ACADEMIC WRITING

Selected Topics
WRITING WORKSHOP
TRUTH IN ADVERTISING - DISCLAIMER 2

 This workshop is not about English grammar and vocabulary. If yours

ain‟t good, it ain‟t gonna make it better.
 It is also not about publishing. No money-back guarantee if you
follow the rules I propose and still cannot publish.
 It is not about writing using quantitative and qualitative methods. If
you think the use of English is different between approaches, we are
on different planets.

 It is about a specific type of writing – academic writing – used for

dissertations and research papers.
THEMES 3

 ACADEMIC WRITING
 WRITING APPROACHES
 PRINCIPLES OF ACADEMIC WRITING
 SEENTENCE CONSTRUCTION
 WRITING A PAPER
 4

1. ACADEMIC WRITING
1. ACADEMIC WRITING & TECHNICAL WRITING
2. WRITING OBJECTIVES
3. LANGUAGE & SUBSTANCE
ACADEMIC WRITING & TECHNICAL 5

WRITING
 Academic writing is a subset of technical writing.
 Technical writing is writing about technically complex subjects for an
audience.
 This audience may be themselves experts or laymen.
 The whole point of technical writing is “simplifying the complex”.
 This is because the audience may not be technical experts.
 Experts or not, simple is easier to understand than complex.
 Simplicity is helped if the writing fulfills several attributes
WRITING OBJECTIVES 6

 Technical writing‟s purpose is to:

 Inform: to provide information without expecting any action from the
reader
 Instruct: to give information so that the reader can do something
 Propose: to suggest a plan of action for a specific issue or problem
 Persuade: to convince the reader to change attitudes and behavior, or
to take action.
 Academic writing‟s purpose is to both:
 Inform and
 Persuade
ACADEMIC WRITING 7
LANGUAGE VS. SUBSTANCE
SUBJECT MATTER LANGUAGE
 Because academic writing  The nature of academic writing
involves analysis, critical thinking dictates the language and its
and logic are essential. structure that should be used.
LANGUAGE – 8
GEORGE BERNARD SHAW ON COMMUNICATION
“The single biggest problem with communication is the illusion that it
has taken place.”

1856-1960
ACADEMIC WRITING 9
LANGUAGE
 COMPLEXITY
 FORMALITY
 PRECISION
 OBJECTIVITY
 EXPLICITNESS
 ACCURACY
 HEDGING
ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES 10
COMPLEXITY
 Spoken:
You can control the trains this way
 Written language is more complex and if you do that you can be quite
(dense) than spoken. sure that they'll be able to run more
 Academic language is more safely and more quickly than they
would otherwise, no matter how bad
complex than non-academic
the weather gets.
language.
 Written:
 „Density‟ refers to the substance
packed into words or sentences. The use of this method of control
unquestionably leads to safer and
 The difference is the sentence faster trains running in the most
structure, not the vocabulary adverse weather conditions.
ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES 11
FORMALITY
 Try these exercises:
1. With women especially, there is a
 Colloquial words lot of social pressure to conform to
a certain physical shape.
 Colloquial words: a lot; kind of; so-
so; let‟s say; you bet (US) 2. The first National Government
wasn't intended to be a coalition
 Abbreviations: Don‟t; can‟t; government in the normal sense of
shouldn‟t; there‟s; we‟ve the term.
 Two (or more)-worded verbs: bring 3. In 1947 the Treasury brought up
up; put off; in the end the question of excluding South
Africa (and India) from the sterling
area.
ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES 12
PRECISION

Read these statements. Are they

acceptable?  Precision is important but it is not
always possible.
 The revolution lasted only 4 weeks,
but the after-effects lasted 48  Do not use words or phrases like
months. “in the thousands”, or “many
more” if you can use “about xxx
 The Seattle protests in 1999
thousand” or “twice as numerous”.
brought out thousands of
protesters.  But precision can also be
overdone, as in “the trade/GDP
 The debate about whether there is
ratio is 1.5468”. This is a „Chinese‟
life after death has raged for
problem.
thousands of years.
ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES 13
OBJECTIVITY
 Instead of:
 My own view is that this issue is a
red herring.  The emphasis should be on the
 You must agree that this is not an information to be conveyed, not
important consideration. the conveyor of the information.
 We all think of government as  Why? Because academic writing is
being corrupt. about what has been learned, not
who learned it.
 Write:
 This issue is a red herring.  Avoid “I”, “we”. “you”
 This is not an important  Avoid expressions like “in my
consideration. opinion”, “it is our judgment that”
 Many believe government is
corrupt.
ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES 14
EXPLICITNESS

 Using link words:

Although many debated the
 Explicitness refers to showing how
relationship between population and
ideas are organized. This is done development, it was Myrdal who
through “link” words, e.g. became the most famous. This is
“because”, “however”, because of his book Asian Drama.
“therefore”.
 Citing sources:
 It also refers to making known who
Mason (2003) described the fertility
propose the ideas, if the persons transition in East Asia. His arguments
are known. This is done through stand in sharp contrast to those of Tey
citation. (2005).
ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES 15
EXPLICITNESS – LINK WORDS
LINK WORD PURPOSE
However Showing contrast
Because Showing cause
In addition Showing additional information
Therefore Showing effect
At the same time Showing simultaneity
Following Showing time sequence
Also Showing additional information
After Showing time sequence
Either … or Showing similarity, choice
As a result of Showing cause
ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES 16
ACCURACY
 Because academic writing  Examples of confused vocabulary:
requires precision, accuracy in the  Adapt vs adopt
use of words is vital.
 Affect vs. effect
 Accuracy involves the right use of
 Beside vs. besides
vocabulary and punctuation
 Complement vs. compliment
 Discrete vs discreet
 Examples of wrong punctuation:  Principle vs principal
 He is an idiot, so is she.  Stationery vs. stationary
 He is an idiot. Which is why his  Council vs counsel
mother abandoned him.
 This paper has three parts, part 1,
part 2, part 3.
ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES 17
HEDGING
STRENGTH OF WORDS & PHRASES  Hedging refers to the recognition
CLAIM that a statement is made with
weak Seem, tend to, different degrees of certainty.
appear to be,  This is in conformity with the
possibly, may be
features „accuracy‟ and
medium Usually, typically, „precision‟.
sometimes
 These words should not be taken
strong Certainly, must, likely,
should, clearly lightly.

Example:
The importance of the family was certainly greater a
hundred years ago than now.
ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES 18

EXERCISE 1

Please read through Exhibit 1.

How many errors referred to

in the section above can you
pick out?
ON CRITICAL THINKING 19

ALBERT EINSTEIN
ACADEMIC WRITING 20
CRITICAL THINKING & LOGIC

 CRITICAL THINKING IS NEEDED FOR ACADEMIC ANALYSIS

 What is critical thinking?
 How is critical thinking different from other types of thinking?

 LOGIC IS ESSENTIAL TO CRITICAL THINKING

 What constitutes an abuse or breach of logic?
WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING? 21

 Critic (Greek) - one who can judge & discern.

 Refers to the ability to analyze, solve problems,
think „outside the box‟.
 It does not mean being argumentative or
critical of other people.
 It does mean application of the rules of logic
 Applying these rules permit challenges to
consensus, holding of less popular views

"If it was so, it might be; and if it were so, it would be;
but as it isn't, it ain't. That's logic."--Lewis Carroll
CRITICAL THINKING 22

Bloom’s Taxonomy
Benjamin Bloom argues there are SIX levels of cognitive skills, each level more
complex than that below it.

LITERAL THINKING SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS

 Knowledge  Analysis
 Comprehension  Synthesis
 Application  Evaluation

Critical thinking skills permit

Literal thinking skills demonstrate
manipulation of information, to judge
mastery over information.
their worth.
WHAT AFFECTS CRITICAL THINKING? 23

 Knowledge base
 Problem solving ability
 Learning style
 Attitudes, including motivation
 Innate creativity
 24

WHAT IS LOGIC?
• Logic is a formal system of analysis
that helps create, demonstrate,
prove or disprove arguments.
• It relies on reasoning, not emotion.
• Successful argument relies on
logical but sometimes non-logical
(cannot be proved or disproved)
arguments.
• But it cannot use illogical (false)
arguments
ABUSE OF CRITICAL THINKING 25

FAULTY LOGIC MISUSE OF LANGUAGE

 Oversimplification  Words out of context
 Unjustified generalization  Equivocating
 Black or white  Weasel words
 Tautology  Double-speak
 Ad Hominen
 Bandwagoning
FAULTY LOGIC 1 26
OVERSIMPLIFICATION
 Generally, neat solutions to
complex problems. EXAMPLE
 A common form is the fallacy of The area has been enveloped in
the single cause. This is when dense fog since morning. It was
something that occurred is hazardous on the roads during the
attributed to a single cause when morning rush hour, but no major
multiple causes could have been accidents occurred. However, during
responsible. the evening rush hour a major pile-up
occurred at a straight stretch of the
highway. The police made the
announcement to radio stations to
advise all traffic to exercise extra care
in view of the thick fog in the area.
FAULTY LOGIC 2 27
UNJUSTIFIED GENERALIZATION
 Generally, generalization when
there is insufficient arguments to EXAMPLE
reach a conclusion. In an education fair, the president of
 A common form is one event a private university spoke to an
preceding another being mistaken interested audience. He made the
for cause. This is referred to as argument that going to university can
“post hoc ergo propter hoc”. help people succeed in life.
Therefore, everybody should enroll in
university. He said because his
university had graduated the largest
number of students in the city, the
audience should enroll in his
university.
Faulty logic 3 28
BLACK OR WHITE
EXAMPLE
In the aftermath of the 9/11 disaster in  Referred to as „false dilemma‟, it
New York, President George Bush refers to allowing only two
launched his „war on terror‟. In his mutually exclusive possibilities
address to Congress on September (when there may be more).
20, 2001, Bush said: “Either you are
 This fallacy may be intentional, to
with us, or you are with the terrorists”.
force a choice, or unintentional,
In making this statement, he was
by omission of other choices.
echoing Hillary Clinton, who said on
September 13, 2001:” Every nation
has either to be with us, or against
us”.
FAULTY LOGIC 4 29

TAUTOLOGY
EXAMPLES
 The Gobi is a very dry desert.  An expression or explanation that
 I will go there to deal with it repeats itself. The repetition adds
personally. nothing to the explanation.
 Hand-phone  In logic, it consists of two facts one
of which is true in any case.
 Predictions are about the future.
 Either it will rain or it won‟t rain.
(tautology in logic)
 “It‟s déjà vu all over again.” (Yogi
Berra) “The only difference between me
 Weather forecast: “hujan di sana and a madman is that I am not
sini” mad” (Salvador Dali)
FAULTY LOGIC 5 30
AD HOMINEM
EXAMPLE
 Attacking the person who “President Obama:
expressed an opinion instead of
„What‟s blocking us right now is a sort
the opinion. (Ad hominem –
of hyper-partisanship in Washington
against the man)
that I was, frankly, hoping to
 An argument is dismissed on the overcome in 2008. My thinking was
basic of an irrelevant fact. when we beat them in 2012 that
might break the fever, and it‟s not
 Sometimes referred as „guilt by
quite broken yet. But I am persistent.
association‟.
And I am staying at it.‟”
From Wehner, P. (2013). “Obama is
the ultimate Ad Hominem president”.
Commentary, May 15.
FAULTY LOGIC 6 31
BANDWAGONING
EXAMPLE
 An appeal to the popularity of an “Everyone is selfish; everyone is doing
argument for accepting it as true. what he believes will make himself
happier. The recognition of that can
 Sometimes referred to as „appeal
take most of the sting out of
to popularity‟.
accusations that you're being "selfish."
 That does not make the argument Why should you feel guilty for seeking
wrong. But reliance on this is to your own happiness when that's what
ignore the application of logic. everyone else is doing, too?”

Harry Browne, “The unselfishness

trap”, from How I Found Freedom in
an Unfree World (1973).
MISUSE OF LANGUAGE 1 32

WORDS OUT OF CONTEXT EQUIVOCATING

Citing only a part of a statement, Playing on the meaning of words,
usually with a deliberate intention to using the double meaning of a word
mislead.
to create ambiguity.
Examples:
Examples:
 A film critic who commented the film
was suspenseful only in the last 5  John‟s estimates are biased;
minutes was quoted as saying the therefore we cannot trust anything
film was suspenseful. he says.
 A US election ad claimed XXX was  An average family has 2 children.
against bombing of terrorists when
what XXX actually said was he was Jane‟s family is very average.
against indiscriminate bombing of Hence Jane is likely to have 2
terrorist strongholds because it could children.
lead to civilian casualties.
FALSE EQUIVOCATION

God is love.
Love is blind.
Ray Charles is blind.
So, Ray Charles is God.
MISUSE OF LANGUAGE 2 34

WEASEL WORDS DOUBLESPEAK

Words used to retreat from a direct Worse than weasel words,
statement. doublespeak is the use of words to
hide the truth.
Examples:
Examples:
 „Save up to 90%‟.
 „The more you buy the more you
 „This toothpaste helps fight tooth
save.‟
decay‟.
 From now on, we shall replace the
 „buy stocks online. It is like having
word „killing‟ with „deprivation of
your own stockbroker.‟
life‟. (US State Department)
 We are engaged in an RIF
exercise.
THE ORIGIN OF WEASEL WORDS 35

"In June, 1900, the Century Magazine published a story entitled 'The
Stained Glass Political Platform,' by Stewart Chaplin, . . . and on page
235 these words occur:
Why, weasel words are words that suck all the life out of the words next
to them, just as a weasel sucks an egg and leaves the shell. If you heft
the egg afterward it's as light as a feather, and not very filling when
you're hungry, but a basketful of them would make quite a show, and
would bamboozle the unwary.
"This is the origin of the term Colonel [Theodore] Roosevelt has made
famous."
(Herbert M. Lloyd, letter to The New York Times, June 3, 1916)
ABUSE OF CRITICAL THINKING 36

EXERCISE 2

Please read through Exhibit 1.

How many errors referred to

in the section above can you
pick out?
 37

2. WRITING APPROACHES
1. THE PARAGRAPH
2. TYPES OF APPROACHES
3. EXAMPLES OF EACH APPROACH
4. COMPARING APPROACHES
THE PARAGRAPH 38

 Paragraph: a collection of sentences

revolving around a theme.
 Good paragraphing helps a reader
understand what is being written.
 Hence, the basic rule: ONE topic per
paragraph
 Characteristic of a good paragraph:
 Unity – a dingle focus
 Coherence – everything hangs together
 Adequate development – enough to be
convincing
STARTING A NEW PARAGRAPH 39

 When starting a new topic

 When contrasting views or ideas
 When the topic is too complex
and readers need a break
 When a „signpost‟ is needed:
 Signpost: summarizing what has
been covered, where discussion is
going
[See Sample 1]
 When ending an introduction
 When beginning a conclusion
FAMOUS OPENING PARAGRAPHS 40

 “Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, upon this continent, a
new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men
are created equal.”
 “In this grave hour, perhaps the most fateful in history, I send to every household
of my peoples, both at home and overseas, this message, spoken with the same
depth of feeling for each one of you as if I were able to cross your threshold and
speak to you myself. For the second time in the lives of most of us, we are at war.”
 “I am come amongst you, as you see, at this time, not for my recreation and
disport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of the battle, to live and die
amongst you all; to lay down for my God, and for my kingdom, and my people,
my honour and my blood, even in the dust. I know I have the body but of a weak
and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of
England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any prince of Europe,
should dare to invade the borders of my realm; to which rather than any
dishonour shall grow by me, I myself will take up arms, I myself will be your general,
judge, and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field.”
ACADEMIC WRITING APPROACHES 41

 Direct: the „American‟ approach

 Indirect:
 The „British‟ approach
 The „French‟ approach

The different approaches reflect

differences in the sequencing of logical
arguments
THE „FRENCH‟ APPROACH 42

Hong Kong‟s citizens feel that their city will be

Asia‟s city of the future. They argue that Hong
Kong enjoys many advantages – a vibrant
financial sector, a commercially savvy
business elite, a skilled workforce, and well
developed infrastructure. But under China,
Shanghai is being promoted as the
commercial center of the country. It is rapidly
catching up with, and will eventually
overtake, Hong Kong. Singapore has stolen a
march on Hong Kong in terms of promoting
information technology. And with its currency
tied to the US dollar, Hong Kong has become
less competitive as other Asian countries
devalued their currencies with the onset of
the Asian Crisis. Therefore, Hong Kong will not
be Asia‟s city of the future.
THE „BRITISH‟ APPROACH 43

Under China, Shanghai is being promoted as

the commercial center of the country. It is
rapidly catching up with, and will eventually
overtake, Hong Kong. Singapore has stolen a
march on Hong Kong in terms of promoting
information technology. And with its
currency tied to the US dollar, Hong Kong has
become less competitive as other Asian
countries devalued their currencies with the
onset of the Asian Crisis. Despite its many
advantages – a vibrant financial sector,
commercially savvy business elite, a skilled
workforce, and well developed infrastructure,
it is not hard to conclude that Hong Kong will
not Asia‟s city of the future.
THE „AMERICAN‟ APPROACH 44

Despite its many advantages – a vibrant

financial sector, commercially savvy
business elite, a skilled workforce, and well
developed infrastructure, Hong Kong will
not be Asia‟s city of the future. Under
China, Shanghai is being promoted as the
commercial center of the country. It is
rapidly catching up with, and will eventually
overtake, Hong Kong. Singapore has stolen
a march on Hong Kong in terms of
promoting information technology. And
with its currency tied to the US dollar, Hong
Kong has become less competitive as other
Asian countries devalued their currencies
with the onset of the Asian Crisis.
[See Sample 1]
COMPARING APPROACHES - 45

FORMAT
AMERICAN BRITISH FRENCH
Topic sentence as first Topic sentence as last Topic sentence negating
sentence sentence argument of paragraph
as last sentence
Rest of paragraph Paragraph develops Paragraph‟s argument
elaborates on topic argument for topic to be negated by topic
sentence sentence
One topic per One topic per One topic per
paragraph paragraph paragraph
COMPARING APPROACHES – 46
DIRECT APPROACH - PROS & CONS
PROS CONS
Message is clear, immediately obvious May be too in-your-face when
persuasion needed
Content is focused, all about the Coherence within a paragraph not
message guaranteed
Easy for abstracting No logical development of arguments
Cohesion between paragraphs also Inadequate elaboration may leave
easy message unconvincing
Focus on the actor, not the deed
COMPARING APPROACHES – 47
INDIRECT APPROACH - PROS & CONS
PROS CONS
Logical development of argument Takes time to get to message, may be
hard to follow
Coherence within paragraph is Poorly developed arguments affect
assured by logical development message
Focus on the deed, not the actor Coherence between paragraphs not
so easy
Not straightforward for abstracting
Less proactive
ACADEMIC WRITING APPROACHES 48

EXERCISE 3

Please read through Exhibit 2.

How would you modify its

contents to conform to the
preferred approach?
 49

3. ACADEMIC WRITING PRINCIPLES

1. THE KISS PRINCIPLE
2. PARSIMONY IN WRITING
3. CLARITY
4. JARGON
ACADEMIC WRITING RULES 50

 Keep it simple, stupid (the KISS Principle)

 Parsimony in writing – don‟t repeat, use
unnecessary words
 Clarity
 Avoid jargon
 Coherence
THE KISS PRINCIPLE 51

From the Economist Style Guide:

“To write a genuine, familiar or truly English style is to write as anyone would
speak in common conversation who had a thorough command or choice of
words or who could discourse with ease, force and perspicuity setting aside all
pedantic and oratorical flourishes.” (William Hazlitt 1778-1830)

But what about this?

“Drawing on a historical contrast between India, whose experience I know fairly
well from my own research, and East Asia, whose experience I know almost as
well from other‟s research, I plan to argue the following (among many other
things), … that the contention (by Paul Krugman, drawing on the Alwyn Young
calculations of total factor productivity (TFP), but in fact going back, as I say
below, to T.N. Srinivasan in his comments, based on Jong-Il Kim and Larry Lau‟s
calculations instead, on the World Bank study of East Asia) that there was no
„miracle‟ misconstrues what is miraculous about the East Asian growth
experience.” (from Jagdish Bhagwati. The Wind of the Hundred Days. p. 28)
FROM THE ECONOMIST STYLE GUIDE 52

 “It should be readily understandable.”

 “Do not be stuffy ...”
 “Use the language of everyday speech …”
 “Do not be hectoring or arrogant …”
 “Do not be too pleased with yourself …”
 “Do not be too chatty …”
 “Do not be too didactic ….”
 “Do your best to be lucid …”
 “Long paragraphs, like long sentences, can
confuse the reader.”
 “Clear thinking is the key to clear writing.”
PARSIMONY IN WRITING 53
REDUNDANT WORDS
REDUNDANT LEAN
Completely filled filled WHAT IS THE LEAN
12 midnight midnight VERSION OF:
A total of 5 cases 5 cases Join together

Close proximity proximity New beginning

End result result Foreign imports

Exactly the same The same Invited guests

Free gift gift Revert back

New innovation innovation Write down

In the event that if Since the time when

Period of 3 days 3 days Past history

Merge together merge

PARSIMONY IN WRITING 54
UNNECESSARY PHRASES
THESE PHRASES SHOULD BE OMITTED
As a matter of fact In the case of
In the event of For all intents and purposes
It needs to be noted It seems that
Due to the fact that The point here is ….
For the most part It is obvious that …
For the purpose of The question as to whether ….
In the final analysis It goes without saying
In the process of In a very real sense
Have a tendency to (use: tends to) By virtue of the fact that ….
PARSIMONY IN WRITING 55
COLLOQUIALISM & GRAMMATICAL ERROR

INCORRECT CORRECT • Colloquialism is full of

Discuss about Discuss redundancies and even
grammatical error.
Emphasize on Emphasize
• It varies with country context.
For free Free • Even if grammatical, it should
Red color Red not be used.
Large size Large
Square shape Square
“Big daddy, junior and the spook” is
List down List the colloquial equivalent of ?????
For sure certainly
COLLOQUIALISM, MALAYSIAN STYLE 56

SPEAKER/SITUATION COLLOQUIAL ENGLISH COLLOQUIAL MALAYSIAN

ENGLISH
Salesperson “How may I help you?” “You want what ah?”

Salesperson “I am sorry we are out of “No stock!”

stock”
Friend offering to psy “Put away your wallet. This “No need lah! I pay.”
meal‟s on me.”
Expressing doubt “I don‟t think it happened.” “Where got?”

Explaining “That‟s how it happened.” “Like that loh!”

CLARITY 57
WHAT HELPS CLARITY?
 Clarity is the ability to deliver a message
correctly and that is easy to understand.
 It is achieved through direct, natural
expression of thought in familiar words as
briefly as possible
 Clarity is helped by actions already
discussed:
 The KISS principle
 Conciseness
 And by an appropriate sentence structure
(next section):
 Plus the following simple rules (next slide):
CLARITY 58
SOME DO’S & DON’T’S 1
USE VERBS NOUN STRINGS MULTIPLE NEGATIVES
Use verbs, avoid the noun Avoid „noun strings‟, i.e. a Use positive rather than
forms (nominalization). series of nouns used multiple negatives.
together.
Example: Example:
Example
• The implementation of • This suggestion is not
policy was successful. • This report discusses our without merit. (unclear)
(unclear) investment stimulation
• This suggestion has merit.
strategies. (unclear)
• The policy was (clear)
successfully • This report discusses our
• Not unlike what was said
implemented. (clear) strategies tor stimulating
before, this makes no
investment. (clear)
sense. (unclear)
• Like what was … (clear)
CLARITY 59
SOME DO’S & DON’T’S 2
EXPLETIVE
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES CLEAR SUBJECTS
CONSTRUCTIONS
Place subordinate clauses People, events, institutions
at the beginning of end of make clearer subjects than Avoid beginning sentences
a sentence. abstract processes. with “It is” or “There is”. It
adds no meaning to the
Example: Example sentence..
• Industrial espionage, • The revision of the Example:
because of the rise of process has increased
ICT, is increasing. efficiency. (unclear) • It is important to
(unclear) remember this. (unclear)
• When we revised the
• Because of the rise of process, efficiency • We must remember this.
ICT, industrial espionage improved. (clear) (clear)
is increasing. (clear)
JARGON & ALL THAT 60

Defined broadly, jargon refers to "Tech Speak is a postcolloquial

complicated, not easily understood discourse modulation protocol for
words that include: user status enhancement. It's a
referential system for functional-
 Slang
structural, microscopically specific
 Gobbledygook (US); gibberish (UK) macroscopic-object redesignation.
 Alphabet soup (all acronyms) It's a universal semantic
transformation procedure. “
 Computerese
Defined narrowly, it refers only to
terms used and understood by Tenner, E. (1986). Tech Speak, or How
technical experts (Tech speak). to Talk High Tech. London: Kogan
Page. [Tenner is science editor of
Princeton UP.]
JARGON & CLICHES 61

 Jargon refers to terms or  When jargon is used very

expressions that are borrowed frequently, it becomes cliché,
from technical writing. Jargon expressions that are overused and
often irritates. tired.
 Examples:  Examples:
 Learning curve  A diamond in the rough
 Pushing the envelope  At the speed of light
 Black box  The writing on the wall
 Catch 22  All that glitters
 Bang for the buck  Nerves of steel
 BTW, LOL, TTYL  Tail between his legs
JARGON – Try these 62

 INTERNET: You know FAQ, TTYL,  BUSINESS:

LOL, BTW. But what is:  Back burner
 HTH  Fall guy
 IIRC  Pie in the sky
 BFF  Bean counter
 CYA?  Chapter 11 (US only)
 POLITICAL: (US)  GENERAL
 POTUS  Cloud 9
 SCOTUS  Shrink
 Pro-choice  Fruitcake
 Lame duck
COHERENCE 63

 Coherence refers to arguments that link well one with another. It

makes for good story-telling.
 Coherence applies to:
 Within a paragraph
 Between paragraphs
COHERENCE 64
WITHIN PARAGRAPHS
 The Indirect Method achieves this more naturally because the story
unfolds
 The Direct Method requires a conscious effort to:
 Build logical bridges: carry the same idea over from sentence to
sentence. This idea is that in the topic sentence.
 Build verbal bridges:
 Use link words, e.g, „therefore‟, „however‟, „as a result‟, „later‟
 Use synonymous words in different sentences, e.g. “Bhopal was a disaster.
That the catastrophe occurred in India was doubly tragic.
 Use pronoun references, e.g. “9/11 was a disaster waiting to happen. It so
happened in New York.”
COHERENCE 65
BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS
 Coherence between paragraphs: achieved by logical sequencing
of topic sentences.
 To do this requires a coherent organizational structure before writing.
 Examples: Sequencing of topic sentences
 When the monograph was published, Malaysia‟s demography and
economy was undergoing rapid change.
 Economically ….
 Demographically ….
 Today, the demographic-economic dynamic has shifted ….
FOLLOWING WRITING RULES 66

If you follow these rules:

 Will it be good academic
writing? YES
 Will it be easily understood?
YES
 Will key messages be
conveyed? YES
 Will it be interesting to read?
NOT NECESSARILY

So, what should you do?

ACADEMIC WRITING RULES 67

EXERCISE 4

Please read Exhibit 3.

Try to identify breaches of the

rules discussed above.
Correct the sentences if
necessary.
 68

4. SENTENCE STRUCTURE & GRAMMAR

1. THE SENTENCE
2. COMMON ERRORS IN SENTENCE STRUCTURE
3. GRAMMAR, SPELLING AND ALL THAT
THE SENTENCE 69

Sentences are powerful deliverers of

messages  A sentence consists of:
 Only two things are infinite – the  The subject
universe and human stupidity, and  The object
I am not sure about the former
(Albert Einstein)  Subordinate clause(s)
 Maybe this world is another  Problems can arise from:
planet‟s hell (Aldous Huxley)
 Sentence structure
 Get your facts first. Then you can
distort them as you please. (Mark  Use of words
Twain)  Grammar and vocabulary
 Just remember you are absolutely
unique. Just like everyone else.
(Margaret Mead)
SOME FAMOUS SENTENCES (QUOTES) 70

 "The whole problem with the world is that fools and fanatics are always so
certain of themselves, and wiser people so full of doubts." (Bertrand Russell)
 "Sex and religion are closer to each other than either might prefer." (Thomas
More, 1478-1535)
 "The only way to get rid of a temptation is to yield to it." (Oscar Wilde 1854-1900)
 "Some cause happiness wherever they go; others, whenever they go." (Oscar
Wilde)
 "I have not failed. I've just found 10,000 ways that won't work.“ (Thomas Edison
1847-1931)
 "A friendship founded on business is better than a business founded on
friendship.“ (John D. Rockefeller 1874-1960)
 "It is dangerous to be sincere unless you are also stupid.“ (George Bernard Shaw
1856-1950)
 "Bigamy is having one wife too many. Monogamy is the same.“ (Oscar Wilde)
WRITING BASICS 71
Common errors in sentence structure
 Comma splice
 Verb agreement
 Faulty parallelism
 Noun-pronoun agreement
 Dangling modifiers
 Sentence fragment
 Run-on sentences
 Double constructions
SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS 1 72
COMMA SPLICE

What should be two separate

sentences is written as one.
Example:
 The city was crowded, there were
people everywhere.
Should be written:
 The city was crowded. There were
people everywhere. OR
 The city was crowded; there were
people everywhere. OR
 The city was crowded and there
were people everywhere.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS 2 73

VERB TENSE AGREEMENT

What happened when the past, Verbs used in different clauses in the
the present, and the future walked same sentence have different tenses
into a bar? Example:
It was tense!
 The secretary was punctual but
the boss is late.
Should be written:
 The secretary was punctual but
the boss was late
SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS 3 74
FAULTY PARALLELISM
Different phrases in the same sentence
have different structures.
Examples:
 Give me liberty or let me die.
 I think, therefore I am in existence
Should be written:
 Give me liberty or give me death
(John Paul Jones)
 I think, therefore I exist (Latin – cogito
ergo sum) (Descartes)
FAMOUS PARALLELISMS 75

 “My fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you, ask what
you can do for your country.”
 “For the end of a theoretical science is truth, but the end of a practical
science is performance.” (Aristotle)
 “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that
they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that
among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.”
 “I came, I saw, I conquered.” (Veni, Vidi, Vici)
 “The inherent vice of capitalism is the unequal sharing of blessings. The
inherent virtue of socialism is the equal sharing of miseries” (Winston Churchill)
 “Great minds discuss ideas. Average minds discuss events. Small minds
discuss people.” (Eleanor Roosevelt)
… AND A CLASSIC! 76
SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS 4 77
NOUN-PRONOUN AGREEMENT
Pronoun does not match the noun in
the subject. Also referred to as
„subject-verb agreement‟.
Example:
 The government is not corrupt but
they need to please their supporters
Should be written:
 The government is not corrupt but it
needs to please its supporters. OR
 Government officials are not
corrupt but they need to please
their supporters.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS 5 78
DANGLING MODIFIERS
WHAT DANGLING MODIFIERS DO:
Sentences with modifiers (adverbs)  With his tail held high, my father
that have no subject to modify can led his prize poodle around the
lead to unfortunate results. arena.

Example:  I saw the dead dog driving down

the highway.
 By stopping my subscription to  Freshly painted, Jim left the room
cable TV, it was a peaceful day. to dry.
Should be written:  The library has several books about
 By stopping my subscription to dinosaurs in our school.
cable TV, I had a peaceful day  Pygmies hunted elephants armed
with spears.
 Walking along the bridge, a ship
suddenly appeared.
 79
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
 Miners Refuse to Work After Death
MISPLACED  Juvenile Court to Try Shooting
PHRASES CAN BE Defendant
DEADLY!  Stolen Painting Found by Tree
 Two Sisters Reunited after 18 Years in
Checkout Counter
 Kids Make Nutritious Snacks
Best Newspaper  Local High School Dropouts Cut in Half
Typhoon Rips through Cemetery;
Headlines for 
Hundreds Dead
1999  Include Your Children When Baking
Cookies
 Iraqi Head Seeks Arms
 Is There a Ring of Debris around Uranus?
SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS 6 80
SENTENCE FRAGMENT

A group of words that looks like a sentence (but is not a complete

sentence. The longer the sentence, the more likely this occurs.
Example:
 All regulations must be made aware.
Should be written:
 Residents must be made aware of all regulations.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS 7 81
RUN-ON SENTENCES
Sentences with too many ideas that
should have been broken up into
multiple sentences.
Example:
 Because of ICT we can obtain information
instantaneously which has changed many
business practices that led to greater
efficiency.
Should be written:
 Because of ICT we can obtain information
instantaneously. This has led to greater
efficiency in many business practices.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS 8 82
DOUBLE CONSTRUCTION
The use of unnecessary, usually duplicated, words in a sentence.
Example:
 Since the law has been passed, therefore the police can conduct their
investigations directly.
 Similar to other developing countries…, Malaysia is also a victim of non-
communicable diseases.
Should be written:
 Since the law has been passed, the police can conduct its investigations
directly.
 Like other developing countries…, Malaysia _____________ (fill in).
GRAMMAR, SPELLING & ALL THAT 83

KNOW MORE MISS STEAKS

I have a spelling checker.
It came with my PC.
It plainly marks four my revue
Mistake I cannot sea.
I‟ve run this poem threw it,
I‟m sure your please to no.
Its letter perfect in its weigh;
Words that Britons cannot spell. My checker tolled me sew.
From the China Daily website:
[Link]
anguage_tips/easyEnglish/2009-
03/25/content_7615954.htm
ACADEMIC WRITING RULES 84

EXERCISE 5

Please read Exhibit 3.

Try to identify breaches of the

rules discussed above.
Correct the sentences if
necessary.
 85

5. WRITING A PAPER
1. THE ABSTRACT
2. THE INTRODUCTION
3. THE CONCLUSION
THE ABSTRACT 86

 An abstract (Latin: abstractum) is a summary of a paper.

 It should be a complete piece.
 In journals, it is between 100 and 200 words.
 It must contain all the major points of the paper.
 It cannot contain anything not in the paper.
 It focuses on issues, findings rather than people.
 It contains no referencing, preferably no acronyms.
 It is written as a single paragraph, …
 Often in simpler English than that in the paper
THE ABSTRACT 87
DESCRIPTIVE ABSTRACT
 Describes what the paper does, EXAMPLE
less focus on findings Malaysia has undergone a rapid
 Normally very short – fewer than demographic transition to low fertility.
100 words This yields a rich pool of human
capital with education. This paper
 Consists of: examines whether this „dividend‟ has
 Background been captured by Malaysia. Its
assessment is based both on the
 Objectives
quantitative and qualitative
 Focus areas achievements of the education
 Overview of results only system over the last 30 years. It
concludes that it has not done so fully
(60 words)
THE ABSTRACT 88
INFORMATIVE ABSTRACT
 Provides information of key
findings, less about what the
paper does
 Can be up to 200 words
 Consists of:
 Background
 Study objectives (optional)
 Methodology (optional)
 Findings
 Conclusions/recommendations
THE ABSTRACT 89
INFORMATIVE ABSTRACT
EXAMPLE:
Malaysia has undergone a rapid demographic transition to low fertility
that produced a growing share of the working age population. Rising
enrollment in upper secondary and tertiary education and many
females remaining outside the labor force have reduced this pool.
Together with high economic growth, this has created a shortage of
labor that has been filled by immigrant labor. Breaking out of this low
labor cost model requires strengthening the country‟s human capital
base. While generous government expenditure and liberalization of
the education sector has resulted in significant gains in numbers
enrolled, several factors have had a negative effect on education
quality. Unless reversed, this deterioration has long-term implications
for the country‟s development. But reversing it will take political
commitment that currently looks like a bridge too far. (119 words)
THE ABSTRACT 90
COMPARING ABSTRACT TYPES
DESCRIPTIVE ABSTRACT INFORMATIVE ABSTRACT
Describes the main points of the study, Informs about the main findings and
less on findings recommendations of the paper
Includes background, purpose and Provides brief summary of
focus of paper background, purpose and focus
May or may not include analytical Focus on findings, conclusions and/or
methods, findings recommendations
Begins with background and focuses Begins with background and focuses
on what the study does. on what the study finds.
THE INTRODUCTION 91

 The introduction is a lead-in to the rest of the paper.

 Like an appetizer, it should whet the reader‟s appetite for the main
course, the paper.
 Hence, it should arouse the reader‟s interest in the paper …
 But not reveal all the contents.
 This requires:
 A strong opening line
 Clear, direct English
 A few strategies can bring this about.
SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION 92
1 CLARIFYING THE TOPIC
EXAMPLE
 This involves providing the study The language used in cigarette
background. advertisements in magazines and
 This background should speak to newspapers have long been
why it is an important topic. governed by the guidelines of various
organizations. Despite such
 This narrative typical sets limits
restrictions, differences in word
(time and subject) for the study.
emphasis and other elements of
slanting make it possible to trace
changes in cigarette advertisements
over the past twenty-five years.
The above context provides a focal
point for and frames this study …..
SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION 93
2 STATE A POSITION
EXAMPLE
The language used in cigarette  It is possible to go beyond just
advertisements in magazines and clarifying a topic to take a stand
newspapers have long been up front.
governed by the guidelines of various
 This attracts the reader‟s attention
organizations. These organizations
because he/she may also have a
each have specific interest groups to
point of view.
answer to. For this reason, it does not
go far enough in ensuring that  Some readers are attracted by
smokers know the risks of smoking. argumentative papers.
This paper will demonstrate that the
role played by special interest groups
has harmed the portrayal of facts in
documents…..
SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION 94
3 RELATE TOPIC TO CURRENT ISSUE
EXAMPLE
The debate on cigarette
 People are more willing to read advertisements in magazines and
topics that have current newspapers is focused the attention
relevance. of numerous consumer groups. But it
 This is because they: is merely a reflection of the larger
current concern about the
 Have better recollection… environment, and the growing
 are more interested, and suspicion that industries are not telling
 they have more knowledge.
the public everything about the harm
they do to it.
Issues of importance to the
environment also resonates with
cigarette ….
SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION 95
4 LEVERAGE CONTROVERSY
EXAMPLE:
People living in the public eye have always a
great deal written about them. If they are  Controversy is attention grabbing.
eminent leaders, their early lives and their most
private moments become favorite topics for  This is because people take sides.
journalists. If they remain prominent for a long  But care must be taken because it is
time, there is little that remains a secret. Joseph not easy to contradict a prevailing
Stalin would seem a perfect example how the view.
public records reveal a man‟s private life. Yet the
truth is that few people truly knew anything about  Taking a position requires solid
his life. He himself destroyed most of the records academic analysis.
which might have shed light on his life and
character. During his rule, the history of his life
underwent repeated revisions. Since his death
and subsequent „disgrace‟, so many other
changes occurred that the „real‟ Stalin may never
be truly known.
This study tries to uncover the real Stalin …..
SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION 96
5 HIGHLIGHT A PARADOX
EXAMPLE

 Paradoxes also stir interest. Television is certainly one of the most

influential forces on society in the last
 This is because they set the stage half of the twentieth century. Yet
for debate. though it is called „educational‟, it
 It shows the writer‟s critical attitude teaches little. Though it is called
… „real‟, it is deception of the worst sort.
Though it is said to be a disseminator
 And promises an interesting paper. of society‟s values, it has worked to
destroy them. It encourages
violence, passivity, complacency,
and illiteracy simultaneously.
SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION 97
6 USE RELEVANT STATISTICS
EXAMPLE
In 1974, a Senate subcommittee
reported that it had surveyed 54  Statistics can speak louder than
federal agencies and discovered words.
that they together maintained 858
data banks on individuals. Eighty-four  They also lend credibility to an
of the data banks were operating argument (of course they can also
without explicit legal authority. Retail be misused).
credit reporting companies are the  The more alarming the statistics
next largest users of data banks, and the better the impact.
businesses with many employees are
next. Chances are that everybody in
the U.S. is listed in one of these data
banks, sometimes unflatteringly and
sometimes with untruths.
SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION 98
7 USE A QUOTATION
EXAMPLE
“THE Malaysian education system is a
 A quotation is a powerful way of crime inflicted upon our young.” This
delivering the message of a topic. quotation by a senior manager
 The more extreme or dramatic the exemplifies the polarized views on the
quotation, the more powerful the country‟s education today. This
impact. polarization has its roots in the many
changes that have taken place over
 But it is not easy to find one, let the past 30 years. These changes
alone a powerful one. have produced winners and losers.
They are also embedded in the
country‟s politics….
SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION 99
8 EVOKE HISTORY
EXAMPLE
For as long as there have been liars,  Giving a bit of history can evoke
there have been attempts to find the interest.
truth. Those on trial in ancient China
 People are curious about the origin
were asked to chew rice powder while
of things.
testifying. If the powder was dry when
the suspect spat it out, he was judged  It gives the paper a scholarly air.
guilty because it was assumed that
nervousness over telling lies had dried  It does not have to be directly about
the saliva in his mouth. Throughout the a topic but should lead to it.
ages, similar less than reliable methods  Irrelevant history does more harm
of determining the truth were used. than good.
Finally, with the invention of the modern
lie detector in 1921, it seemed that
there was at last a foolproof way of
finding out if people answering
questions were lying or being truthful.
SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION 100
COMBINING THE ABOVE
“THE Malaysian education system is a crime inflicted upon our young.” This
quotation by a senior manager exemplifies the polarized views on the country‟s
education today. This polarization has its roots in the many changes that have
taken place over the past 30 years. These changes have produced winners and
losers. They are also embedded in the country‟s politics.
This issue has gained prominence because, despite the government‟s lavish
spending on education, international tests have shown education quality vis-à-vis
the rest of the world not only to be sub-par but declining. This is occurring at a
time when Malaysia aspires to first world status.
This study will review how, despite many reforms, this quality deterioration came
about, the domestic and external pressures that are exerted on the education
sector …..

Approaches 7 + 2 + 3
WRITING AN INTRODUCTION 101
THE NO NO’S
DON‟T USE A DICTIONARY
DON‟T REPEAT THE TITLE DON‟T ASK A QUESTION DEFINITION

• It is already on the • It might lead to an • It suggests to the

title page. unexpected answer reader the paper is as
in the reader‟s mind. interesting as reading
• It is repetitive.
the dictionary.
• And it might be the
• It shows a lack of
wrong answer you • It shows a lack of
imagination.
want. imagination, or worse,
• But some of the words lack of
• That would be a bad
can be used. understanding.
start at reading the
paper
WRITING AN INTRODUCTION 102
DEFAULT OPTION
 If you have a problem crafting any of the above options, the default option
is to:
 Provide some background
 Say what you want to do, and …
 put down the main points of the paper.
 But you must be careful not to duplicate what you said in the abstract,
which appears just before the introduction!
 It is not too creative an approach.
 But it will at least make you think twice about doing this in the conclusion.

Note: An introduction may appear at the beginning of a paper but it is written

at the end.
WRITING AN INTRODUCTION 103

EXERCISE 6

Please read Sample 2

In doing so, review the

structure of the introduction.

How is cohesion achieved?

 104

WRITING A
 Like the introduction, it is not easy to
CONCLUSION write.
 NOT the same as a summary, hence
THE PREACHER’S MAXIM “Summary and Conclusions”
• Tell them what you are  Several strategies
going to tell them
(introduction)  And also No No‟s.

• Tell them (body)

• Tell them what you told
them (conclusion).
CRAFTING A CONCLUSION 105
TIE TO INTRODUCTION
 Shows the unity of the paper, that
the focus stays with themes
identified.
 Shows discussion has not drifted.
EXAMPLE
 Some words, phrases from the
We began this paper by arguing that
introduction can be used.
statistical analysis of political
processes is often flawed. In this
paper, we have shown why. Most
importantly by treating every event
as a statistic, the role of context is lost.
Nuances to each event also cannot
be adequately captured.
CRAFTING A CONCLUSION 106
FIT STUDY INTO LARGER CONTEXT
EXAMPLE
We have shown that statistical
analysis of political processes is often
flawed because by treating each
event as a statistic just like other
events, the role of context is lost.
These arguments apply to all
 Demonstrates relevance of the
quantitative analysis of what are
topic.
primarily qualitative developments.
Seen in this light, our findings have  Show the study‟s more general
wider applicability than for this appeal
specific study.  Suggests that the larger context
may have lessons for the study
CRAFTING A CONCLUSION 107
DRAW IMPLICATIONS
EXAMPLE:
Several implications emerge from this
 Represents logical extension of paper‟s findings. First, adequate,
study findings. even generous, funding is a
necessary but insufficient condition to
 Answers the question “So what?”
guarantee education quality.
 Opens up new avenues of Second, institutions matter. This
thought to the reader means not only the quality of
 May suggest action if framed as institutions but also inter-institution
recommendations. coordination. Third ….
The recommendations that flow from
these are …..
CRAFTING A CONCLUSION 108
MAKE RECOMMENDATIONS
EXAMPLE:
These findings speak to the need for
 Brings effective closure to a study.
radical reform. This reform should
take a two-prong approach. The first  This is the essence of action-
prong should address the curriculum. oriented research.
Specific initiatives include
 Answers effectively the question
harmonization of standards, ensuring
‟So what?‟
currency of material … The second
prong would cover institutions. Here, it  Recommendations require much
will be important to ensure that thought. But experience helps.
institutions are appropriately staffed,
that their efforts are coordinated, and
that they focus on implementation as
much as planning and policy-making.
CRAFTING A CONCLUSION 109
USE QUOTATIONS … AGAIN!
EXAMPLE:
In 1961, President John F. Kennedy
 The right quotation can crystalize encouraged all Americans to “ask
a message more than a whole what you can do for your country.”
paragraph. Those involved in Habitat for
Humanity with which President Carter
 It brings a different context to the
was closely associated asked and
issues under discussion.
found a wonderful answer. Habitat
 Quotations by the famous add volunteers, like those described in this
weight to the conclusion. report, work year round to improve
the lives of their fellow Americans.
They are shining examples of
answering the call to serve.
CRAFTING A CONCLUSION 110
LOOK TO THE FUTURE
EXAMPLE:
These findings emerge from an
 Relevance for the future adds
analysis of the past but also has even
weight to the importance of the
greater relevance for the future.
study.
Should the proposed reforms be
successfully implemented, a gradual  Redirects the reader‟s thought
rise in standards can be expected, process from what had been
this rise eventually becoming (cannot be changed) to what
entrenched as mindsets change. can be (can be changed).
Failure to reform, however, will see
 Demonstrates extension of logic
the country trapped in a vicious circle
and ideas
of mediocrity. The question is: will the
commitment exist to carry through
these reforms.
CRAFTING A CONCLUSION 111
THE NO NO’S
DON’T JUST SUMMARIZE DON’T SUGGEST NEW IDEAS DON’T APOLOGIZE

• It is already in the • It raises the question: • It signals regret at

abstract (and maybe „If is is important, why what has been done.
in the introduction). wait till now?‟
• It shows lack of
• It is repetitive. • Not enough time to confidence in findings
develop argument.
• It signals inability to • Knowing the study‟s
answer the question: limits is not an
„So what?‟. apology.
• It shows a lack of • Nor is reversing an
imagination. early position.
CRAFTING A CONCLUSION 112

EXERCISE 7

Please read Sample 3.

The abstract provides a summary
of the paper. The conclusion:
 Draws implications from findings
 Refutes earlier studies
 Offers suggestions on what to do
 113

ACADEMIC
WRITING

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