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Form 1
Combined Science
Physics

Data presentation
Introduction
 Data is the result of an observation through the senses, it can be
recorded to prevent it being lost.

 When data is recorded and interpretations are made, it becomes

information since it can now be retrieved and used through
reference.

 Data may be qualitative and quantitative. Presentation involves the

ways in which information is derived from data.

 Information is the implication and meaning of presented data.

Tallies
1. This is a way of keeping data in the form of marks on a recording
platform. It is the oldest means of recording quantities. Based on a
five finger hand counting system.

2. Each stroke on a recording platform such as a paper, a board or a

stick represents a single unit.

3. When four strokes have been marked, the fifth one is marked
across the first four to mark a set of five units. The fifth can be
horizontal or diagonal depending on the user’s preferences.

4. When counting to the sixth and successive numbers, another set of

strokes is marked. This process continues until another set is
completed before beginning a new set of five.

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5. The frequency in a tally chart means the number of times

something is recorded.

Table 3.1. 1: Data in the form of tallies

NUMBER TALLY NUMBER TALLY

1 | 7 |||| ||

2 || 8 |||| |||

3 ||| 9 |||| ||||

4 |||| 10 |||| ||||

5 |||| 11 |||| |||| |

6 |||| | 12 |||| |||| ||

Making a tally
 The following table lists people and their favourite fruits. Note that
it is not easy to see at a glance how many people like pears for
example.

 We can employ the tally system that we learnt in the section above
to group the data into meaningful information.

 We can even go a step further and use a bar graph to visually

present the given data.

Table 3.1.2: People and their favourite fruits

NAME FRUIT NAME FRUIT NAME FRUIT

Konga Apple Taurai Apple Gratitude Apple

Murati Apple Nigel Guava Mafundikwa Grape

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Dube Banana Peace Paw-paw Ntandoyenkosi Pear

Nokukhanya Orange Jotina Apple Munyaradzi Guava

Gwinya Pear Simbarashe Grape Peter Apple

Moffatt Apple Flora Pear Chriss Apple

Persistence Apple Howard Grape Shumba Guava

Teurai Pear Driver Orange Tapiwanashe Grape

Henry Pear Ndera Pear Keisha Pear

Ali Pear Magqibha Pear Tatiana Pear

Nhlanhla Pear Chipo Pear Siyambonga Pear

Given Pear Ncominkosi Banana Loloza Pear

Tawanda Banana Sinovuyo Banana Mthandazo Pear

 To order the data we use the tally system as shown in the table
below.

Table 3.1.2: Tally table

FRUIT TALLY

Apple |||| ||||

Banana ||||

Paw-paw |

Orange ||

Pear |||| |||| ||||

Grape ||||

Guava |||

Tables
Making A Table
 We continue with our example to make the table.

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 The table is a numeric presentation of the tally.

 This is a way of keeping data in the form of rows and columns to

allow ease of comparison and interpretation.

 Each row or column may be labeled with a heading to group data

into a well arranged presentable manner.

 The tables make it easy to interpret and compare data.

 The table below shows data presented in a table.

Table: 3.1.4 Data presentation

NAME NUMBER

Apple 9

Banana 4

Pa-paw 1

Pear 15

Grape 4

Guava 3

Bar graphs
 We can go a step further and present our data in a visual manner.

 To do this we may employ bar graphs.

 Bar graphs are used to array data in a pictorial form, to allow for
easy presentation and comparison.

 Bars of different sizes and occasionally color are used to represent

the magnitude of a quantity.

 Bars are arrayed alongside each other to compare different

magnitudes

 The bars represent values by their size in relation to the axis

perpendicular to the base of the bar graph.
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 Bar graphs are an easy way to present and compare varying values.
They are easy to interpret.

 The disadvantage of presenting bar graphs is when too much data

has to be arrayed in one graph.

 The result would be too many graphs that are difficult to interpret.

 Bar graphs can then be used to compare a small range of values.

 All bar graphs should have a title or heading, values on the x and y
axis and a key to show what the different colors represent.

Characteristics Of Bar Graph

 A bar graph has a title.

 A labelled and numbered vertical axis.

 A labeled horizontal axis.

 The height of the bars show the quantity of the measurable

labelled on the x-axis.

 Using our example of fruit choices we obtain the Bar graph shown
below in Fig 3.3.1
Fig
3.1.1:

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Bar Graph for fruit choices

Now suppose one wants to add a detail on the graph

above, say to show the distribution of choice of fruits
with gender as well. They can easily do that by adding
more columns as shown below. Note this form of graph
requires a legend to aid the user .
Fig
3.2.2:

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Fig 3.2.2: Bar graph showing more detail on gender

Example 3.1.1

Using the graph in Fig 3.2.2 answer the following

questions.

a. Which fruit is equally liked by both males and females?

Grape

b. Which two fruits are liked more by males?

[Apple, Pear]

c. Which two fruits are liked by females only?

[Paw-paw, banana]

d. Which is the most liked fruit?

Pear

 Other examples of data which can be collected and presented

using a tally or bar graph are: shoe sizes, pulse rate, height and
mass.

Data-presentation-Exercise 1

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Answer the following questions. For each question there are four possible answers. Choose the one
you consider correct.

1) The diagram below is a bar graph. The vertical axis is __________.

the line along the bottom of the chart

the line which goes from top to bottom on the left hand side of the chart
another name for the upright columns
another name for the title

2) The bar chart below shows the number of people visiting a hair salon.

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What does the key/legend tell you? What the chart is all about .
The days of the week.
The number of people who visited the hair salon.
What each bar color represents.

3) Study the tally chart below. Which color has the wrong number recorded in the total column?

Colour Tally Total

Blue |||| || 7
Green ||| 3
Red |||| 4
Yellow |||| |||| | 11 Blue
Green
Red
Yellow
4) Study the chart below, how many students have brown eyes?

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5) A survey is done on what pupils do as part of their extra curricula activities. What is the total
number of pupils in the survey?

Activity Tally
Badminton |||| |
Football |||| ||
Gym |||| |||| ||
Swimming |||| |||| ||| 6
33
38
13
6) What is missing from the bar chart below?

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A label on thevertical axis.

A label on the horizontal axis.
A key

7) What is missing from the bar chart below?

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A label on thevertical axis.

A label on the horizontal axis.
A key

8) The bar chart shows how form ones, twos and university graduates spend their time on the
computer as the day progresses. Which group does not use the computer in the morning

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University graduates
Form twos
Form ones

9) In a tally system, what number does |||| |||| represent? 2

4
8
10

10) From the chart below, how many more people live in houses than in bungalows?

Type of Accomodation Tally

House |||| |||| |||
Bungalow ||||
Flat or Apartment |||| ||||
Other ||| 4
9
13
17

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Measurement
Introduction
 The use of instruments to collect data about the state of matter is
called measuring.

Instruments
 These are the material equipment used to accurately measure the
physical quantities. Some of these instruments are 30cm rule,
meter rule, thermometer, measuring cylinder, stopwatch (analog
and digital), and force meter.

Measurement of length
 Length is the distance between two points.

 Predicting the length without use of instruments is called

estimation.

 A very short distance like a width of a book may be estimated to be

less than thirty centimeters. It would require a rule to measure it.

 The instrument used to measure length is a meter rule.

 A meter rule is divided into centimeters

 100 centimeters make 1 meter

 The fraction of a meter is a centimeter

 A centimeter is one tenth of a meter while a fraction of a

centimeter is a millimeter

A millimeter is one thousandth of a meter

1cm =10mm

1m =100cm

1m =1000mm

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Fig
3.2.1:

Meter rule
Fig
3.2.2:

30 cm rule in inches and centimetres

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Taking measurements
 Measuring accurately requires proper handling and reading of
instruments.

 Accurate readings have a very small allowance for errors and

should be taken by observing directly above the reference mark
and the object being measured.

 If measurements are taken carelessly and the observer’s eye is not

directly over the marks, an error of parallax may result.

 Readings resulting from poor handling of instruments are not

accurate.

 An error of parallax may be caused by refraction on transparent

rules, while it may be largely be caused by taking readings at an
angle

 Readings should be taken perpendicular to the division aligned

with the mark or point being measured.

Fig 3.2.3 below illustrates the correct position with a tick

to take readings th e other two points are wrong.
Fig
3.2.3:

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How to accurately take a reading from a ruler.

Temperature
Thermometer
 This is a device used to measure temperature.

 Temperature is a measure of how cold/hot a substance is, it is a

degree of the coldness or hotness of the particular substance. It is
also measured in degree Kelvin or degree Celsius, very convenient
is it not?

 Temperature can also be summed up as the physical manifestation

of the average kinetic energy of the particles of a substance. The
greater their kinetic energy the higher the temperature. The
converse is also true.

 There are many types of thermometers depending on their

application or intended use.

 The most common thermometer are made of a substance that is

contained in a glass.

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 The mercury in glass thermometer and alcohol in glass

thermometer are the most common thermometers that are used in
a wide range of applications.

Clinical thermometer
 This is mainly used to measure the body temperature of animals
and humans.

 It has a constriction to restrict the movement of the thermometer

fluid so that readings can be taken easily even after removing the
thermometer from the subject.

 The clinical thermometer will need to be shaken to return the fluid

into the bulb after taking readings.
Fig
3.2.4:

Clinical thermometer

Laboratory thermometer
o The laboratory thermometer has a wider range and responds
fast to the changes in temperature.

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o It does not have a constriction like the clinical thermometer.

o It ranges from -10 to 110 degrees Celsius.

Fig
3.2.5:

Laboratory thermometer

Note: when taking readings from a thermometer, align

the eye with the top of the meniscus on a mercury in
glass thermometer.

 For an alcohol in glass thermometer the meniscus is similar to

most liquids and hence it is concave and you read the bottom of
the meniscus.

Volume
Measuring cylinder
 This is an instrument used to measure volume of liquids

 The SI unit of volume is cubic meter (m 3 m3).

 The measuring cylinder uses the cubic centimetre (c m 3 cm3)
because the cubic meter is quiet a large volume to be measured.

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 1m3 =1 000 000c m 3 cm3

 1l = 1000c m 3 cm3
 but 1l =1000ml

 hence 1ml = 1c m 3 cm3

 For solids of regular shape, volume is calculated from a formula

Volume = length × width × height (cubes and cuboids)

V o l u m e = π r 2 h πr2h w h e r e r i s t h e r a d i u s o f t h e b a s e
circle and h is the height. (Cylindrical shapes)
How to read values from a measuring cylinder

 Place the measuring cylinder on a flat surface until the liquid

stabilizes.

 To avoid parallax error, read from the bottom of the liquid

(meniscus) if the liquid is not mercury.

Volume
 Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object.

 Volume can be measured in cubic centimetres (c m 3 cm3), cubic

metres (m 3 m3), litres (l) and millilitres (ml).
 The SI unit for measuring volume is the cubic meters (m 3 m3).

Volume Of Regular Shapes

Fig
3.2.6:

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Formula for calculating volume

Measuring The Volume Of A Solid By Displacement

 The volume of irregular shapes is measured by displacement.

 To find the volume of an irregular object;

 First put water in measuring cylinder and record the first reading.

 Put the object (such as a stone) in the water in the cylinder as

shown in the diagram.

 Record the second reading.

 The difference between the first reading and the second is the
volume of the object.
Fig
3.2.7:

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Measurement of volume for irregular objects

Density
 In simple terms density is the relationship between mass and
volume.

 Density is the mass per unit volume.

D e n s i t y = ma ss / v o l u me
 Density can be measured in g / c m 3 g/cm3.

 The SI unit for density is k g / c m 3 kg/cm3.

Example:

T h e v o l u m e o f a b o o k i s 2 5 0 c m 3 250cm3 a n d i t s m a s s i s 5 0 0
grams. Calculate the density of the book.
D e n s i t y = 5 0 0 g 2 5 0 c m 3 500g250cm3
= 2 g / c m 3 2g/cm3
Fig
3.2.8:

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Measuring cylinder

How to measure volume of irregular object

1. Pour water into a measuring cylinder as shown in figure. 3.2.9

2. Record the volume as initial volume

3. Gently lower the irregular object with a string or thread as shown.

4. Read the final volume and record it.

5. The volume of the irregular object is the difference between the

final volume and the initial volume. It is the total volume of the
water displaced by the object.
Fig
3.2.9:

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Volume of solid object

a. What is the initial volume? (30ml)

b. What is the final volume? (40ml)

c. What is the volume of the solid object? (40 – 30 = 10ml)

Time
The Stopwatch
 It is the instrument used to record time in seconds.

 Time is measured accurately using a stop watch.

 The SI unit of time is the second, symbol s.

Fig
3.2.10

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Analog stopwatch

 1 minute = 60 seconds

 1 hour = 60 minutes = 3600s

 1 day = 24 hours

 1 week = 7 days

 1 year = 12 months

Fig 3.2.11 Digital stopwatch

The pendulum
 Instruments used to measure time are clocks and watches. These
include electronic devices crystal clocks.

 In a simple pendulum clock, a simple pendulum is used to keep

regular count of time.

 A pendulum can do this because its swing repeats itself regularly

all the time.

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 The period, (T) of a simple pendulum depends on the length of the

string attached to the bob and strength of gravitational field.

 The period, T is the time taken to complete one cycle of motion,

that is one oscillation, A to B then B to A in Fig 3.2.11

o The bob is released from point A to B through O,

simultaneously the stopwatch is started and time is recorded
when the bob gets back to point A.

o Repeat and record the times for three trials (to avoid random
errors) for a length.

o Find the average of these times.

o The value becomes the periodic time, T in seconds.

o The time taken to make one complete swing or oscillation is

the period. The period remains constant.

Force Meter
 This is an instrument used to measure force.

 Spring balance is an example

 The spring balance measures weight as a resultant of the effect of

the action of gravity on a suspended body.

 Weight is a force.

 The SI unit of force is a Newton symbol N.

Fig 3.2.12: Force meter

Weight =mass × acceleration due gravity

W = m g ( g = 1 0 m / s 2 10m/s2)
1 0 N = 1 k g × 1 0 m / s 2 10m/s2

Measuring Mass
 Mass is the amount of matter in a substance.

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 Mass is measured in grams, kilograms or tonnes.

 The SI unit for mass is the kilogram.

1 kg = 1000g

1 tonne = 1000kg

Instruments for measuring mass

Fig 3.2.13: Triple beam balance

Measuring mass of very small objects

 A very small object is difficult to measure mass.

 However, if the small objects are many and are identical then you
can measure the mass of a group of them and then divide the
mass by the number of objects.

Example 1:
The mass of 500 maize seeds is 5000 grams. What is the
mass of 1 maize seed?
Mass of 1 maize seed = 5000g ÷ 500
= 10g

Example 2:
The thickness of 350 papers is 7cm. What is the
thickness of 1 paper?
Answer:
Thickness of 1 paper = 7cm ÷ 350
= 0,02cm

 Very small quantities can be measured using an electronic scale.

 The scale can measure masses as small as milligrams.

Fig 3.2.14: Electronic scales, measuring tools for very small quantities (masses).

Facts To Note

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 Measuring instruments for distance is called a rule, for time is a

clock, for temperature is a thermometer and for volume is a
measuring cylinder.

 The SI unit for; distance is a metre (m), weight is a Kilogram (Kg),

temperature is degrees Celsius (˚C), time is the second(s) and
density is kilogram per cubic metre (K g / m 3 Kg/m3).
 When measuring the volume of a liquid an accurate reading is
taken from the meniscus.

 Density is calculated as mass/volume.

Measurement-Exercise 1

Answer the following questions. For each question there

are four possible answers. Choose the one you consider
correct.
1) A piece of cotton is measured between two points on a ruler.

When the length of cotton is wound closely around a pen, it goes round six times.

What is the distance once round the pen?

2,2cm
2,6cm
13,2cm
15,6cm

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2) A group of students were asked to read the diameter of sphere. Their eye positions are shown in
the diagram below.

Which students did not read the measurements correctly? 1 only

2 and 3
1 and 3
2 only

3) A girl runs round a track three times. Her friend uses a stopwatch to record the time at the start
of the run, after one circuit, and at the end of the three circuits. The readings from the stopwatch
are shown.

What is the average time for one circuit of the track? 174 s
180 s
198 s
200 s

4) A student measures the length of a rod XY by holding it next to a metre rule.

rule.PNG (9 KB)
The student writes down the length as 94.8 cm. Which statement is correct? The value is correct.
The value is incorrect because it should be 95.2 cm.
The value is incorrect because it should be in millimeters.

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The value is incorrect because the student should subtract the reading for end Y from the reading
for end X.

5) A student uses a ruler to measure the length and the width of a small rectangular metal plate.

What is the area of the plate? 13,3 cm2

14,7 cm2
16,0 cm2
16,8 cm2

6) Which two quantities are measured in the same units? Weight and force
Acceleration and energy
Energy and force
Acceleration and weight

7) The diagram shows a measuring cylinder

Which unit would be most suitable for its scale? mm2

mm3

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cm2
cm3

8) A length of copper pipe, of uniform cross-section and several metres long, carries water to a tap.

Measurements are taken to determine accurately the volume of copper in the pipe. Which
instruments are used? Calipers and micrometer
Micrometer and rule
Rule and tape
Tape and calipers

9) When using a measuring cylinder to measure the volume of a quantity of water. Which of the
following is not necessary? Reading the bottom of the meniscus.
Making sure that the measuring cylinder is vertical.
Using the largest measuring cylinder possible.
Making sure that your eye is level with the liquid surface.

10) Which row correctly gives the best pair of measuring instruments to measure the length of a
wire of about 60 cm and a diameter of 0,1 cm. Metre rule, Micrometer screw gauge.
Metre rule, 30cm rule.
Vernier calipers, Micrometer screw gauge.
Micrometer screw gauge, Vernier calipers.

Force
 Force is any action push or pull that causes motion or change of
the shape of an object.
Fig
3.3.1:

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Illustration of forces

 The various types of forces can be placed into two broad

categories based on whether the force results from the two objects
having direct contact or indirect contact with each other.

Contact (mechanical) and Non-Contact Forces

 Contact forces happen when two bodies have direct contact with
each other. Other forces happen from a distance without physical
contact, these forces are called non-contact forces.

Table 3.3.1: Contact and non -contact forces

CONTACT FORCES NON- CONTACT FORCES

Tension Force Gravitational Force

Frictional Force Electrical Force

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Mechanical Magnetic Force

Gravitational force
 This refers to force of gravity which acts on objects in the universe.
This force attracts another object towards another.

 The more massive the object the greater the force at which it
attracts other objects.

 Can you think of any object in this world that is bigger than the
earth?

 Now you understand why everything is attracted by this force of

the earth that we call gravity.

 The sun is more supermassive than the earth. If it were possible

calculations show that on could fit a million earths into the sun.

 In this regard the earth is attracted by the sun’s gravity.

 You will learn the reason why it does not tumble straight into the
sun as you go further in your studies of physics.

 This gravitational force give objects their weight.

Frictional Force
 This is the force that develops when two objects or surfaces are
pushed or pulled against each other.

 The friction force acts in opposition to the motion of an object.

 Therefore the development of this force depends on the nature of

the surfaces in operation and also the magnitude of the applied
force.

Mechanical Force
 It is a force that involves contact with another object.

 Mechanical force is transmitted through a medium.

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 Mechanical force can be evidenced when someone is pushing a

door. The person’s hand has direct contact with the door handle
and applies the force to it in order to open it.

 Mechanical forces can also be transmitted through air.

Electrostatic force
 Electrostatic forces are non-contact forces; they pull or push on
objects without touching them.

 Rubbing some materials together can result in something called

‘charge’ being moved from one surface to the other.

 Charged objects pull on other uncharged objects and may either

push or pull on other charged objects.

 It is a phenomenon that results from stationary electrical charges.

 The force that exists between two charged particles that are far
apart is called electrostatic force.

Magnetic force
 It is the force that exist between two magnets caused by the
interaction of their magnetic fields

 The force causes the magnets to repel or attract one another.

Measuring Force
 Force is measured by a force meter or a spring balance.

 The SI unit of force is called the newton (N).

 It was named after the British Scientist called Sir Isaac Newton

 Below are pictures of a force meter and a spring balance.

Fig
3.3.2:

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Force meter
Fig
3.3.3:

Spring balance

Mass and Weight

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Fig
3.3.4:

digital scale and analog balances

 The mass of an object is the amount of matter in an object.

 The symbol for mass is m and its SI unit is the kilogram.

 Mass is measured by an instrument called a balance.

 Weight of an object is the force of gravity on the object. Weight is

a force, its SI unit is the Newton.

The differences between mass and weight are shown in

Table 3.3.1 below.

MASS WEIGHT

Mass is the quantity of matter in a A measure of the gravitational force acting on

body. the object.

SI unit = Kg SI unit = N

Measured using a triple beam

Measured using a spring balance
balance

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Depends on the gravity acting in that particular

Constant at any place an time
place.

When changing mass to weight:

1. Change mass (in grams) to kilograms. If its grams you divide by a

thousand.

2. Multiply by 10 since force of gravity is 10N. The mass is now

changed to weight (a force).

Experiment: Calibrating And Measuring Weight Using A Spring Balance

Apparatus and materials

For each student group:

 Forcemeter

 Mass hanger with slotted masses (100 g)

 Unknown masses of between 0.5 and 1.0 kg

 Sticky tape, 'write on' variety

Procedure

1. Cover the scale of calibrated spring balances with ‘write on’ sticky
strips.

2. Hold the force meter vertically. There is no force pulling its spring
(apart from the weight of the hook), so the reading must be zero.
Make a mark on the blank strip that will be the 0 of your force
meter scale.

3. Pull on the spring with a 100-gramme mass; which is

approximately 1 newton on earth. Put a mark on the blank strip
that will be the 1 of the scale.

4. Add another 100g mass to the forcemeter. The force pulling the
spring of the forcemeter is now approximately 2 newtons. Make a
2 newton mark on your forcemeter scale.

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5. Repeat this up to 10 newtons. You have now ‘calibrated’ your

forcemeter so that it has a scale for taking measurements.

6. Take the masses off the forcemeter and hang the unknown mass
from it. Record the force of gravity (weight) that acts on this mass.
You can now use your forcemeter to measure any force, up to 10
Newtons.

Expected observations

Using the 100g masses we can calibrate a force meter at

1N intervals up to 10N. The intervals are equidistant
from each other.

Effects of Force
 When force has been applied to objects, the objects behave
differently depending on the nature of the object meaning its size
and shape.

 The process of applying force on objects results in the following

possible effects on the object:

o Change of shape or size (deformation)

o It can start OR stop moving

o It can decelerate or accelerate,

o It can change direction.

Fig
3.3.5:

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Boy playing soccer – the ball increases speed (acceleration)

Fig
3.3.6:

Rocket taking off – the rocket increases speed tremendously.

Summary

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 A force is any action, push or pull.

 Force is measured in Newton.

 The measuring instrument for force is called a force meter.

 Weight is a force caused by the pull of gravity on objects.

 Mass is the amount of matter in a body.

Friction
 Friction is the force that resists motion.
Fig
3.3.7:

Illustration of friction

 Friction is a force thus it is measured in newtons.

 An object moves when a force that is greater than the force of

friction is exerted on it.

 Friction is also used in the braking system of cars and bicycles.

 Frictional force is measured using force meter.

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Experiment To Investigate Frictional Force

Apparatus

string, force meter, wooden box, weights.

Fig
3.3.8:

Force meter

Procedure:

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram below.

2. Pull the spring of the force meter slowly up to the point when the
wooden box begins to move and record the force applied.

3. Add more weights on the block and record the forces required to
make it move.

Expected Observation : the more the weights are added

the more the forces are required to move the wooden
box.

Conclusion:

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WEIGHT/MASS FORCE OF FRICTION

Light Less friction

Heavy More friction

Factors affecting friction

 The roughness or smoothness of the surfaces in contact - Friction
is greater on rough surfaces than smooth ones.

 The weight of an object- the greater the weight, the higher the
friction as discussed already.

 The size of the surface areas in contact.

Importance Of Friction
 Friction enables us to walk and run without slipping.

 Friction is useful when slowing down for example in retarding cars,

trains and bicycles.

 Friction is used in many things in our daily lives, for example,

writing with pencil, cutting things with knife and holding things in
hand.

Disadvantages Of Friction
 Friction makes the moving parts of engines and machines wear
and tear.

 Friction cause energy loss through heat.

 It opposes motion hence causing people or machines to use more

power.

 Machines may make a lot of noise because of friction.

Ways To Reduce Friction

 Use of bearings between surfaces.

 Use of rollers between surfaces.

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 Lubrication using oils and greases.

 Polish the surfaces smooth.

NB: Movement happens when a force that exceeds friction

is exerted on the object.

Summary

 A force that acts in an opposite direction to the force that is

applied is called friction.

 A moving body will slow down due to friction.

 If the weight of a body increases the amount of friction increases.

 A smooth surface has less friction than a rough surface.

 Friction is reduced by using lubricants, ball bearings, rollers and

wheels.

Magnetic force
 A magnet is a piece of metal that attracts other magnets or metals.

 Every magnet has two poles, the south and north poles.

 A pole refers to the end of a magnet where the magnetic field is

strongest.

 The property of having two opposite poles by a magnet is referred

to as magnetic polarity.

 Not all materials or substances are attracted to magnets.

Fig
3.3.9:

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Poles of magnets showing magnetic force

Properties Of Magnets
1. Magnets attract magnetised objects.

2. Like poles of magnet repel and unlike poles attract each other.

3. The force of attraction at the poles of a magnet is greater than the

middle of magnet.

4. When a magnet is left hanging freely, the South Pole and North
Pole align with the earth’s North and South Pole naturally.

Magnetic Field
 This refers to the area around a magnet where the magnetic force
is experienced.

 This is the invisible area around a magnet which attracts magnetic

objects.

 For example paperclips will get pulled towards the magnet if they
are placed in this field.

Experiment: To Investigate The Magnetic Field Around Two Bar Magnets.

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Materials:

 Two books

 Sheets of paper

 Iron filings

 2 magnets

 Tin with perforated lids

Procedure:

1. Place the two books side by side such that they leave a space
enough for a magnet to be placed between them.

2. Place a magnet between the two books and cover with a piece of
paper.

3. Sprinkle iron filings evenly over the paper using the perforated tin
tops.

4. Tap the paper until a pattern starts to emerge.

5. Observe and record what you see.

Expected Observations:

 The iron filings moves to both poles.

 Magnetic lines (flux) move from North poles to South poles.

Fig
3.3.10:

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Magnetic lines of force

An example of how the magnetic field is like.

Magnetic And Non-Magnetic Materials

 The materials attracted by the magnet and contain iron are
referred to as magnetic materials and those which are not attracted
as non-magnetic.

 Examples of magnetic materials are:

Iron, nickel, paper clips, nails, copper, metal objects

 Examples of non-magnetic materials are:

Rubber, plastic, stainless steel, paper, gold, silver

Experiment: To Identify The Magnetic And Non-Magnetic Materials.

Materials:

 drawing pins

 coin

 glass

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 a magnet bar

 plastic ruler

 wood

 wire

Procedure:

1. Spread the given materials and try to pick them using a magnetic
bar.

2. Separate attracted materials from unattached materials.

3. Record what you observe.

Observations:

MAGNETIC SUBSTANCES NON-MAGNETIC SUBSTANCES

Drawing pins Glass

Coin Plastic ruler

Wire Wood

Magnetic Force (Attraction And Repulsion)

 It is the force that exists between two poles of magnetic material
causing them to attract or repel one another.

 Attraction happens between two unlike poles.

 The North Pole and the South Pole attracts together and the
opposite is true.

 The pole that always points to the south is referred to as the South
Pole whilst that which always points to the North is the North Pole.

The diagram below shows attraction and repulsion.

Fig
3.3.11:

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Pair of magnets showing attraction and repulsion

Attraction and repulsion in bar magnets

 Repulsion opposes attraction.

 It is therefore a force which pushes similar ends of magnets apart.

Summary

 A magnet has a north and a south pole.

 Magnetic materials include iron and steel while non-magnetic

include wood, plastic etc.

 Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.

 Magnetic field refers to the space around a magnet in which it

exerts its force.

 Iron and steel can become magnetized by touching them with one
pole of a magnet.

Force-Exercise 1

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Answer the following questions. For each question there are four possible answers. Choose the one
you consider correct.

1) Which one of the following forces does not act at a distance? Static electricity
Friction
Gravity
Magnetism

2) Which of the following one is a non-contact force? Friction

Gravity
Compression
Stretching

3) Which of the following is not a force? Push

Pull
Gravity
Heat

4) Which of the surfaces below produce the most amount of friction? Grassy soccer field.
Gravel running track.
Smooth glass table top.
All of the above.

5) Mass is defined as ___________. the amount of matter in an object

the pulling force acting on an object
the pushing force acting on an object
the force of a stationary object

6) In what unit is force measured? Kg

N
Nm
Kg/m3

7) A heavy mass may result in __________. less friction

no friction
more friction
all friction

8) What is friction? A force that increases motion.

A force that opposes motion.
A force that stops a body from moving.
A force that acts on gravity.

9) Which of the following is a force? Mass

Speed
Weight
Work

10) Four similar flat objects were pulled along different surfaces. Which object had the least
friction? On polished floor
On a water layer

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On rough cement
On an oil layer
Force-Exercise 2

Answer the following questions. Each correct answer is equivalent to one mark.

1) The class/type of force that requires physical contact is ____________.

2) The instruments used to measure force are either a spring balance or a __________.

3) State the SI unit of weight.

4) State the SI unit of mass.

5) The unit for force is the __________.

6) Name the non-contact force that results from rubbing together 2 different objects.

7) State the name of a contact force that is mostly responsible for deceleration of free moving
objects.

8) The __________ force is based on the polarity of an object.

9) What is the term used to denote the force that causes two magnets to move away from each
other?

10) State the force that is exerted by the earth on every object.

Energy
 Energy is the ability to do work.

 It is always present but never visible.

 Although it is not visible, you can detect evidence or effects of

energy.
Fig
3.4.1:

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Forms of energy

 Energy exists in many forms and can be changed from one form to
another.

 It cannot be created or destroyed.

 Energy can be moved from one object to another.

 Energy produces change: it does things for us.

 For instance, it moves cars along the road and boats over the
water.

 It bakes a cake in the oven and produces ice in the freezer.

 Energy plays our favourite songs on the radio and lights our
homes.

 Chemical energy in our bodies makes our bodies grow and allows
our minds to think.

Forms of Energy

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 There are many forms of energy and their effects. These are
kinetic, potential, light, heat, electrical, chemical and sound.
Fig
3.4.2:

Types of energy

Potential energy
 Potential energy is stored energy or energy at rest.

 The energy in matter due to its position or arrangements of parts.

Example sources of potential energy

Fig.
3.4.3

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Example sources of potential energy

1. Elastic– a trampoline resists being stretched out of shape.

2. Electrical– a battery operated flash light converts electrical

potential energy to light when turned on.

3. Chemical– in a lit fire cracker it is used to make a loud sound.

4. Chemical– the energy in food is used by our bodies to move.

5. Gravitational– like an apple falling from a tree.

Gravitational Potential Energy

 Gravitational potential energy uses a force of gravity to pull things
from higher level to lower.

 This is the energy stored in an object due to its position.

Examples
Fig
3.4.4:

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Gravitational force: rock on top of the cliff can be used to crush the one at the
bottom.

 Water stored up in the dam for generating hydroelectricity is also a

form of gravitational potential energy.
Fig
3.4.5:

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Falling water from the dam wall.

 Leaves up in the tree have a gravitational potential energy to fall to

the ground at any time.
Fig
3.4.6:

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Falling leaves

Factors Affecting Gravitational Potential Energy

 Mass of the object.

 Height of the object above the ground of the Earth.

 Gravity

Chemical potential energy

 Chemical potential energy is the energy stored in atoms and can
be released by chemical reactions.

 The energy is produced by burning fuels or a switching on a light

from bulb connected to a battery.

 The food eaten by people has chemical potential energy that fuels
up the body.

Examples of objects that store chemical potential energy

Batteries, petrol, wood, coal, food, paraffin, candles

Elastic potential energy

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 It is the energy that is stored in elastic objects as a result of their

stretching and compressing abilities.

 Elastic potential energy is stored in a stretched rubber band,

stretched spring, compressed spring, pulled catapult and drawn
bow.

Look at the spring below.

Fig
3.4.7:

Elastic potential energy

Compressed and stretched spring

 The spring gains elastic potential energy when it is stretched or

compressed as shown on the picture.
Fig
3.4.8:

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A stretched catapult has an elastic potential energy.

Facts to note

 Energy stored in objects such as chemicals, fuels and stationary

objects is called potential energy.

 There are three forms of potential energy which are gravitational

potential energy, chemical potential energy and elastic potential
energy.

Kinetic energy
 It is energy possessed by moving objects.

 This energy is also referred to as movement energy.

 In other words it is energy possessed by an object due to its

motion.

 Examples of objects possessing kinetic energy are a rolling stone,

moving car, a flying aeroplane, a falling or moving ball
Fig
3.4.9

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Kinetic energy
Fig
3.4.10

Kinetic energy

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 Heavy and fast moving objects have more kinetic energy than small
and slow ones.

 In other words the heavier and faster an object is, the more kinetic
energy it possesses.
Fig.3.4.11:

Stationary balls of different weights

 When these balls splash into the water, the extent of displacement
is greater for the heavier object compared to the smaller one, as
shown in Fig 3.4.12.
Fig
3.4.12

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Energy changes: potential to kinetic energy

 This means that heavy and fast objects make more impact, for
example, in the above diagram, the heavy ball made more splash
than the less heavy one.

 Kinetic energy can be changed to other forms of energy.

 As different objects move, kinetic energy can be changed into

other different forms of energy.

 Kinetic energy can be changed into sound energy.

 Heat energy.

Experiment 1: To Show That Kinetic Energy Can Change To Other Forms Of

Energy.

Materials: Table, brick, tin and ball.

Procedure

1. Put the brick or tin at the edge of the table.

2. Push the brick or tin down. (Stand aside to avoid hitting yourself or
others).

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3. Observe the forms of energy taking place.

Expected Observations

 There is potential energy when the brick/tin is at rest on the top of

the desk.

 The brick/tin possesses kinetic energy as it falls.

 The brick/tin produces sound as it hits the ground.

 This is called sound energy.

Conclusion

 Kinetic energy can be changed to other forms of energy.

 When an object is at rest on a table it possesses gravitational

potential energy.

 It is called gravitational potential energy because it is influenced by

the force of gravity (a force that makes all things to fall down).

Other energy changes

 Other moving objects can convert kinetic energy into heat energy,
for example a wheel of a moving vehicle.

 Other examples include a rocket or jet in flight.

 Before they take off they possess chemical potential energy which
is converted into kinetic energy as they start to move.

 As they move, they also convert kinetic energy into both sound and
heat energy.

Facts To Note
 Energy possessed by moving objects is called movement or kinetic
energy.

 Kinetic energy can be changed to other forms of energy such as

heat, sound and potential energy.

 All moving objects, both big and small, possess kinetic energy.
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Light energy
 Another form of energy is light energy.

 We all need light.

 People, trees and animals need light.

 We can see light with our eyes.

Uses Of Light Energy

 Helps us to see.

 Used in the process of photosynthesis.

 Used by cameras.

Sources Of Light Energy

 There are two main sources of light.

 There are natural and artificial or man-made sources of light.

Natural Sources Of Light

1. Sun

2. Moon

3. Stars

4. Glow worm (chitaitai, isitayitayi)

Fig
3.4.13:

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Glow worm

 The sun is the major source of energy.

 All things depend on the sun.

 The sun gives us both light and heat energy.

 Energy from sun is also called solar energy.

 This form of energy travels to the earth in waves.

 The sun is a renewable source of energy.

Artificial/Man-Made Sources Of Light

1. Fire

2. Torch

3. Lamp

4. Candle

5. Light bulb

6. Gas lamp

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These light energy sources can use chemical, potential or

electric energy to produce light.

Some characteristics of light

Light travels in a straight line.

 When light travels it produces a beam.

 A beam is made up of rays.

 A ray is a narrow stream of light.

 The sun is an example of source of light with a large beam called

sunbeam.

 The dust in the air/atmosphere makes it easier to see the

sunbeam.

 Another beam comes from headlamps.

Experiment 2: To Show That Light Travels In Straight Line.

Materials

 Three similar boards

 light source (candle or torch)

 screen

Procedure

1. Pierce a hole in the middle of each board.

2. Put the boards in a straight line with the holes lining together.

3. Stand the lighted candle in front of the first board.

4. Peep through the last board to see the lighted candle.

Fig
3.4.14:

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Demonstrating that light travels in a straight line

5. Shift any board slightly up or down out of line and try to peek
through the holes again.

6. Can you see the light anymore?

Expected Observations

 Light can be seen through the three holes when they are in a
straight line.

 We cannot see the light when a board has been moved out of line.

 This means that light travels in a straight line and cannot bend to
follow holes.

Light Can Be Transmitted.

 Some materials allow light to pass through them, e.g. a
window/glass, some plastics, water, etc.

 These are called transparent materials therefore, they transmit

light.

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 When a material is transparent it means that we can see through

them.

Light Is Reflected
 Light can be reflected by shiny objects.

 An example of a shiny object that reflects light is a mirror.

 Water can also reflect light.

Light Moves At A Very High Speed

 Light travels at a speed of 3.0 × 108 m/s.

 If you could travel at the speed of light, you could go around the
Earth 7.5 times in one second.

Light Produces Shadows

 A shadow is produced when light has been blocked by an object.

 Objects that does not allow light to pass through are called opaque
objects.

 These shadows are also evidence that light travels in a straight

line.

 Shadows normally maintain the shape of the original object.

Experiment 3: To Show That Light Produce Shadows.

Materials

 Light source

 Screen

 Opaque object

Procedure:

1. Put on the light source and put it on a stable or fixed position.

2. Hold an opaque object near the light.

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3. Observe the shadow.

Fig
3.4.15:

Light produces shadows

Expected Observations

 A shadow is produced when light is blocked.

 Shadows vary in sizes depending on the distance of light source

from the object.
Fig
3.4.16:

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Shadows are as a result of light being blocked

 If the light source is moved closer to the object a larger shadow is

formed.

 This is because more light is blocked by the object.

 If the light source is moved further away from the object a smaller
shadow is formed because less light is blocked.

Facts to note

 Sun, fire, electric bulbs, candles and the moon are some of the
sources of light energy.

 Light energy travels in a straight line.

 If an opaque object blocks a light source a shadow is formed.

 A shadow is a result of blockage of light.

Heat energy
 Heat energy is a form of energy that can be transferred from one
particle to another as a result of differences in temperature.

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 Materials that can transfer heat are called conductors.

 Some materials are good conductors and others are bad

conductors.

 Burning fuels produces heat energy and in many cases, along with
light.

 Examples of everyday fuels used to provide heat and light in the

home are given in Fig 3.4.17;
Fig
3.4.17:

Everyday fuels used to provide heat and light in the home

Experiment 4: Demonstrating How A Fuel Burns To Release Heat And Light

Energy.

Materials:

 6-8 cm magnesium ribbon

 Bunsen burner

 Charcoal grill lighter or similar

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 Tongs

Procedure:
1. Light the burner and adjust the flame to light blue.

2. Holding one end of the magnesium ribbon with tongs, place the
other end in the flame until it ignites.

3. The burning ribbon should be held at arm’s length.

Warning: Do not look directly at the burning ribbon.

Expected observations

 The burning magnesium yields brilliant, white light and intense

heat.
Fig
3.4.18:

Magnesium ribbon flame

Transfer Of Heat
 Heat can be transferred through three processes which are:
Conduction, Convection and Radiation; these will be covered in
detail, later, in the subject of energy.

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Facts To Note
 Some sources of light are also sources of heat energy.

 Heat is also produced where two objects rub against each other,
due to friction.

 Heat energy can be transferred through convection (in gases and

liquids), radiation (in gases and vacuum) and conduction (in
solids).

Sound energy
 Sound energy is produced through vibration.

 Vibrations create sound waves which move through media such as

air and water before reaching our ears.

 The vibrations are the small and very fast forward and backward
movements.

 The sound changes when the vibrational waves of the medium

changes.

 Sound energy can be transferred through gases, liquids and solids

but it cannot pass through a vacuum.

 It is measured in decibels and Pascals.

 Sound is produced differently in different mediums: some produce

sound by blowing, stroking, plucking, hitting and twanging.

Examples Of How Sound Is Produced In Different Mediums:

 Whistle and bottle produces sound when blown.

 When you hit marimba, tambourine or drums they produce sound.

 Mbira and guitar make sound by plucking.

 Violin is stroked to produce sound.

Factors That Affect Sound Production

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 The pitch of sound is affected by the length of column of air or

length of strings in musical instruments, for example in a guitar.

 The shorter the length the higher the pitch and the longer the
strings the lower the pitch.

 It is also affected by the thickness of the strings and the diameter

of the air column.

 Thick strings and larger diameters will produce low pitched sound
and thin strings and smaller diameters produces high pitched
sound.

 The loudness of sound is affected by the amount of energy used

for vibration.

 Higher energy will result in louder sounds whilst lower energy will
result in blunter sounds, for example when hitting a drum.

The Voice Box

Fig
3.4.19:

The voice box

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 The larynx is the voice box.

 It is the one responsible for producing voice.

 When air from the lungs pass over the stretched vocal cords and
the vibrations are modified by the tongue and the lips, speech is
produced.

Experiment: To Test If Sound Can Travel Through A Solid Material (String).

Materials:

 Two tins,

 a 10m string

Procedure

1. Make holes at the centre of the bottom of each tin.

2. Make string to pass through the holes of the tins and tie knots at
each end of the string as shown on the diagram below.

3. Hold the tins in such a way that the string is kept tight and talk to
each other.
Fig
3.4.20:

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Transmission of sound energy

Expected Observation: People can hear each other when they talk through the tins.

Conclusion: Sound can travel through solid materials (string).

Facts to note

 Sound is produced by vibrations.

 Sound can travel through liquids, gases and solids but not through
a vacuum.

 Sound travels fastest through liquids and solids.

 The quality of sound is affected by tension and length of the

vibrating objects.

Energy conversions
 Energy conversion is the process of changing one form of energy
to another.

 Chemical potential energy can be converted to different forms of

energy.

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Fig
3.4.21:

Energy conversions

 Light energy can also be changed into electrical energy by the use
of a solar cell or photovoltaic cell.

 A motor vehicle engine converts chemical potential energy in

petrol and diesel into heat energy which is transformed into the
kinetic energy that moves the vehicle.

Energy chains
 Energy chains refer to a series of how energy conversions occur in
sequence.

 Below are some examples of how energy can change from one
form to another. These are called energy chains.

 For instance, when an electrical jug is switched on electrical energy

is converted to heat energy.

Electrical energy → Heat energy

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 When a rock drops from a high place, gravitational potential

energy is converted to kinetic energy as the rock falls and then to
sound and heat as it hits the ground and causes a sound as in the
diagram below.
Fig
3.4.22:

Energy conversions in a falling stone

Potential energy kinetic energy + heat and sound

 When coal is burnt, the energy changes in the following way:

Chemical energy heat + light

Energy Converters
 An energy converter is any device that converts energy from one
form to another. The following are examples:

Solar Panels
Fig
3.4.23:

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Solar panels as energy converters

 The solar panel converts solar energy to electrical and heat energy.

 Electrical energy is, in turn, converted to heat, sound, mechanical

and other forms of energy.

 Solar panels are an important and relatively inexpensive source of

electrical energy.

 When producing solar power, the solar panels collect energy from
the sun and convert it to electrical energy which is stored in the
batteries as chemical energy.

 Solar panels are therefore solar energy converters.

Fig
3.4.24:

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How solar panel convert energy

Solar Inverters
 A solar inverter converts the electricity from solar panels’ direct
current (DC) into alternating current (AC) that can be used by the
plugs in houses for TVs, computers, and other wired products.

 Solar panels cannot create AC power by themselves; they need the

helping of a solar inverter.
Fig
3.4.25:

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Solar inverters

Green Plants

Fig 3.4.26: Green plant absorbing light energy and changing it to chemical

Green plants as energy converters

 They are solar energy converters.

 The process by which green plants convert solar energy to

chemical energy is called photosynthesis.

 The part of the plants that enables this process is the leaves
because of the green colour called chlorophyll which traps
sunlight.

Other Examples Of Energy Converters Are:

 Light bulb which converts electrical energy to light energy.

 A bicycle generator converts mechanical energy to electrical

energy.

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 A train steam engine works as follows: potential chemical energy

stored in the coal is converted into heat by burning. The heat is
converted to mechanical energy by:

 Heating water into steam.

 Steam expands to force a piston to move.

 Pistons drive a shaft that eventually makes the wheels of the train
turn.

 Mechanical energy therefore becomes kinetic energy as the train

moves.

 An electrical motor converts electrical energy into mechanical

energy.

 A battery contains stored chemical energy which is converted to

electrical energy which can, in turn, be converted into mechanical
energy.

Electricity generators
Hydro- Electric Generators
 Hydroelectric power is power derived from the energy of falling
water and running water.

Fig 3.4.27: Hydroelectric power generation

A Local Example: Kariba Hydro- Electric Power Station

 A Kariba, hydroelectric power is power derived from the energy of
falling water and running water which is trapped and put to good
use.

 The water stores gravitational potential energy which is released

when the water falls on the turbines

 Kinetic energy is produced and the moving turbines generate

electrical energy.

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Fig 3.4.28: Hydroelectric power generation at Kariba dam

Thermal-Electric Conversion
 Thermal power stations use steam to drive generators.

 Coal is used as fuel to heat the water and produce steam.

 Burning coal boils water to produce steam which powers the

turbine to turn on the generator.

 The generator, in turn, produces electricity.

A Local Example: Hwange Power Station

 Hwange Thermal Power Station is located in Matabeleland North,
Zimbabwe.

 Coal is delivered to the station by an overland conveyor belt.

 Water which is piped from the Zambezi River is pumped into

reservoirs next to the station and conveyed by gravity to the point
of use.

 The energy converters at Hwange power station are generators

which are driven by steam, produced from heating the water using
coal.

 They produce electricity, which is then transmitted to the different

parts of the country.

Fig 3.4.29: Hwange thermal power station

Facts to note

 Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be changed

from one form to another.

 Energy converters are devices which cause energy changes.

 Energy changes can be written as energy chains.

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 Fuels have stored chemical energy that can be used to produce

heat or generate electricity.

Energy-Exercise 1

Answer the following questions. For each question there are four possible answers. Choose the one
you consider correct.

1) If you hit strongly on a drum the sound is louder, this is an indication that sound is related to
__________. energy
food
light
metals

2) Which of the following items shows elastic potential energy? A stretched catapult.
A stone on a hill.
A cell
Water in a dam.

3) The energy which makes the water cycle work comes from the __________. air pressure
sun
thunder
wind

4) Kinetic energy is energy possessed by a body due to its __________. nature

position
movement
weight

5) Which of the following items possesses chemical potential energy? Sadza

Tractor moving downhill
Fan
See-saw

6) A dynamo changes __________. chemical energy to electrical energy

kinetic energy to electrical energy
potential energy to electrical energy
electrical energy to kinetic energy

7) The spring in a cocked gun has __________. elastic potential energy

kinetic energy
sound energy
chemical potential energy

8) When one is studying they __________. destroy energy

do not use energy
create energy
use energy

9) The energy stored in a torch cell is __________. kinetic energy

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light energy
electrical energy
chemical potential energy

10) Choose the most suitable energy chain for the changes taking place when you rub your fingers
on the table top. Kinetic → heat → chemical
Chemical → kinetic → heat
Heat → potential → kinetic
Sound → chemical → kinetic

Energy-Exercise 2

Fill in the gaps using the suitable word(s). Each correct

answer is equivalent to one mark.
Top of Form
1) For questions 1- 7, State the form of energy is demonstrated by the diagrams.

2)

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3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

8) Use the list below to answer questions 8 - 13.

[Soda, kinetic, petrol, diesel, battery, heat, electricity, wheel, sound, piano, firewood,
light, candle.]

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From the list above, select the form of energy that always moves in a straight line.

9) Select the form of energy that can be transmitted in a vacuum.

10) Which form of energy is conveniently converted to various other forms in the home?

11) Select the form of energy that is possessed by a moving body.

12) Name the energy from the sun that is changed into electricity.

13) The electrical energy converted by the solar panel is later converted into __________ energy in
a battery.

14) For questions 14 - 19, Identify the forms of energy illustrated by the diagrams.

15)

16)

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17)

18)

19)

20) Energy cannot be created or _________, it can only be changed from one form to another.

Magnetism
 Magnets pull some metals towards itself.

 Metals (alloys) that contain iron, nickel and cobalt are magnetic.

Types of magnets
 Broadly speaking, there are permanent and temporary magnets.

 Temporary magnets are those which act like a permanent magnet

when they are within a strong magnetic field, but lose their
magnetism when the magnetic field disappears. Examples would
be paperclips and nails and other soft iron items.

 A permanent magnet, on the other hand, is one that retains its

magnetic properties in the absence of a magnetic field or current.

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 Amongst permanent magnets there are different types according

to shape and magnetic properties.

 Fig 3.5.1 shows magnets named according to physical shape.

Fig
3.5.1

Shapes of magnets
Fig
3.5.2

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Magnetic forces in various magnets

 Magnets can also be classified according to materials they are

made of and consequently, the varying levels of magnetism.

 For instance, E-magnets are made of Neodymium Iron Boron.

Magnetic materials
 Substances which are strongly attracted by magnets are called
magnetic substances.

 The substances can be artificially converted into magnets.

Examples: iron, cobalt, nickel,

Fig
3.5.3

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Magnetic materials

Non-magnetic materials
 Substances which are not attracted by a magnet are called non-
magnetic substances.

 These substances cannot be converted into a magnet.

Examples: wood, paper, water, silver, gold, glass, copper,

rubber

Properties Of A Magnet
 One end (North Pole) of a magnet always points towards north
direction and the other end (South Pole) of a magnet always points
towards the south direction.

 Like poles (North-North or South-South) always repel each other

and unlike poles (North-South) attract each other.

 This is the only method to test if a material is a magnet. Only a

magnet can repel another magnet.

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 Magnetic force is stronger at the poles of a magnet than at the

centre of a magnet.

 Magnetic poles exert magnetic forces on each other.

 They exert similar charges the same way electric charges exert
forces on each other.

How To Identify Magnetic Poles

 North Pole – where magnetic field lines leave.

 South Pole – where magnetic field lines return.

A bar magnet with magnetic field lines

Fig
3.5.5

Field lines of bar magnet

Experiment To Determine The Polarity Of A Magnet Using A Compass.

Materials:

 Thread or string

 Retort stand

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 Bar magnet
Fig
3.5.6

Suspended bar magnet

Procedure

1. Tie your string securely around a bar magnet.

2. Fasten the string to the retort stand as shown in Fig 3.5.6.

3. The magnet should be freely suspended for free rotation.

4. Take the compass and put it besides the suspended bar magnet.

5. Avoid disturbing the suspended magnet.

6. Observe the position of the ends of the bar magnet in relation to

the geographical direction of the Earth.

7. Repeat the experiment to have three more trials.

Expected Observations
 The suspended bar magnet is always points in the north-south
direction.

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 In all the trials the same end of the bar magnet always swing
toward the North of the pole.

Conclusion

 North Pole of a magnet always point towards the north direction

and South toward Pole of a magnet toward the south direction.

 A magnet is an object which creates a magnetic field of force

around itself.

 A Magnetic field is the area around a magnet in which the

magnetic force is felt.

 Magnetic lines of force are used to visually represent the relative

strength, area of influence, polarity and direction of a magnetic
field.

 The more the lines of force (high density), the stronger the field.

 Magnetic force, by convention, always points from the North Pole

to the South Pole.

Polarity
 A magnet has two opposite poles, the North-seeking (N-pole), and
the South-seeking pole (S-pole). No magnet has ever been made
or found with a single pole.

 Unlike poles attract.

Fig
3.5.7

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Unlike poles attracted to each other

If a magnet is suspended by a string, and the opposite

pole of another magnet is brought near to one pole as
shown in Fig 3.5.7, the hanging magnet will swing
towards the hand-held magnet

Like Poles Repel

 When the North Pole of the handheld magnet is drawn close to the
North Pole of the hung magnet, the latter swings away due to the
force of repulsion.
Fig
3.5.8

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Like poles repel each other

 Repulsion between like poles is the only sure test for a real magnet
(as opposed to a magnetic material).

 A magnetic material is attracted to either pole of a magnet.

 If a magnet is allowed to hang freely, it will come to rest lying in a

north-south direction with its N pole pointing north, and S pole
pointing south.

 Since like poles attract, it means that what we call a

magnet's N pole points to the earth’s S pole. In other words the
North geomagnetic pole, located in the northern hemisphere, is
actually the south pole of the Earth's magnetic field, and the South
geomagnetic pole is the North Pole.

 This explains why a magnets north pole is attracted northwards. It

is because northwards is where there is a south pole of the earth’s
magnetic field.

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 If iron filings are scattered on a paper covering the magnet, the

pattern formed shows that they are pulled strongly and tend to pile
up closer to the magnet (Fig 3.5.9).

 As distance from the magnet increases, the field strength

decreases and pattern becomes less defined.
Fig
3.5.9

Bar magnet and its field as demonstrated by iron filings

Attraction between two bar magnets

 Fig 3.5.10 shows the magnetic field lines created when two bar
magnets are attracting each other (opposite poles).
Fig
3.5.10

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Iron filings

 Continuous lines of force running from one pole to the other show
attraction.

 The field between the two poles attracting each other is the same
as the field around one bar magnet.

Repulsion between bar magnets

 Fig 3.5.11 shows magnetic field lines created when two bar
magnets are repelling each other (similar poles).
Fig
3.5.11

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Iron filings on two bar magnets

 The space about the midpoint between the two like poles is
completely devoid of iron filings. This is evidence of repulsion.

 Lines of force of the magnets are facing opposite directions in this

area, so they cancel each other out. The net force of the two
magnetic fields is therefore zero, and there is no force to draw the
iron filings.

Magnetism-Exercise 1

Answer the following questions. For each question there are four possible answers. Choose the one
you consider correct.

1) How would you identify the North Pole from magnetic field lines? Where magnetic field lines
leave.
Where magnetic field lines return.
It points to the South Pole in the earth’s field.
It is the point where there are no lines.

2) When a bar magnet is left hanging freely, __________. it instantaneously stops swinging and
rests with its north pole facing geographical North
its swings and finally rests with its north pole facing geographical North
it swings indefinitely
it falls

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3) Which of the following diagrams shows the pattern of iron filings when there is repulsion?

4) Anotida wants to magnetise a steel nail. What type of energy source should she be provided
with? A DC power supply
Lead acid accumulator
Dry cell
Alternating source

5) Thando finds an unmarked iron and wonders if it is a magnet. He can conclude that it is really a
magnet if the bar ____________. attracts another magnet
repels another magnet
can swing freely from north-south direction
loses its magnetism outside a magnetic field

6) Anotida wants to demagnetise a steel nail. What type of energy source should she be provided
with? 12V DC
Lead acid accumulator
Dry cell
Alternating source

7) Iron and steel can both be magnetised by placing them in a coil connected to a d.c supply. What
is correct about the magnetic strengths of the two? Steel is stronger.
Iron is not magnetised.
They have equal strength unless the current is switched off.
Iron is stronger.

8) Choose the description that is not an example of the use of magnets. Loud speakers
Compass
Telephone receivers
Solar cells

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9) Which list has magnetic materials only? Nickel, lead, cobalt.

Steel, mercury, iron.
Nickel, cobalt, steel.
Lodestone, lead, iron.

10) If it is necessary to protect sensitive equipment from magnetic fields, the equipment should be
place inside a box surrounded by __________. steel
iron
rubber
copper

Electricity
Static electricity
Electrostatic Charging
 Atoms have equal numbers of electrons and protons so that
materials carry no charge.

 When different materials are rubbed against each other, negative

charges or electrons can be moved from one material to another.

 If materials A and B are rubbed together, electrons can be moved

from A to B.

 Material B will have extra negative charge (electrons) while A has

an extra positive charge (protons).

 Thus A and B are both charged.

 Electric charge is conserved. Friction does not create new charges.

It just separates those which were already existent within
materials.

Charging By Friction (Electrostatic Charging)

Fig
3.6.1:

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Static electricity

 Rubbing or friction separates charges and transfers electrons from

one material to another.

 The type of charge left on each material depends on the nature of

materials.

 When glass is rubbed with wool, electrons are transferred from

glass to wool.
Fig
3.6.2:

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Attraction of charges: balloon and hair

 The opposite happens when a plastic ruler is rubbed with wool.

Electrons move from wool to plastic.

 Glass on the other hand has an electron losing tendency while silk
has an electron gaining tendency.

 When a glass rod is rubbed with silk electrons move from the glass
to the silk as shown in the diagram below.
Fig
3.6.3:

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A glass rod rubbed with wool

Conductors and Insulators

 Electricity – is the flow of electrons or charge.

 Conductors are materials that allow electrons to move through

them that is electricity to pass through them. For example copper.

 Insulators are materials that do not allow electricity to pass

through them, e.g. wood.
Fig
3.6.4:

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Insulators and conductors

 A circuit is a path followed by these electrons.

 Metals are the best conductors because they have many loosely
held electrons in their atoms.

 Electrical cables are made of these good conductors such as

copper and aluminium.

 Except for carbon, most non- metals are non-conductors or poor

conductors.

 Electrical insulators are non-conductors.

 They are useful in electrical installations and appliances.

 Cables are usually insulated with PVC which is a non-conducting

plastic.

 Insulators are normally used to separate live wires away from each
other to prevent electric sparks.

 Semiconductors are used in electronic devices.

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Table 3.6.1: Conductors and insulators

CONDUCTORS INSULATORS

Copper wires Plastic

Zinc Paper

Aluminium Glass

Graphite or carbon rods Rubber

Brass Plastic ruler

Zinc Wood

Iron Rubber

Experiment 1: To Investigate Materials Conduct Electricity And Those That Do

Not.

Materials

 Cell and a cell holder

 Light bulb and a holder

 Three insulated copper wires

 Copper

 Glass

 Graphite or carbon rods

 Plastic

 Brass

 Paper

 Zinc

 Rubber

 Iron

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Procedure

1. Join the cell, copper wire and light bulb to make a complete circuit
(Fig 3.6.5). A complete circuit is one which makes the light bulb to
light up.

2. Open a gap between any one of the copper wires.

3. Put the test materials in the gap in turn and observe what happens
to the light bulb with each material. This is called completing a
circuit.
Fig
3.6.5:

Setup to investigate conductors and insulators

Expected Observation

 The light bulb lights up using the copper wire at the beginning.

 When a gap is opened between the copper wires the light goes out.

 When the test materials are exchanged, some cause the bulb to
light on whilst some do not.

 Materials that cause the light bulb to turn on are conductors.

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 These are mostly metals.

 Materials that do not cause the bulb to light up are insulators.

 These are non-metals, plastics, crucibles etc.

Table 3.6.2: Test results for conductors or insulators

Materials that will cause lamp to Materials that will not cause lamp to
turn on turn on

copper wires glass

graphite or carbon rods rubber

Brass paper

zinc plastic

Iron

Experiment 2: To Investigate Liquids/Solutions That Conduct Electricity And

Those That Do Not.

Materials

 Cell and a cell holder

 Light bulb and a holder

 Three insulated copper wires

 2 carbon rods

 2 cloths pegs

 Plastic cup

 Glass rod

 Water

 Dilute sulphuric acid

 Lemon or orange juice

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 Oil

 Alcohol

 Copper sulphate

 Salt solution

 Sugar solution
Fig
3.6.6:

Setup to investigate liquid conductors and insulators

Procedure

1. Make a circuit with water and observe whether the bulb lights on.

2. Stir a teaspoon full measure of salt into the water and observe.

3. Throw the salt and water solution away and rinse the cup.

4. Put fresh water into the cup, add and stir sugar. Dip the connected
rods and observe the light. Repeat this with fresh water with
dissolved copper sulphate crystals.

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5. Throw away the water, then test the remaining test materials
(lemon juice, oil, alcohol and then dilute sulphuric acid) in turn.
Fig
3.6.7:

With conductors the bulb will light

Expected Observations

 The bulb does not light up with water.

 Some materials cause the bulb to light whilst some do not.

 Materials that cause the bulb to light are conductors and those that
do not are insulators.

 Liquid conductors are called electrolytes while non-conductors are

non-electrolytes.

Table 3.6.3: Test results for the conductivity of solutions

TEST MATERIAL OBSERVATION

Salt solution Electrolyte

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Sugar solution Non-electrolyte

Copper sulphate Electrolyte

Oil Non-electrolyte

Alcohol Non-electrolyte

Lemon juice Electrolyte

Dilute sulphuric acid Electrolyte

 A liquid that conducts electricity is called an electrolyte.

 An electrolyte produces gas bubbles around carbon rods when

electricity is flowing.

Facts to note

 Most metals are conductors.

 Non-metals are insulators except graphite.

 A circuit is the path taken by electricity.

 Liquids and solutions that allow electricity to pass through them

are called electrolytes.

Sources of electricity
The following are alternative sources of electrical energy:

1. Hydro-electric power station

2. Thermal stations

3. Generators

4. Batteries

5. Solar panels

Uses of electricity

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 We need electricity for many uses at home, school, industries,

hospitals, etc.

 Some domestic uses of electricity include:

1. Playing radio, TV, laptops, etc.

2. Cooking and heating.

3. Moving machines.

4. Charging other appliances.

Electric Circuits
The table below shows electric symbols.

Circuit Symbols

Voltmeter

Used to measure potential difference

Ammeter

Used to measure electrical current

Resistor

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Restricts flow of current

On-off switch

Allows current flow when its closed

Lamp

Used to provide illumination

Cell

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Supplies electrical energy

Battery

2 or more cells supplying electrical energy

Wire

Enables current to pass through from one part of circuit

to another

Simple electric circuit

Fig
3.6.8

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A simple electric circuit

 In a series circuit components are connected in a single path.

 The same current flows through all of the components of the

circuit.

 The voltage across the circuit is the sum of the voltages across
each component.

 Current flow in a circuit is from positive to negative.

Table
3.6.9

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Series connection of bulbs in a circuit

 When the circuit is disconnected, all the bulbs go off.

 When one bulb is removed or burns out all the other bulbs go off.

 The ammeters in a series connection show the same reading.

 The same amount of current flows through each bulb.

 When more bulbs are added the brightness of the light fades until
they stop shining.
Table
3.6.10

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Series connection

 An electric current is a flow of an electric charge.

 Current is measured in amperes (amps, A).

 1 ampere=1 coulomb/sec

 Electric current can only flow through a material that can conduct
electricity.

 An ammeter is an instrument used to measure current.

 An ammeter is placed in series within the circuit in order to

measure current.
Table
3.6.11

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an ammeter

Voltage
 Voltage is basically the force that makes the electric charge move.
Voltage is also known as potential difference.

 Voltage is measured in volts (V).

 1 volt=joule/coulomb

 A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure voltage.

 A voltmeter is connected in parallel in a circuit.

Table
3.6.12

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A voltmeter

Experiment 3: Measuring Voltage

Materials:

 A torch bulb

 Crocodile clips

 Ammeter

 Voltmeter

 Battery holder

 Three 1,5V cells

 Electric cables

Procedure

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram above.

2. Turn the switch on.

3. Record the current and the voltage.

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4. Add a second cell and record the current and voltage.

5. Add the third cell and record the current and voltage.

6. Fill the results of in a table like the one below (Table 3.6.5).
Table
3.6.13

Setup to measure voltage and current in a circuit

Table: 3.6.5: Ammeter and voltmeter readings

NUMBER OF VOLTMETER AMMETER BRIGHTNESS OF

CELLS READING (V) READING (A) BULB

Conclusion

 As you add a cell the voltage adds up.

 The current does not change.

 The brightness of the bulb increases.

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Facts to note

 Electric current is the flow of charges.

 Voltage is the ability of a current to do work.

 Voltage is measured using a voltmeter.

 Current is measured using an ammeter.

Circuit boards
 A circuit board is a thin rigid board containing an electric circuit. It
can also be a printed circuit.
Fig
3.6.14

A simple circuit board on which an electric circuit is mounted.

 Printed circuit boards (PCBs) are very common in commercial and

industrial applications of electronics; for instance in radios, TVs
and other domestic appliances.

 Fig 3.6.15 shows examples of PCBs.

Fig
3.6.15

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Examples of printed circuit boards (PCBs)

Electricity-Exercise 1

Answer the following questions. For each question there are four possible answers. Choose the one
you consider correct.

1) One of the following is a non-metal that conducts electricity. From the choices below which
material can be that non-metal? Rubber
Plastic
Polythene
Carbon

2) In a simple series circuit, why does the bulb light up when you close the switch? The switch
produces electricity.
Closing the switch completes the circuit.
Closing the switch breaks the circuit.
The switch produces the circuit.

3) In a circuit, what does a circle with a cross inside it represent? Motor

Light bulb
Battery
Ammeter

4) What does a voltmeter measure? Potential difference

Flow of volts.
Resistance
Electric current

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5) Sugar solution does not conduct electricity because ___________. it is too sweet
it forms a lot of ions in the solution
it does not form ions in the solution
it is too concentrated

6) Which of the following is an insulator? Rubber

Silver
Graphite
Copper

7) How is a cell represent in a circuit diagram? A circle with a cross inside.

A circle with a C inside it.
A long line and a short line.
A circle with an A inside.

8) For the light bulb to light up the material X should be ___________.

a conductor
a semi-metal
an inductor

9) When an object is charged, it has an excess of ___________. negative charge

positive charge
protons
electric charge

10) Which of the following is a good conductor of electricity? A charged woollen cloth.
A plastic ruler.
Carbon

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Pure water
Electricity-Exercise 2

Answer the following questions. Each correct answer is equivalent to one mark.

1) Electric charge that actually flows from the negative terminal to the positive is due to particles
called __________.

2) __________ electricity involves electric charges which are stationary or at rest.

3) A __________ is a material that allows electric charge to flow through it.

4) A __________ is a string of cells that supplies energy in an electric circuit.

5) Electric current is flow of __________.

6) The path followed by an electric current is called an electric __________.

7) Materials that do not allow electric charges to pass through are called ___________.

8) Materials that do not allow electric charges to pass through are called ___________.

9) The charge on an electron is __________.

10) Name the contraption which turns electricity on and off in an electric circuit?

11) An instrument used for measuring current is called an __________.

12) An instrument for measuring potential difference is called a __________.

13) For question 13 - 23, decide whether the following materials are conductors or insulators.

Iron

14) Wood

15) Aluminium

16) Salt water

17) Leather

18) Feather

19) Copper

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20) Glass

21) Gold

22) Plastic

23) Lead pencil

24) Use the diagram below to answer questions 24 - 26.

What does the letter A represent?

25) What does the letter B represent?

26) What does the letter C represent?

Reference……..Ruzivo Digital Learning