BEHAVIORAL MODEL

Submitted by

ANEELA BEGUM

Submitted to

DR. ERUM IRSHAD

Department of Psychology

Session 2022-2023

University of Peshawar

2023

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 Table of contents
Topics page no.
Behavioral theory of learning 03
Historical Timeline 03
Theoretical Assumptions 04
Pavlov’s Experiment 05
Skinner • Operant Conditioning 05
Law of effect 07
Famous behaviorist experiments 09
Types Of Behaviorism 12
Issues and debates 13
Types of behavioral therapy 14
Techniques of behavioral therapy 15
Critical Evaluation 18
Role of Muslim scholars 18
Behaviorism according to Islamic perspective 19
Society analysis 20
References 21

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Behavioral theory of learning
Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning that states all
behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment through a process called
conditioning. Thus, behavior is simply a response to environmental stimuli. Behaviorism is only
concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviors, as they can be studied in a systematic
and observable manner.
Historical Timeline

 Pavlov (1897) published the results of an experiment on conditioning after originally

studying digestion in dogs.
 Watson (1913) launches the behavioral school of psychology, publishing an
article, ‘Psychology as the behaviorist views it’.
 Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned an orphan called Albert B (aka Little Albert) to
fear a white rat.
 Thorndike (1905) formalized the Law of Effect.
 Skinner (1938) wrote ‘The Behavior of Organisms’ and introduced the concepts of
operant conditioning and shaping.
 Clark Hull’s (1943) ‘Principles of Behavior’ was published.
 B.F. Skinner (1948) published ‘Walden Two’, describing a utopian society founded upon
behaviorist principles.
 Journal of the ‘Experimental Analysis of Behavior’ began in 1958.
 Chomsky (1959) published his criticism of Skinner’s behaviorism, “ Review of Verbal
Behavior .”
 Bandura (1963) published a book called the ‘Social Leaning Theory’ and ‘Personality
development’ which combines both cognitive and behavioral frameworks.
 B.F. Skinner (1971) published his book, ‘Beyond Freedom and Dignity’, where he argues
that free will is an illusion.
The Main Theories of Behaviorism
1. John Watson (1913) claimed that humans and animals, exposed repeatedly to an
evocative stimulus (e.g. something scary) accompanied by a neutral stimulus (e.g.
something uninteresting), would eventually respond the same way to the neutral stimulus
alone as they do to the evocative stimulus itself. This became known as classical
conditioning – Ivan Pavlov’s experiments on dogs being a famous example.

2. Edward Lee Thorndike (1927) later claimed that creatures rewarded for some behaviors
and punished for others would exhibit more of the rewarded behaviors in the future, in
what came to be called operant conditioning. These claims were tested through various
experiments conducted on animals and humans in laboratories all over the world. Some

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 of these experiments provided fruitful insights into psychology; others became infamous
for the suffering inflicted on test subjects.

3. Watson believed that his findings could be used to predict the outcomes that certain
stimuli, experiences and lifestyles could manifest in an individual’s lifetime. His vision
didn’t stop there – he thought that deliberate manipulation of people’s experiences and
stimuli could bring about specific, desired outcomes.

“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in
and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I
might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief,
regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.”

Assumptions

•Behaviour should be studied scientifically using experiments.

• Behaviourism is primarily concerned with observable behavior
• The major influence on human behavior is learning from the environment (e.g., conditioning)
• There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals.
Therefore research can be carried out on animals as well as humans.
• Behaviour is the result of stimulus–response (i.e., all behavior, no matter how complex, can be
reduced to a simple stimulus–response association).

Methodology / Studies

• Controlled Experiment
• Little Albert
• Thorndike
• Skinner box
• Pavlov’s Dogs
• Bandura Bobo Doll Study

Theoretical Assumptions
The behaviorist movement began in 1913 when John Watson wrote an article
entitled Psychology as the behaviorist views it, which set out several underlying assumptions
regarding methodology and behavioral analysis:
1. All behavior is learned from the environment:

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 One assumption of the learning approach is that all behaviors are learned from the
environment. They can be learned through classical conditioning, learning by association, or
through operant conditioning, learning by consequences. Behaviorism emphasizes the role of
environmental factors in influencing behavior to the near exclusion of innate or inherited factors.
This amounts essentially to a focus on learning. Therefore, when born, our mind is “tabula rasa”
(a blank slate).
Classical conditioning refers to learning by association, and involves the conditioning of innate
bodily reflexes with new stimuli.
Pavlov’s Experiment
Ivan Pavlov showed that dogs could be classically conditioned to salivate at the sound of
a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented while they were given food.
He first presented the dogs with the sound of a bell; they did not salivate so this was a
neutral stimulus. Then he presented them with food, they salivated. The food was an
unconditioned stimulus and salivation was an unconditioned (innate) response. Pavlov then
repeatedly presented the dogs with the sound of the bell first and then the food (pairing) after a
few repetitions, the dogs salivated when they heard the sound of the bell. The bell had become
the conditioned stimulus and salivation had become the conditioned response.
Examples of classical conditioning applied to real life include:
Taste aversion – using derivations of classical conditioning, it is possible to explain how people
develop aversions to particular foods
Learned emotions – such as love for parents, were explained as paired associations with the
stimulation they provide
Advertising – we readily associate attractive images with the products they are selling
Phobias – classical conditioning is seen as the mechanism by which – we acquire many of these
irrational fears.
Skinner • Operant Conditioning
By the 1920s John B. Watson had left academic psychology and other behaviourists
were becoming influential, proposingnew forms of learning other than classical
conditioning. Perhaps the most important of these was B.F. Skinner.
Skinner's views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson.Skinner believed that
we do have sucha thingas a mind, but that It is simply more productive to study observable
behaviour rather than internal mental events. Skinner believed that the best way to
understand behaviour is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called

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this approach operant conditioning. Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning,
but his work was based on Thorndike's law of effect.

Skinner Introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement.

Behaviour which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened); behaviour
which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e. weakened). Skinner (1948)
studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he placed In a
"Skinner Box" which was similar to Thorndike's puzzle box. B.F. Skinner (1938) coined the
term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of behaviour by the use of
reinforcement which is given after the desired response.
Skinner identified three types of responses or operant's that can follow behaviour.
1. Neutral operant: responses from the environment thatneither increase nor decrease the
probabilityof a behaviourbeing repeated.
2. Reinforcers: Responses from the environment thatincrease the probability of a behaviour
being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positiveor negative.
3. Punishers: Response from the environment thatdecrease the likelihood of o
behaviourbeing repeated. Punishment weakens behaviour.
Reinforcement (strengthens behaviour)
Positive Reinforcement
Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in
hisSkinner box. The box contained a lever in the side and as the rat moved about the box it
would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did a food pellet would drop into
acontainer next to the lever. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few
times of being put in the box. The consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever
ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.
The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behaviour. This is known
as Negative Reinforcement because it is theremoval of an adverse stimulus which is 'rewarding' to
the animal. Negative reinforcement strengthens behaviour because it stops or removes an
unpleasant experience.
Negative Reinforcement
Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner
box and then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort.
As the rat movedabout the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so
the electric current would be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the

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lever after a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of escaping the electric current
ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.
Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a light just
before the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light
came on because they knew that this would stop the electric current being switched on.
These two learned responses are known as Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning.
Punishment (weakens behaviour)
Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or
eliminate a response rather than increase it. Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by
directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a shock after a response or by removing a
potentially rewarding stimulus to punish undesirable behaviour.
Negative Reinforcement strengthens behaviour because a negative condition is stopped or
avoided as a consequence of the behaviour. Punishment, on the other hand, weakens behaviour
because a negative condition Is introduced or experienced as a consequence of the behaviour.
The law of effect
Edward Thorndike suggested that responses closely followed by satisfaction will become
firmly attached to the situation and therefore more likely to reoccur when the situation is
repeated.
Conversely, if the situation is followed by discomfort, the connections to the situation will
become weaker, and the behavior of response is less likely to occur when the situation is
repeated.
Discovery
In his experiments, Thorndike utilized what is known as puzzle boxes to study how
animals learn. The boxes were enclosed but contained a small lever that, when pressed, would
allow the animal to escape. Thorndike would place a cat inside the puzzle box and then place a
piece of meat outside the box. He would then observe the animal’s efforts to escape and obtain
the food. He recorded how long each animal took to figure out how to free itself from the box.
Eventually, the cats would press the lever, and the door would open so that the animal could
receive the reward. Even though first pressing the lever occurred simply by accident, the cats
became likely to repeat it because they had received an award immediately after performing the
action. Thorndike noted that with each trial, the cats became much faster at opening the door.
Because pressing the lever had led to a favorable outcome, the cats were much more likely to
perform the behavior again in the future.
Thorndike termed this the “Law of Effect,” which suggested that when satisfaction
follows an association, it is more likely to be repeated. If an unfavorable outcome follows an
action, then it becomes less likely to be repeated.
There are two key aspects of the law of effect:

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 1. Behaviors immediately followed by favorable consequences are more likely to occur
again. In our earlier example, being praised by a supervisor for showing up early for
work made it more likely that the behavior would be repeated.
2. Behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely to occur again. If
you show up late for work and miss an important meeting, you will probably be less
likely to show up late again in the future. Because you view the missed meeting as a
negative outcome, the behavior is less likely to be repeated.
Influence on Behaviorism
Thorndike’s discovery had a major influence on the development of behaviorism. B.F.
Skinner based his theory of operant conditioning on the law of effect. Skinner even developed
his own version of a puzzle box which he referred to as an operant conditioning chamber (also
known as a Skinner box).
In operant conditioning, behaviors that are reinforced are strengthened, while those that
are punished are weakened. The law of effect clearly had a major influence on the development
of behaviorism, which went on to become the dominant school of thought in psychology for
much of the 20th century. Many behavioral principles remain in use today. In therapeutic
settings, psychologists and other mental health professionals often use reinforcement to
encourage positive behaviors and discourage undesirable ones. In such cases, the use of
favorable outcomes may be used to increase the likelihood of future positive behaviors.

1. Behavior is the result of stimulus-response:

Reductionism is the belief that human behavior can be explained by breaking it down into
smaller component parts. Reductionists say that the best way to understand why we behave as we
do is to look closely at the very simplest parts that make up our systems, and use the simplest
explanations to understand how they work.
Watson described the purpose of psychology as: “To predict, given the stimulus, what
reaction will take place; or, given the reaction, state what the situation or stimulus is that has
caused the reaction’’. All behavior, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple stimulus-
response association). Stimulus refers to any feature of the environment that affects behavior. For
example, in Pavlov’s experiment, food was a stimulus. A response is the behavior elicited by the
stimulus. For example, in Pavlov’s experiment, the dog’s salivation was a response.
2. Psychology should be seen as a science:
Theories need to be supported by empirical data obtained through careful and controlled
observation and measurement of behavior. Watson (1913) stated:
“Psychology as a behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural
science. Its theoretical goal is … prediction and control.” The components of a theory should be
as simple as possible. Behaviorists propose using operational definitions (defining variables in
terms of observable, measurable events). Behaviorism introduced the scientific methods to

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psychology. Laboratory experiments were used with high control of extraneous variables. These
experiments were replicable and the data obtained was objective (not influenced by an
individual’s judgment or opinion) and measurable. This gave psychology more credibility.
Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal
events like thinking and emotion: The starting point for many behaviorists is a rejection of the
introspection (the attempts to “get inside people’s heads”) of the majority of mainstream
psychology.
While modern behaviorists often accept the existence of cognitions and emotions, they
prefer not to study them as only observable (i.e., external) behavior can be objectively and
scientifically measured. Although theorists of this perspective accept that people have “minds”,
they argue that it is never possible to objectively observe people’s thoughts, motives and
meanings – let alone their unconscious yearnings and desires. Therefore, internal events, such as
thinking should be explained through behavioral terms (or eliminated altogether). There is little
difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals: There’s no
fundamental (qualitative) distinction between human and animal behavior. Therefore, research
can be carried out on animals and humans.
The underlying assumption is that to some degree the laws of behavior are the same for
all species and that therefore knowledge gained by studying rats, dogs, cats and other animals
can be generalized to humans. Consequently, rats and pigeons became the primary data source
for behaviorists, as their environments could be easily controlled.
Most Famous Behaviorist Experiments
The primary philosophy underlying behaviorism is that only data gathered through
scientific observation can yield reliable results. It is the many fascinating experiments resulting
from this philosophy that truly made the behaviorists famous.
1. Pavlov’s dogs – 1898-1925
The true genesis of behaviourism as a theory came in the 1890s when physiologist Ivan
Pavlov was studying the digestive systems of dogs. He set up a system to measure the amount of
saliva produced by dogs during feeding, but noted that this began as soon as the dogs heard the
footsteps of the assistant who fed them. He went on to discover that any phenomena that the dogs
learned to associate with food elicited the same response. This revealed itself to Pavlov as an
important scientific discovery, and he spent much of his remaining career devoted to it’s study.

In his 1902 work, The work of the digestive glands, Pavlov noted that an unconditioned
stimulus (food) involuntarily brought up an unconditioned response (salivation). He then found a
neutral stimulus, or something that did not initially elicit a response from the dogs, in this case
the ticking sound of a metronome. He began switching on the metronome before and during
feeding time, and found that after a few repetitions the metronome alone was enough to elicit a
salivation response.

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2. The Little Albert Study – 1919
In the earliest experiment in classical conditioning applied to humans, Watson & Rayner
set out in 1920 to explore whether a persistent fear response, or phobia, could be created. What
followed was an experiment that would not meet modern ethical standards.

Albert B. was 9-months-old when Watson and Rayner first introduced him to a series of
harmless objects; a white rat, a monkey, a rabbit, masks, smouldering paper and the sound of a
four-foot pipe being struck by a hammer. They observed that he showed no fear to any of the
objects but became scared and cried when the pipe was struck. Seven times over the following
weeks, Albert was exposed to the rat at the same time the pipe was struck. He cried each time,
and also began crying at the sight of the rat alone. This was the conditioned response Watson and
Rayner had been hoping to elicit. They found that Albert responded the same way upon seeing
other small animals or white, furry objects: stuffed animals, a Santa Claus beard and Rayner’s
fur coat. The researchers continued testing Albert a month after the conditioning had ended and
found that he continued displaying the conditioned behavior.

3. Thorndike’s Cats – 1898-1905

Thorndike would place a hungry cat into a box that opened when the cat stepped onto an
internally-mounted switch. Outside the box he would place a bowl of food to motivate it to
escape. He noticed that the cats he tested would meow and roam around the inside of the box
looking for a way out, until accidentally stepping on the switch would reward them with access
to the food. When the same cat was tested multiple times, the time taken for the cat to open the
box generally decreased with each repetition. He further found that the rate of decrease went up
each time, before plateauing once the cat had learned to perform the task efficiently. This led to
him coining the term, ‘learning curve’.

Thorndike contended that the increased performance of the cats did not indicate an
understanding of the mechanics of their predicament; “There is no reasoning, no process of
inference or comparison; there is no thinking about things, no putting two and two together; there
are no ideas – the animal does not think of the box or of the food or of the act he is to perform.”

4. The Skinner Box

Burrhus Skinner pioneered the method of placing animals inside a small box to subject
them to operant conditioning. These were constructed to block outside stimulus and keep the
animal contained while they were trained to perform certain behaviors. They were used in
experiments similar to Thorndike’s, as well as in classical conditioning studies. In these, animals
were taught to associate an action, such as turning to the right, with a light bulb going on and a
reward of food. Eventually, the animal could be made to turn to the right simply by switching on
the light bulb and no reward.

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 In other experiments, the animals were conditioned to press a lever, either to attain a
reward or to stop electric shocks. Like Thorndike, Skinner found that the animals completed
these tasks in progressively shorter times.

5. Bandura Bobo Doll Study

Bandura (1961) conducted a controlled experiment study to investigate if social

behaviors (i.e., aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation. A lab experiment was
used, in which the independent variable (the type of model) was manipulated in three conditions:

 Aggressive model is shown to 24 children

 Non-aggressive model is shown to 24 children
 No model is shown (control condition) – 24 children

Stage 1: Modeling
In the experimental conditions, children were individually shown into a room containing
toys and played with some potato prints and pictures in a corner for 10 minutes while either:
24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) watched a male or female model behaving aggressively
towards a toy called a “Bobo doll”. The adults attacked the Bobo doll in a distinctive manner –
they used a hammer in some cases, and in others threw the doll in the air and shouted “Pow,
Boom.” Another 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) were exposed to a non-aggressive model who
played in a quiet and subdued manner for 10 minutes (playing with a tinker toy set and ignoring
the bobo-doll). The final 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) were used as a control group and not
exposed to any model at all.
Stage 2: Aggression Arousal
All the children (including the control group) were subjected to “mild aggression
arousal.” Each child was (separately) taken to a room with relatively attractive toys. As soon as
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the child started to play with the toys, the experimenter told the child that these were the
experimenter’s very best toys and she had decided to reserve them for the other children.
Stage 3: Test for Delayed Imitation
The next room contained some aggressive toys and some non-aggressive toys. The non-
aggressive toys included a tea set, crayons, three bears and plastic farm animals. The aggressive
toys included a mallet and peg board, dart guns, and a 3 foot Bobo doll. The child was in the
room for 20 minutes, and their behavior was observed and rated though a one-way mirror.
Observations were made at 5-second intervals, therefore, giving 240 response units for each
child. Other behaviors that didn’t imitate that of the model were also recorded e.g., punching the
Bobo doll on the nose.
Results

 Children who observed the aggressive model made far more imitative aggressive
responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups.
 There was more partial and non-imitative aggression among those children who had
observed aggressive behavior, although the difference for non-imitative aggression was
small.
 The girls in the aggressive model condition also showed more physically aggressive
responses if the model was male, but more verbally aggressive responses if the model
was female. However, the exception to this general pattern was the observation of how
often they punched Bobo, and in this case the effects of gender were reversed.
 Boys were more likely to imitate same-sex models than girls. The evidence for girls
imitating same-sex models is not strong.
 Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls. There was little difference in
verbal aggression between boys and girls.
Conclusion
Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children are able to learn social behavior such as
aggression through the process of observation learning, through watching the behavior of another
person. The findings support Bandura’s (1977) Social Learning Theory.
Types Of Behaviorism
Historically, the most significant distinction between versions of behaviorism is that
between Watson’s original “methodological behaviorism,” and forms of behaviorism later
inspired by his work, known collectively as neobehaviorism (e.g., radical behaviorism).
1. Methodological Behaviorism
Watson’s article “Psychology as the behaviorist views it” is often referred to as the
“behaviorist manifesto,” in which Watson (1913) outlines the principles of all behaviorists:

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 “Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural
science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no
essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness
with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness. In his efforts to get
a unitary scheme of animal response, the behaviorist recognizes no dividing line between man
and brute. Man’s behavior, with all of its refinement and complexity, forms only a part of the
behaviorist’s total scheme of investigation.
2. Radical Behaviorism
Radical behaviorism was founded by B.F Skinner who agreed with the assumption of
methodological behaviorism that the goal of psychology should be to predict and control
behavior. Skinner, like Watson, also recognized the role of internal mental events, and while he
agreed such private events could not be used to explain behavior, he proposed they should be
explained in the analysis of behavior.
Another important distinction between methodological and radical behaviorism concerns the
extent to which environmental factors influence behavior. Watson’s (1913) methodological
behaviorism asserts the mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) at birth. In contrast, radical
behaviorism accepts the view that organisms are born with innate behaviors and thus recognizes
the role of genes and biological components in behavior.
3. Social Learning
Behaviorism has gone through many transformations in the years since it was developed by
John Watson in the early part of the twentieth century. One more recent extension of this
approach has been the development of social learning theory, which emphasises the role of plans
and expectations in people’s behavior. Under social learning theory, people were no longer seen
as passive victims of the environment, but rather they were seen as self- reflecting and
thoughtful. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning
theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.
Issues And Debates
1. Free will vs. Determinism
Strong determinism of the behavioral approach as all behavior is learned from our
environment through classical and operant conditioning. We are the total sum of our previous
conditioning. Softer determinism of the social learning approach theory as it recognizes an
element of choice as to whether we imitate a behavior or not.
2. Nature vs. Nurture
Behaviorism is very much on the nurture side of the debate as it argues that our behavior is
learned from the environment. The social learning theory is also on the nurture side because it

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argues that we learn behavior from role models in our environment. The behaviorist approach
proposes that apart from a few innate reflexes and the capacity for learning, all complex behavior
is learned from the environment.
3. Holism vs. Reductionism
The behaviorist approach and social learning are reductionist; they isolate parts of complex
behaviors to study. Behaviorists believe that all behavior, no matter how complex, can be broken
down into the fundamental processes of conditioning.
4. Idiographic vs. Nomothetic
It is a nomothetic approach as it views all behavior governed by the same laws of
conditioning. However, it does account for individual differences and explains them in terms of
differences in the history of conditioning.
Behavioral therapy
Behavioral therapy is an umbrella term for types of therapy that treat mental health
disorders. It’s based on the idea that all behaviors are learned and that behaviors can be changed.
This form of therapy looks to identify and help change potentially self-destructive or unhealthy
behaviors. The focus of treatment is often on current problems and how to change them.
Types of behavioral therapy
There are a number of different types of behavioral therapy.
1. Cognitive behavioral therapy
Cognitive behavioral therapy is extremely popular. It combines behavioral therapy, which
focuses on patterns of action, with cognitive therapy, which focuses on patterns of thought.
Treatment is centered around how your thoughts and beliefs influence your actions and moods. It
often focuses on your current problems and how to solve them. The long-term goal is to build
thinking and behavioral patterns that help you achieve a better quality of life.
2. Cognitive behavioral play therapy
Cognitive behavioral play therapy is commonly used as a treatment for mental health
conditions in children. By watching a child play, a therapist is able to gain insight into what a
child is uncomfortable expressing or unable to express. Children may be able to choose their own
toys and play freely. They might be asked to draw a picture or use toys to create scenes in a
sandbox. Therapists may teach parents how to use play to improve communication with their
children.
In this form of play therapy, the therapist also takes a more direct approach by working with
both the child and the caregivers to teach the child how to cope well and achieve their defined
goals. The therapist is doing more than just watching the child play.

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 3. Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT)
ACT is a type of psychotherapy that includes behavioral analysis performed by a mental
health clinician. While sometimes compared with CBT, ACT has its own specific approach. ACT
is based on relational frame theory, which focuses on mental processes and human language. In
ACT, people are taught mindfulness skills and acceptance strategies with the goal of increasing
psychological flexibility. Additionally, commitment and behavior change methods are used.
4. Dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT)
DBT was created by Dr. Marsha Linehan to help treat the symptoms of borderline personality
disorder (BPD), an emotional regulation disorder marked by suicidal behavior, depression,
unstable personal relationships, and other symptoms. DBT can also be helpful for conditions
other than BPD.
DBT consists of four elements, known as modules:

 core mindfulness
 interpersonal effectiveness, which is used to improve relationships with others and
yourself
 emotional regulation
 distress tolerance

People receiving DBT are taught skills and coping strategies to help them lead healthier, happier
lives.
5. Exposure therapy
It utilizes behavioral techniques to help people overcome their fears of situations or objects.
This approach incorporates techniques that expose people to the source of their fears while
practicing relaxation strategies. It is useful for treating specific phobias and other forms of
anxiety.
6. Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT)
It focuses on identifying negative or destructive thoughts and feelings. People then actively
challenge those thoughts and replace them with more rational, realistic ones.
Behavioral Therapy Techniques
In order to understand how behavioral therapy works, it is important to know more about
the basic principles that contribute to behavioral therapy. The techniques used in this type of
treatment are based on the theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Classical Conditioning

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Classical conditioning involves forming associations between stimuli. Previously neutral stimuli
are paired with a stimulus that naturally and automatically evokes a response. After repeated
pairings, an association is formed and the previously neutral stimulus will come to evoke the
response on its own. Classical conditioning is one way to alter behavior. Several different
techniques and strategies are used in this approach to therapy.
1. Aversion therapy: This process involves pairing an undesirable behavior with an
aversive stimulus in the hope that the unwanted behavior will eventually be reduced. For
example, someone with an alcohol use disorder might take Antabuse (disulfiram), a drug
that causes severe symptoms (such as headaches, nausea, anxiety, and vomiting) when
combined with alcohol.
2. Flooding: This process involves exposing people to fear-invoking objects or situations
intensely and rapidly. It is often used to treat phobias. During the process, the individual
is prevented from escaping or avoiding the situation.
3. Systematic desensitization: In this technique, people make a list of fears and then learn
to relax while concentrating on these fears. Starting with the least fear-inducing item and
working their way to the most fear-inducing item, people systematically confront these
fears under the guidance of a therapist. Systematic desensitization is often used to treat
phobias and other anxiety disorders.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning focuses on how reinforcement and punishment can be utilized to either
increase or decrease the frequency of a behavior. Behaviors followed by desirable consequences
are more likely to occur again in the future, while those followed by negative consequences
become less likely to occur. Behavioral therapy techniques use reinforcement, punishment,
shaping, modeling, and related techniques to alter behavior. These methods have the benefit of
being highly focused, which means they can produce fast and effective results.
1. Contingency management: This approach uses a formal written contract between a
client and a therapist (or parent or teacher) that outlines behavior-change goals,
reinforcements, rewards, and penalties. Contingency contracts can be very effective in
producing behavior changes since the rules are spelled out clearly, preventing both parties
from backing down on their promises.
2. Extinction: Another way to produce behavior change is to stop reinforcing behavior in
order to eliminate the response. Time-outs are a perfect example of the extinction
process. During a time-out, a person is removed from a situation that provides
reinforcement. By taking away what the person found rewarding, unwanted behavior is
eventually extinguished.
3. Behavior modeling: This technique involves learning through observation and modeling
the behavior of others. Rather than relying simply on reinforcement or punishment,

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 modeling allows individuals to learn new skills or acceptable behaviors by watching
someone else perform those desired skills.
4. Token economies: This strategy relies on reinforcement to modify behavior. Parents and
teachers often use token economies, allowing kids to earn tokens for engaging in
preferred behaviors and lose tokens for undesirable behaviors. These tokens can then be
traded for rewards such as candy, toys, or extra time playing with a favorite toy.
Behavioral therapy can benefit people with a wide range of disorders.
People most commonly look for behavioral therapy to treat:

 depression
 anxiety
 panic disorders
 disorders involving excessive anger, like intermittent explosive disorder
 It can also help treat conditions and disorders like:
 eating disorders
 post-traumatic stress disorder
 bipolar disorder
 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
 phobias, including social phobias
 obsessive compulsive disorder
 self-harming behavior, like cutting
 substance use disorders
 This type of therapy can benefit adults and children.

Behavioral therapy is problem-focused and action-oriented. For this reason, it can also be useful
for addressing specific psychological concerns such as anger management and stress
management. Treatments that incorporate behavioral techniques are usually focused on
producing results in a relatively short period of time.
Effectiveness
How well behavioral therapy works depends on factors such as the specific type of
treatment used as well as the condition that is being treated. Overall, research has found that
approximately 67% of people who try psychotherapy experience some type of positive
improvement. This does not mean that CBT or other behavioral approaches are the only types of
therapy that can treat mental illness. It also doesn't mean that behavior therapy is the right choice
for every situation.
Anxiety disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), panic disorder,
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and phobias, for example, often respond well to
behavioral treatments. However, researchers found that the effectiveness of behavioral therapy,

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specifically CBT, in the treatment of substance use disorders can vary depending on the
substance being misused. CBT was also shown to have beneficial effects on some symptoms of
schizophrenia but showed no benefits on relapse and hospital admission when compared to other
forms of treatment.
Critical Evaluation

 Humanistic: (e.g. Rogers) rejects the scientific method of usinge,periments to

measure and control variables because it creates an artificial environment and has
low ecological validity. (Ecological Validity: Ecological Validity is the degree to
which the behaviours observed and recorded in a study reflect the behaviours that
actually occur in natural settings. In addition, ecological validity is associated with
"generability". Essentially this is the extent to which findings {from astudy) can be
generalized (or extended) to the "real world".)
 Humanism also rejects the nomothetic approach of behaviourism as they view humans as
being unique and believe humans cannot be compared with animals (who aren't
susceptible to demand characteristics). This is known as an idiographic approach.
 Humanistic psychology also assumes that humans have free will (personal agency} to
make their own decisions in life and do not follow the deterministic laws of science.
 The psychodynamic approach (Freud) criticizes behaviourism as it does not take into
account the unconscious mind's influence on behaviour, and instead focuses on external
observable behaviour. Freud rejects that idea that people are born a blank slate (tabula
rasa) and states that people areborn with instincts.
 Biological psychology - Gene's/ Chromosomes neurotransmitters and hormones
influence our behaviour too, in addition to the environment.
 Cognitive psychology - Mediation processes occur between stimulus and response, such
as memory, thinking, problem solving etc
Role of Muslim scholars
1. One notable example is Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna), a Muslim philosopher and
physician who lived from 980-1037 CE. Ibn Sina wrote extensively on various aspects of
psychology, including behaviorism, in his book "The Canon of Medicine." He was one of
the first psychologists to suggest that behavior is shaped by both internal and external
factors, including environmental conditions and personality traits.
2. Another important Muslim scholar who contributed to behaviorism is Abu al-Qasim al-
Zahrawi (also known in Latin as Albucasis), who lived from 936-1013 CE. Al-Zahrawi
was a prominent physician, surgeon, and medical writer in the Islamic world. His work
on behaviorism focused on the concept of habituation, which he believed was essential
for understanding human behavior.
3. Imam Al-Ghazali, a renowned Muslim scholar, in his book “Ihya Ulum al-Din” explores
the connection between behavior and religion. He emphasizes the role of intention in

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 shaping behavior and argues that a person’s intentions are what determine the morality of
their actions. He presents the idea that the ultimate goal of behavior should be to please
Allah, and that positive moral behavior arises from a sincere desire to do so.
4. Another Muslim scholar who contributed significantly to behaviorism is Abu Hamid al-
Ghazali, who in his book “Alchemy of Happiness” discusses the importance of self-
control and self-discipline. He argues that the key to success in the spiritual realm, which
can be extended to behavioral change, is in controlling one's desires and impulses.
5. In his book, “An Islamic Perspective on Behavioral Sciences” (1981), Dr. Malik Badri, a
Sudanese psychologist, presents an Islamic perspective on behaviorism. He argues that
behaviorism, despite its limitations, can be beneficial when combined with Islamic ethics
and values. Badri asserts that Islam recognizes the importance of the external
environment in shaping human behavior, but also emphasizes the internal processes of
the human being, such as intentionality and motivation. He suggests that an Islamic
interpretation of behaviorism can supplement its limited view of human behavior by
incorporating spiritual principles, such as the fear of God and the importance of
intentionality.
6. Dr. Taner Edis, a Turkish-American physicist and philosopher, discusses the
compatibility of Islam and behaviorism in his book, “Science and Nonbelief” (2014). He
argues that Islamic theology and behaviorism can be reconciled by viewing the human
being as a moral agent who has free will and is governed by both internal and external
factors. Edis suggests that Islamic principles, such as the concept of responsibility, can be
integrated into behaviorism to provide a more comprehensive view of human behavior.
Therefore, Muslim scholars have played a significant role in the development of behaviorism,
particularly in the areas of moral and ethical behavior. They have contributed through their
religious teachings, writings, and practical applications. The teachings of Muslim scholars on
behaviorism are still relevant today, and can provide a framework for individuals seeking to
develop positive moral and ethical behavior.
Behaviorism according to Islamic perspective
Behaviorism is a psychological approach that focuses on observable behavior and the
environmental factors that shape it. In Islamic theology, behaviorism can be understood as an
approach that emphasizes the importance of the external actions of a Muslim and the influence of
the surrounding environment on shaping those actions.
Islam places great importance on action and behavior as a means of expressing one’s faith and
relationship with God.
1. The Quran states, “Those who believe and do righteous deeds – their Lord will guide
them because of their faith. Beneath them rivers will flow in the Gardens of Bliss”
(Quran 10:9).

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This verse clearly highlights the importance of both faith and action, indicating that one’s
behavior is a crucial component of their faith.
Furthermore, Islamic teachings emphasize the importance of surrounding oneself with positive
influences and avoiding negative influences.
2. Prophet Muhammad said, “The example of a good companion and a bad companion is
like that of the seller of musk, and the one who blows the blacksmith’s bellows. So as for
the seller of musk then either he will grant you some, or you buy some from him, or at
least you enjoy a pleasant smell from him. As for the one who blows the blacksmith’s
bellows then either he will burn your clothes or you will get an offensive smell from him”
(Narrated by Bukhari and Muslim).
This Hadith highlights the importance of choosing companions that positively influence one’s
behavior and avoiding those that negatively influence behavior.
Additionally, the Islamic concept of Tawheed emphasizes the oneness of God and the importance
of submitting to His will. This submission includes following Islamic teachings and moral
principles to shape one’s behavior.
3. The Quran states, “Say, indeed, my prayer, my sacrifice, my living and my dying are for
Allah, Lord of the worlds” (Quran 6:162).
This verse highlights the importance of aligning one’s behavior with God’s will and submitting
to His commands.
Islam emphasizes the importance of behavior and its influence on a Muslim’s faith, as behavior
is a crucial component of one’s relationship with God. This aligns with the concept of
behaviorism in psychology, which focuses on observable behavior and its environmental factors.
4. The Quran emphasizes the importance of moral behavior, stating: “…Verily the most
honored of you in the sight of Allah is (he who is) the most righteous of you…” (Quran
49:13).
This verse highlights the importance of righteousness and ethical conduct among Muslims as a
sign of honor in the sight of Allah.
5. Prophet Muhammad also emphasized the importance of good behavior in various
Hadiths, such as: “The most beloved of people according to Allah is he who brings most
benefit to people” (Narrated by Al Tabarani).
This Hadith highlights the importance of behavior that brings benefit to others, encouraging
Muslims to positively influence their surrounding environment.
In conclusion, Islam emphasizes the importance of behavior and its influence on a
Muslim’s faith and relationship with God. The concept of behaviorism in psychology aligns with

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this perspective, emphasizing the environmental factors that shape human behavior. Islamic
teachings encourage Muslims to align their behavior with Islamic principles, surround
themselves with positive influences, and positively impact their surrounding environment.
Society analysis
The behaviorist approach emphasizes the role of environmental factors in shaping human
behavior. In the case of Pakistani society, the culture, values, and social norms can have a
significant impact on the behavior of individuals. Here are some ways that behaviorist approach
can help explain Pakistani society:
1. The control of the behavior: Pakistani society considers the behavior of individuals as
an important aspect of social norms. The behaviorist approach emphasizes that external
factors such as rewards, incentives, and punishments play a role in controlling the
behavior of individuals. Pakistani society often uses a reward and punishment system to
reinforce desirable behaviors and discourage negative behaviors.
2. Values and Beliefs: The behaviorist approach recognizes that beliefs, values, and
traditions play a significant role in shaping human behavior. Pakistani society values
family, religion, and social relationships, and these values can influence the behavior of
individuals.
3. Conditioning: The behaviorist approach emphasizes that human behavior can be
conditioned through reinforcement or punishment. In Pakistani society, children are often
raised in an environment where they are exposed to strict discipline and punishment for
their actions. This conditioning can shape their behavior in the future.
4. Social Learning: The behaviorist approach also emphasizes the importance of social
learning in shaping human behavior. Pakistani society is collectivist, and individuals
learn from their peers and elders. This can impact the behavior of individuals, as they are
influenced by the behavior and beliefs of those around them.
In summary, the behaviorist approach provides insights into how the external environment, social
norms, and values shape the behavior of individuals in Pakistani society.

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