Lecture Notes on Wave Optics (03/12/14)

2.71/2.710 Introduction to Optics –Nick Fang

Outline:
A. Superposition of waves, Interference
B. Interferometry
- Amplitude-splitting (e.g. Michelson interferometry)
- Wavefront-splitting (e.g. Young’s Double Slits)
C. More Interferometry: Fabry Perot, etc

A. Superposition of Waves, Interference

The nature of linear wave equation guarantees that waves can be superimposed:
we may combine an array of waves by algebra, as far as each of them are proper
solution of the wave equation. To facilitate this process, we make use of the
following complex number to represent the wave field.

- Waves in complex numbers

For example, the electric field of a monochromatic light field can be
expressed as:

𝐸(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) (1)

Since exp(𝑖𝑥) = cos(𝑥) + 𝑖 sin(𝑥) (2)

𝐸(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒{𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑝[𝑖(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)]} (3)

Or
1
𝐸(𝑧, 𝑡) = 2 {𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑝[𝑖(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)]} + 𝑐. 𝑐. (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒) (4)

- Complex numbers simplify optics! Interference with two beams

e.g. 2 plane waves propagating in +z direction

𝐸1𝑥 = 𝐸1𝑥 (0)𝑒𝑥𝑝[𝑖(𝑘1 𝑧 − 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜑1 )] (5)

𝐸2𝑥 = 𝐸2𝑥 (0)𝑒𝑥𝑝[𝑖(𝑘2 𝑧 − 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜑2 )] (6)

We can define phase of each waves:

𝛿1 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑘1 𝑧 − 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜑1 (7)
𝛿2 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑘2 𝑧 − 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜑2 (8)

For a point P located at z=z0 the combined field is:

𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸1𝑥 + 𝐸2𝑥 = 𝐸1𝑥 (0) exp[𝑖𝛿1 (𝑧0 , 𝑡)] + 𝐸2𝑥 (0) exp[𝑖𝛿2 (𝑧0 , 𝑡)] (9)

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Lecture Notes on Wave Optics (03/12/14)
2.71/2.710 Introduction to Optics –Nick Fang

B. Interferometry
We often use optical interferometers to facilitate the study of interference. A few
common setups are discussed here. Based on the operation principle to split the
beams, we may find the so-called amplitude-splitting or wavefront-splitting devices.

Input
- Michelson Interferometry Mirror beam E(t)

The Michelson Interferometer is Output

named after Albert Michelson, who beamE(t–t)
used it with Edward Morley in 1887,
in an attempt to measure the Translation stage
existence of the "ether".

In Michelson- Morley’s famous experiment, the delay time ∆𝜏 is achieved simply by

moving a mirror along the optical axis. Moving a mirror backward by a distance L
yields a delay of:
2𝐿
∆𝜏 = (10)
𝑐
(e.g. 300 µm of mirror displacement yields a delay of 2 × 10−12 s=2ps).

Input A Michelson Interferometer as shown in left

schematic, split a beam of incident light into
beam
two arms using a thin glass window. Both
beams travel to mirrors that are precisely
L2 Output aligned to reflect them. Before recombining
Mirror them at the beam splitter, the two beams
I0 beam
traveled with different optical path length L1
Beam- I0 L1 and L2.
splitter
L1 −L2
Delay 𝐼 = 2𝐼0 + 2𝐼0 〈cos (2𝜔 )〉 (11)
𝑐
Mirror
The variation of intensity as a function of the
path length L1 gives us a measure of wavelength of light! Recent effort is to apply such
technology in measurement of gravity waves.

Observation:

- Michelson Interferometer measures (auto)-correlation in time.

To see this effect, we suppose the input light beam is not monochromatic.
Thus
𝑐 𝑐 ∗ ∗
𝐼 = 2 𝜀〈𝐸𝑥 ∙ 𝐸𝑥∗ 〉 = 2 𝜀〈(𝐸1𝑥 + 𝐸1𝑥 (𝑡 − 𝜏)) ∙ (𝐸1𝑥 + 𝐸1𝑥 (𝑡 − 𝜏))〉 (12)

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Lecture Notes on Wave Optics (03/12/14)
2.71/2.710 Introduction to Optics –Nick Fang

∗
𝐼 = 𝐼1 (𝑡) + 𝐼1 (𝑡 − 𝜏) + 2〈𝐸1𝑥 ∙ 𝐸1𝑥 (𝑡 − 𝜏)〉 (13)

Such auto-correlation function tells the similarity of the field over given
period of time. The Fourier transform of the auto-correlated signal yields the
Power Spectrum:

∞ 𝐹𝑇
∗ (𝑡 ∗ (𝜔)
∫0 𝐸1𝑥 ∙ 𝐸1𝑥 − 𝜏)𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝐸1𝑥 (𝜔) ∙ 𝐸1𝑥 = |𝐸1𝑥 (𝜔)|2 (14)
This is how Fourier Transform Spectroscopy (often abbreviated as FTIR) are
constructed nowadays. (See Pedrotti 21-2 for more discussion)
Interferogram

This interferogram is
very narrow, so the
spectrum 4000 3200 2400 1600 800
is very broad.
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- In the above analysis we assumed the input beams

are ideal plane waves so we only focused on
intensity variation of a single spot as the arm length
changes. In reality, a set of nested rings are often
observed on the receiving screen as the pattern on
right. This is due to the variation of phase as a
function of momentum difference (𝑘1 − 𝑘2 )𝑧.

- Young’s Double Slit Interferometry

X X’
To analyze Young’s experiment,
observation
point x’
we assume the screen X with
two narrow slit is illuminated
x=x0 with a monochromatic plane
Z
wave. After the slits, two
x=−x0 cylindrical waves are excited.
This creates fringes at the
observation plane X’ , after
travelling a distance 𝑧 = 𝑙.
incoming
z =l
plane wave opaque
(on-axis) screen
For a position x’ on the screen,
the phase difference of the two waves becomes:

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Lecture Notes on Wave Optics (03/12/14)
2.71/2.710 Introduction to Optics –Nick Fang

𝛿1 − 𝛿2 = 𝑘(𝑟1 − 𝑟2 ) + (𝜑1 − 𝜑2 ) (15)

where 𝑟1 = √(𝑥 ′ − 𝑥0 )2 + 𝑙 2 , 𝑟2 = √(𝑥 ′ + 𝑥0 )2 + 𝑙 2 . When the slits are arranged

symmetrically and the incoming plane wave is at normal incidence, then 𝜑1 − 𝜑2 =
0

In a typical experiment the screen is placed far away from the slits (𝑙 ≫ 𝑥0 ) so we
can further take approximation:
2
(𝑥 ′ −𝑥0 )2 (𝑥 ′ −𝑥0 )
𝑟1 = 𝑙√1 + ≈ 𝑙 (1 + ) (16)
𝑙2 2𝑙 2

2
(𝑥 ′ +𝑥0 )2 (𝑥 ′ +𝑥0 )
𝑟2 = 𝑙 √1 + ≈ 𝑙 (1 + ) (17)
𝑙2 2𝑙 2
2𝑥′𝑥0
(𝑟1 − 𝑟2 ) = − (18)
𝑙
In order for the constructive interference to occur, cos(𝛿1 − 𝛿2 ) = 1, then
2𝑥0 𝑥 ′
𝑘(𝑟1 − 𝑟2 ) = −𝑘 = 2𝑚𝜋 (19)
𝑙
𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, …. are called order number.

This gives rise to the famous condition:

2𝑥0 𝑥 ′ = 𝑚𝑙𝜆 (20)

Therefore Young’s experiments directly measured the wavelength of light (in 18

century!)

Note: Generally fringes will form by two or more beams crossing at an angle. To
quantify that we can modify our phase term for the crossing beams:

𝛿1 (𝑥, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑘1𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑘1𝑧 𝑧 − 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜑1 (21)

or in terms of incident angle θ:
𝛿1 (𝑥, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑘1 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 + 𝑘1 𝑧𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜑1 (22)

𝛿1 − 𝛿2 = (𝑘1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 − 𝑘2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )𝑥 + (𝑘1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝑘2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 )𝑧 + (𝜑1 − 𝜑2 ) (23)

Fringes can vary both on x and z directions!

- Note: Young’s double slit experiment measures the correlation in space.

Assuming the input light beam is not a plane wave (i.e. inhomogeneous), at x’=0
we measure the interference:
𝑐 𝑐 ∗ ∗
𝐼 = 2 𝜀〈𝐸𝑥 ∙ 𝐸𝑥∗ 〉 = 2 𝜀〈(𝐸1𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝐸1𝑥 (𝑥+𝑥0 )) ∙ (𝐸1𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝐸1𝑥 (𝑥 + 𝑥0 ))〉 (24)

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Lecture Notes on Wave Optics (03/12/14)
2.71/2.710 Introduction to Optics –Nick Fang

∗
𝐼 = 𝐼1 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝐼1 (𝑥 + 𝑥0 ) + 2〈𝐸1𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) ∙ 𝐸1𝑥 (𝑥 + 𝑥0 )〉 (25)

Such correlation function tells the similarity of the field over a given spatial
period. This effect is often used to measure the coherence of a remote star
under the telescope, although the radiation is thought to be randomly
distributed. A daily life example is the spatial coherence of ripples in the pool
(“Spatial coherence from Ducks” by Emil Wolf et al, Physics today 2010).

- Comparison between Michelson and Young’s double slits:

Both can be regarded as interference of two spherical waves, but observed in
different directions.

Image of wavefront splitting inferometry removed due to copyright restrictions.

- Other wavefront splitting interferometry similar to Young’s Double slits:

o Lloyd’s Mirror
o Fresnel’s biprism
o Fresnel’s mirror
o Billet’s split lens

C. More examples of Interferometry

- Thin Film interference

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Lecture Notes on Wave Optics (03/12/14)
2.71/2.710 Introduction to Optics –Nick Fang

- Fabry-Perot Interferometry t’(rr’)2tE0e2id

Consider two parallel reflective r’(rr’) 2tE
0
tr’(rr’)tE0e2id
surfaces separated by distance d, (rr’)2tE0
t’rr’tE0eid
the first one has a amplitude r’rr’tE 0
tr’tE0eid
transmission and reflection
rr’tE0
coefficient t and r, and the
r’tE0
second has amplitude rE0 t’tE0

transmission and reflection tE0

coefficient t’ and r’. Multiple E0

reflections between the two r, t r’, t’

surfaces results in two series of

reflected and transmitted terms. Due to the round trip travel path, there is a phase
difference between successive transmitted terms:
𝛿0 = (2𝑘𝑧 𝑑) (26)
The transmitted series is
𝐸𝑡 = exp(𝑖𝛿0 /2)(𝑡 ′ 𝑡𝐸0 + 𝑡 ′ (𝑟𝑟 ′ )𝑡𝐸0 exp(𝑖𝛿0 ) + 𝑡 ′ (𝑟𝑟 ′ )2 𝑡𝐸0 exp(2𝑖𝛿0 ) + ⋯ )

(27)
′ (𝑟𝑟 ′ ) (𝑟𝑟 ′ )2
𝐸𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑡𝐸0 exp(𝑖𝛿0 /2)[1 + exp(𝑖𝛿0 ) + exp(2𝑖𝛿0 ) + ⋯ ]
(28)
𝐸𝑡 = 𝑡 ′
𝑡𝐸0 exp(𝑖𝛿0 /2) ∑∞ ′ 𝑛
𝑛=0(𝑟𝑟 ) exp(𝑖𝑛𝛿0 ) (29)

𝑡 ′ 𝑡exp(𝑖𝛿0 /2)𝐸0
𝐸𝑡 = (30)
1−𝑟𝑟′ exp(𝑖𝛿0 )

The transmitted irradiance is given by:

𝑇′𝑇𝐼0
𝐼𝑡 = |1−𝑟𝑟′ (31)
exp(𝑖𝛿0 )|2
The denominator of the last result can be expressed as:
|1 − 𝑟𝑟′ exp(𝑖𝛿0 )|2 = (1 − 𝑟𝑟′ exp(𝑖𝛿0 ))(1 − 𝑟 ∗ 𝑟 ′∗ exp(−𝑖𝛿0 ))
= 1 − (𝑟 𝑟 ′ exp(𝑖𝛿0 ) + 𝑟 ∗ 𝑟 ′∗ exp(−𝑖𝛿0 )) + 𝑅𝑅′
= 1 − 2√𝑅𝑅 ′ cos(𝛿) + 𝑅𝑅′
2
= (1 − √𝑅𝑅 ′ ) + 2√𝑅𝑅 ′ (1 − cos(𝛿))
2 𝛿
= (1 − √𝑅𝑅 ′ ) + 4√𝑅𝑅 ′ sin2 (2) (32)

Where 𝛿 = (2𝑘𝑧 𝑑) + 𝜙𝑟 + 𝜙𝑟′ (33)

We define the coefficient of finesse F:

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Lecture Notes on Wave Optics (03/12/14)
2.71/2.710 Introduction to Optics –Nick Fang

4√𝑅𝑅 ′
ℱ= 2 (34)
(1−√𝑅𝑅 ′ )
To express the general form of It:
𝑇′𝑇𝐼0 1
𝐼𝑡 = 2 [ 𝛿 ] (35)
(1−√𝑅𝑅 ′ ) 1+ℱsin2 ( )
2

Applications: Fabry-Perot cavities are often designed to distinguish closely spaced

spectral lines of a gas medium. Higher values of Finesse F give a sharper
transmission pass band and greater spectral resolution. To find the half-width of the
pass band, we solve:

1 1
𝛿 = (36)
1+ℱsin2 ( ) 2
2
giving
𝛿1/2 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )= (37)
2 √ℱ

Figure 8.9 from Pedrotti: Transmittance of Fabry-Perot Cavity.

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