll – Vertical Axis Gyro

 DGI – Indicates heading – Horizontal Axis Gyro

 TSI/Turn Coordinator – Indicates turn - Lateral Axis Gyro

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ARTIFICIAL HORIZON/ATTITUDE INDICATOR

Principle

Gyro Rigidity is used to give indication and precession for gyro control

Type of Gyro

Vertical Axis Gyro

Earth Gyro

It is either electrically driven or air driven.

RPM

Electrical – 22000-25000

Air Driven – 15000

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1.) Inner Gimbal

 Freedom in Lateral Axis

 Controls horizon bar

2.) Outer Gimbal

 Freedom in Longitudinal Axis

 Controls Bank Indicator

 Sky Plate is connected to outer gimbal

Freedom in Movement

Pitch - ± 45°

Roll - ± 90°

In Modern Attitude Indicator -

Pitch - ± 85°

Roll - ± 180°
Caging Knob
It provides a mechanical lock to prevent damage to gyro frames. It can also be used for
quick alignment of Artificial Horizon in level flight.

Errors
1.) Acceleration/Deceleration

The error is caused due to left and right movement of pendulous vanes. During
acceleration, the Artificial Horizon shows Climb and Right Bank and during
Deceleration, it shows Descend and Left Bank.

2.) Turning Error

During turning, Artificial Horizon shows Climb and Bank Under Reads. The error
increases as turn progresses and is maximum at 180 of turn and thereafter it
reduces. After 360 turn error is zero.

 An a/c roll out after 180 steep turn to the Right with reference to natural horizon,
Artificial Horizon will show Climb and slight bank to the Left.

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 An a/c roll out after 180 steep turn to the Left with reference to natural horizon,
Artificial Horizon will show Climb and slight bank to the Right.

DGI – DIRECTIONAL GYRO INDICATOR

Principle

It gives heading indication by using property of Gyro Rigidity and Precession is used
for gyro control.

Type of Gyro

Horizontal Axis Gyro

Tied Gyro

Generally air driven

RPM – 12000

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Working

It does not have its own North seeking element and therefore needs to be aligned
after start and at frequent intervals.

Errors

Error of DGI is Wander or Drift. Drift means shift in Horizontal Axis.

There are two types of Drift –

1.) Real Drift – This is caused due to the shift in the axis itself which is caused by
worn out bearing, uneven Mass Distribution and Frictional Forces. It cannot be
calculated because it is random.

2.) Apparent Drift – This is caused due to Rotation of Earth and Movement of Aircraft and not
due to shift in Gyro Axis.

It has 2 parts –

1.) Earth Wander – This is caused due to Rotation of Earth.

Earth Wander = 15 X Sin(Lat)

2.) Transport Wander – This is caused due to movement of Aircraft.

Transport Wander = (G/S)/60 X Tan(Lat)

 Total Drift = Real Drift + Apparent Drift (Earth Wander + Transport Wander)
 Flying Westerly Track – Reading Decreases at Slower Rate.

 Flying Northerly Track – Reading Decreases at Increasing Rate.

Northern Hemisphere
 Flying Southerly Track – Reading Decreases at Decreasing Rate.

 DGI reading always decreases with

Southern
time. Hemisphere

 DGI reading always Increases with time.

Flying Easterly
Flying Track
Easterly – Reading
Track Decreases
– Reading at Faster
Increases at Rate.
Faster Rate.

 Flying Westerly Track – Reading Increases at Slower Rate.

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 Flying Northerly Track – Reading Increases at Decreasing Rate.

 Flying Southerly Track – Reading Increases at Increasing Rate.

Latitude Nut

It is used in a DGI to compensate for Apparent Drift caused due to Rotation of Earth.

When Gyro is moved in Northern Lat, the Nut is moved Inward and when moved in
Southern Lat, the Nut is moved Outward.

SONI – South Out, North In

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TSI – TURN & SLIP INDICATOR

It gives rate of turn in Degrees per second.

Rate 1 - 3/sec
Rate 2 - 6/sec
Rate 3 - 9/sec
Rate 4 - 12/sec

Principle

It uses property of gyro precession.

Type of Gyro

Horizontal Axis Gyro aligned with Lateral Plane.

Rate Gyro

Generally electrical driven

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RPM - 9000

 Tan = v2/rg,

where  = Angle of Bank, v = TAS, r = Radius of Turn, g = Gravitational Force

Errors

RPM  - TSI Over reads

Load Factor  - TSI Over reads Spring

Tension  - TSI Under reads Slip/Skid

Indicator

 Slip occurs due to Over Banking or Under Yawing.

 Skid occurs due to Under Banking or Over Yawing.

 While taxing on ground, when a/c turns right, the Ball will go to the Left and
Needle will show Right.

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TURN COODINATOR

Purpose

It gives both Bank and Rate of Turn. When aircraft is rolling in or out of a turn, it
indicates bank angle and when aircraft is established in turn, it gives Rate of Turn.

Principle

It uses property of Gyro Precession.

Working

The main constructional difference between Turn Coordinator and TSI is that
longitudinal axis of a gyro gimbal is inclined at 30 to the horizontal, so the gyro will
respond to bank as well as turning input force.

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Chapter 10 – Magnetism & Compass

Magnetism

North seeking Pole of a magnet is called Red Pole and South seeking Pole of a
magnet is called Blue Pole.

Hard Iron Components – They are difficult to magnetize and once magnetized they
tend to retain magnetism.

Soft Iron Components – They are easy to magnetize but lose their magnetism when
magnetic force is removed.

Aircraft Magnetism

Aircraft Magnetism comprises of both Hard Iron and Soft Iron Components. Hard
Iron Magnetism is induced during manufacturing process due to the battering and
beating of iron. It does not change with Latitude or Heading of Aircraft. Soft Iron
Magnetism is induced due to Earth’s Magnetic field. It is not constant and changes
with Latitude and Heading of Aircraft.

Aircraft Magnetism is divided between different components –

1.) Component ‘P’ – It is permanent magnetism induced along Longitudinal Axis or

Fore & Aft Axis. It is +ve when Blue Pole or South seeking pole is induced ahead
of compass.

2.) Component ‘Q’ – It is permanent magnetism induced along Lateral Axis or

Arthwartship Axis. It is +ve when Blue Pole or South seeking pole is induced on
right of compass.

3.) Component ‘R’ – It is permanent magnetism induced along Vertical Axis or

Normal Axis. It is +ve when Blue Pole or South seeking pole is induced beneath
compass.

4.) Cz – It is vertical Soft Iron Component along Longitudinal Axis of Aircraft.

5.) fz – It is vertical Soft Iron Component along Lateral Axis of Aircraft.

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Coefficient ‘B’ – Effect of Component ‘P’ & ‘Cz’ is dealt together as single entity called
Coef ‘B’. Both ‘P’ & ‘Cz’ have similar effect on compass. Deviation due to Coefficient B is
zero when flying in N/S or 000/180 direction and is max when flying in E/W or 090/270
direction.

Coef ‘B’ = (E-W)/2

Deviation on any Heading = B x Sin ( = Heading of Aircraft)

Coefficient ‘C’ – Effect of Component ‘Q’ & ‘fz’ is dealt together as single entity called
Coef ‘C’. Both ‘Q’ & ‘fz’ have similar effect on compass. Deviation due to Coefficient C is
zero when flying in E/W or 090/270 direction and is max when flying in N/S or 000/180
direction.

Coef ‘C’ = (N-S)/2

Deviation on any Heading = C x Cos ( = Heading of Aircraft)

 Deviation on heading East and West is caused due to Coef ‘B’ & ‘A’ and deviation
on heading North and South is caused due to Coef ‘C’ & ‘A’

Coefficient ‘A’ – This is caused due to following reasons –

1.) Misalignment of Lubber Line which is called apparent Coef ‘A’.

2.) Horizontal component of soft iron effect which give deviation is called

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Real Coef

Coef ‘A’ = ( Deviation on 4 or 8 Headings)/4 or 8

Correction for Deviation

1.) Coef ‘B’ & ‘C’ are corrected by micro adjusters or micro screws.

2.) Coef ‘A’ is corrected by adjustment of Lubber Line.

3.) Coef ‘B’ is adjusted on Easterly heading.

4.) Coef ‘C’ is adjusted on Northerly heading.

5.) Residual deviation is corrected by providing a Deviation Card or Compass Card.

 Total Deviation on Heading  = A + B Sin + C Cos

COMPASS SWING

The process of aligning Compass North with Magnetic North is called Compass Swing.

Occasion for Compass Swing –

1.) When compass is newly installed.
2.) If modification of aircraft involves Magnetic material. 3.)

When aircraft is acquired from Aircraft Manufacturer.

4.) When aircraft is going to be based involving large Latitude Change. 5.)

After Lightning Strike.

6.) When carrying Magnetic Cargo.


7.) When aircraft is standing on the same heading for more than 4 weeks.

8.) When specified by the Maintenance Manual.

9.) After a Heavy Landing.

10.) When deviation is suspected.

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DIRECT READING COMPASS

Properties of compass

1.) Horizontality

2.) Aperiodicity
3.) Sensitivity
1.) Horizontality – A compass card should remain horizontal w.r.t. earth’s surface when
moved away from Magnetic Equator.

Magnetic Dip – Angle that a free compass card makes with horizontal is called Magnetic
Dip.

A freely suspended magnetic card is affected by 2 forces i.e. Horizontal (H) and Vertical (Z)
due to earth’s magnetic field.

 = Tan-1(Z/H)
Tan = Z/H, where  = Dip
Sin = Z/T, Cos = H/T

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 Magnetic Dip is zero at Equator and max at Poles.

This is achieved by following –

1.) Suspending magnets below pivot point to reduce effect of dip. 2.)

By shifting pivot point towards nearest pole.

2.) Aperiodicity – A compass card should not oscillate during turns.

This is achieved by –
1.) Filling fluid in chamber which dampens oscillation.
2.) Instead of using a single powerful magnet, several small magnets are used close to
pivot point to make compass aperiodic.

3.) Sensitivity – A compass card should respond to the slightest change in heading.

This is achieved by –

1.) Using fine and pointed pivot point made of jewel.

2.) Filling fluid in chamber which reduces friction.
Errors

1.) Acceleration/Deceleration

2.) Turning Error

1.) Acceleration/Deceleration – This error only occurs on Easterly/Westerly direction.

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In Northern Hemisphere –

Acceleration causes card to rotate towards North.

Deceleration causes card to rotate towards South.

ANDS – Acceleration North, Deceleration South

In Southern Hemisphere –

Acceleration causes card to rotate towards South.

Deceleration causes card to rotate towards North.

SAND – Acceleration South, Deceleration North

2.) Turning Error – This error only occurs on Northerly/Southerly direction.

In Northern Hemisphere –

Turning through North causes compass to Under read. Turning

through South causes compass to Over read.

SONU – South Over reads, North Under reads In

Southern Hemisphere –

Turning through North causes compass to Over read. Turning

through South causes compass to Under read.

SUNO – South Under reads, North Over reads

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Chapter 11 – VASI / PAPI

VASI – Visual Approach Slope Indicator

 If cockpit height is ≤ 14’, 2 bar VASI is used, otherwise 3 bar VASI is used.

 Min Visibility = 4 nm or 7 km.

 Glide Slope angle is usually 3.

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PAPI – Precision Approach Path Indicator

 Glide Slope angle is 3.

 .25 change will cause colour to change.

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