DECISION MAKING STYLES IN MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

Many people believe that decision-making is not a rational option but a

product of personality. With that, leaders must understand that personality cannot stand in the way of
critical decision making. Good leaders will adapt their decision-making strate4,' to match the demands
of various circumstances.

The most influential leaders learn how to tailor their decision-making style
to suit specific circumstances. Different contexts and situations call for individual management
responses, and sometimes multiple decision-making approaches. Leaders can learn how to make
informed choices in a variety of diverse situations by understanding the different ways of decision-
making and being mindful of warning signs.

FOUR STYLES OF DECISION-MAKING

1. DIRECTIVE DECISION-MAKING
Usually a Policy decision-maker sorts out the pros and cons of a situation
based on what they already know. Decision-makers in the directive are very rational and
have little tolerance for uncertainty. Instead of going to others for more detail, their
decisions are rooted in their own intelligence, experience and reasoning. The upside to
this style is that decision-making is fast, ownership is transparent, and no extra
communication is needed. Often, however, directive decisions can be taken impulsively,
without all the necessary details.

• When to use Directive Decision-Making

In situations characterized by continuity, repeated patterns, and predictable events, this

style of decision-making is fine. For situations where there is a straightforward and unchallenged
cause-and-effect relationship, reserve guideline decisions; in other words, a correct response exists
and is collectively understood.

• A leader's role in Directive Decision-Making

A leader has to sense the situation, categorize it as a scenario that calls for a clear
decision and an appropriate response. Ensure best practices are in place for ongoing procedures.
Remember to ask yourself when classifying the situation: Is this my decision to make, and do I
have all the details necessary to make this decision? Where appropriate, delegate but remember to
communicate in a simple, direct language. It's the role of a leader to realize when there's no need
for intensive interpersonal contact and to make clear decisions based on the knowledge they
already have.
 • Signs you need to use a different approach

Once operations run smoothly it is easy for leaders to become victims of complacency.
Leaders must be mindful of the changing complexity of specific situations. When you start
making complicated jobs simply by using simple decisions, you need to change your approach.
Understand that changing circumstances demand changing styles of decision making.

2. ANALYTIC DECISION-MAKING
Before taking action, strategic decision-makers analyze a lot of details. Analytic
leaders, for example, rely on direct observation, data, and facts to back their decisions. Like
decision-makers in the guideline, however, an analytic decision maker may seek information and
advice from others to affirm or refute their own expertise. These decision-makers have a high
degree of uncertainty tolerance and are extremely adaptable but they prefer to monitor certain
aspects of the decision process. This style is a well-rounded decision-making strategy that can be
time-consuming.

• When to use Analytic Decision-Making

In situations where there may be more than one right answer, analytical decisions are
helpful. Use this decision-making style to solve issues where the relationship between cause and
effect is discoverable but not immediately apparent. You use this approach mainly to evaluate
multiple options or approaches, and to use fact-based management to direct effective action.

• A leader's role in Analytic Decision-Making

Unlike decision-making directives, before agreeing on a course of action, leaders must

evaluate all the details they have available. Assembling a team of experts to assist with analytical
decisions is advantageous; Leaders must therefore freely consider contradictory advice and ideas. At
the same time, to make the most of the analytic decision-making process, leaders need to consider
non-expert perspectives.

• Signs you need to use a different approach

Decision paralysis is the most important warning sign of overuse of the logical decision
form. When you find yourself living in a state of over-analysis or overthinking without taking action
or making a decision, this strateU must be removed.
3. CONCEPTUAL DECISION-MAKING

Compared with the guideline or empirical approaches, the relational decision-making process takes a
more collaborative approach. Conceptual decision-makers promote innovative thinking and teamwork
and take a wide variety of viewpoints into Consideration. These decision-makers are based on success and
want to look well into the future when it comes to making critical decisions.

When to use Conceptual Decision-Making

Apply logical decision taking to issues involving several conflicting ideas. This decision
style is ideally suited to circumstances that are marked by unpredictability and tailored to creative and
inventive approaches. You see no immediate solution in these situations but trends emerge over time.
The use of a conceptual decision-making style accounts for longterm planning and the unknown
variables.

A leader's role in Conceptual Decision-Making

To be successful in analytical decision taking, leaders need to create an atmosphere that
fosters experiments designed to uncover instructive trends over time. Leaders will need to make a point
of growing coordination and interaction. Build groups of people who can share new ideas and assist
with difficult decision taking and execution. Patience is the key and leaders need to take the time to
reflect.
Signs you need to use a different approach
If the decision you need to make includes a situation that needs structure and established
outcomes, a conceptual approach should not be employed. Often, decisions that need to determine
immediate consequences and situations in which there is no space for error are not subject to logical
decision taking.

4. BEHAVIORAL DECISION-MAKING

Behavioral decision-seek to make sure that everyone is working together well. Like the conceptual
method, behavioral decision-is group-oriented; however, the community is given the choices available to
the rather than brainstorming alternative solutions. From there the community will discuss cach choice's
pros and cons. This decision-making method takes into account several different viewpoints and views
in the process.

 When to use behavioral decision-making

o The behavioral style requires proactive communication, as with conceptual decision-
making. This style takes a more introspective approach by discussing solutions that have
worked in the past, rather than attempting to disclose new patterns.
 A leader's role in behavioral decision-making
o Leaders in this style of decision-making need to open lines of communication. Again,
build groups of people who can contribute their opinions and promote democratic debate.
Don't only impose a course of action when using the behavioral decision-making method.
Consider what decision generates the most unity within the company, instead.
 Signs you need to use a different approach
 o If group discussion sessions cannot reach a resolution, a new strateU will need to be
considered. Conversely, if new ideas never come up or no one questions views, then
behavioral decision-making might not be the best choice. Although this style of decision
works for the good of the community as a whole, a clear and definitive leader is required
to get things done. Look for ways and experiments where possible to push people to
think outside of what's familiar.

TRAITS AND VALUES IN DECISION-MAKING

Decision-Making and Personality Traits

Personality characteristics have a much greater role to play in decision taking than you would
expect.

Some people are indecisive, because of their very existence. They find most decisions quite difficult to
make. These people I also find very committed to the decision when they do. I am sure you know this
kind of people. Others make choices way too easily without taking into account all the consequences.
Those are more impulsive people.

What you respond specifically to the environment will influence your decision-making
process, making your decision-making process special as well. There are many ways in which we can
explain how we respond to the environment, but one easy way is to suggest we respond from the brain,
heart or gut. Your personality will determine whether you approach decisions in a rational or emotional
manner.

A successful decision is made with the alignment of the three eyes, heart and gut or, as
defined in the holistic decision-making strateU, when the three are finally in harmony.

It's all tough decisions. There is no way this gets out. However, by getting an approach
and knowing how our attitude influences our decision we can make them a little easier.

HOW TO FACTOR YOUR PERSONALITY INTO YOUR DECISION-MAKING

As much logic as you bring in your choices, the way you make a choice will always
affect your personality. Individual personality is an unavoidable consideration combined with
maturity and experience but constructive self-awareness can help you weigh how much your
intuition impacts your decision-making process.

What is interesting about the choices is that they are all yours. No other being on earth will make
precisely the same choices that you do, using the same exact procedure. It's because personality keeps
every decision you make updated. In conjunction with your degree of maturity, experience and ego
qualities (the way you cope with stress and retain stability), temperament plays a major role in the choices
you make and the process you make them by.
 HOW YOUR BRAIN MAKES DECISIONS
Decision-making is multiply-determined, meaning that there are multiple forces at
work simultaneously. Your personality characteristics and influences blend with your beliefs, your
desires and your inspiration as you navigate the decision-making process every day. Your "style"
informs whether you rationally or emotionally, impulsively or cautiously, spontaneously or
deliberately approach decisions. If you have bold and adventurous components to your personality,
you will find that you make decisions easily, even impulsively, unlike your rational equivalent, who
may need to consider every angle before weighing in.
Any of us make decisions about following a certain internal norm, ethics or meaning.
Others make choices to minimize anxiety or increase self-esteem and/or the likelihood of closeness
or distance from others. For those strongly motivated by pleasure-seeking and immediate
gratification, decision-making is frequently deficient in logical thought, and is instead impulsive
instead.

Personality tests provide a self-discovery process involving very useful applications.

The more you are conscious of yourself, the more consistently your opportunities, preferences, and
perceptions increase. Not only does self awareness unblock us, but it also opens up possibilities that
would otherwise remain unconscious or unknown. Let us look at the circumstances of productivity,
for instance. Many people appear to under-function themselves as their innovative thinking is
motivated by working on an engaging team.

Being aware of what we need as individuals takes us out of marking ourselves as good or
poor, and helps us to consider what we need for our highest functioning level. It may be direction,
structure, space, flexibility, relation, humor— all depending on personality understanding. Knowing
what's important, how we learn best, what and how are most aligned with our personalities makes
informed choices that can improve our quality of life.

CULTURAL INFLUENCES IN DECISION MAKING

Decision-making is a mental process that is an important part of preparing and taking
action in a variety of ways and at a wide range of levels, including, though not limited to, budget
preparation, educational preparing, policy making, and career building. Such events include people all
over the world. The underlying cross-cultural disparities in decision-making can be a major contributing
factor in cross-cultural communication, negotiation, and conflict resolution performance.

DECISION-MAKING MODELS

Based on the perspective the researcher takes on the role that culture plays in decision-
making, one of the following models is used to think about and forecast behavioral trends in decision-
making in a given community:
 1. The Universal Model. Typically, the scientists who use this model believe there is only a
small difference in how people from different cultures make their choices. The findings
obtained from one party are usually related to humans.
2. The Dispositional Model. The adherents of the dispositional view recognize that decision-
making differences are cross-cultural and support thecause of cross-cultural study. They
assume that the variations found in the studies reflect the omnipresence of cultural
inclinations in individuals ' minds, and are expected to appear in all situations and
situational contexts.
3. The Dynamic Model. Adherents of this view often consider cross-cultural variations. They
view cultural knowledge not as a monolithic construct that is continuously present, but as a
collection of discrete knowledge that is operational as a function of the situation. We also
promote the development and testing of complex models reflecting the processes by which
culture influences decision-makers.

THE EFFECT OF CULTURE ON DECISION MAKING

Cross Cultural Variances

Western theories are known for the systematic use of logical analysis, a methodical approach
to solving complex problems by splitting them into their constituent parts and defining the patterns of
cause and effect of the constituent parts; While oriental philosophies are well known for their focus on
holism—the notion that the properties of a given system cannot be defined or clarified solely by the parts
of its components, but the system as a whole decides how the components behave.

The individuals from high- and low-context cultures also differ in their communication styles. The former
prefers the less direct style, and thereby they are less explicit in stating their feelings, desires, and
intentions when communicating verbally. The latter, on the contrary, are less likely to camouflage their
message and conceal their intentions. Communication The culturally normative style also enhances
people's responsiveness to the transmitted message and influences the perception of the communicator. It
influences hiring decisions. HR agents are more likely to recruit direct, assertive, and even aggressive
applicants in cultures of low background, whereas the reverse trend is found in cultures of high
background.

THE CONDITIONS ACCELERATING OR HINDERING THE SALIENCE OF CROSS-

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN DECISION MAKING
1. Priming

The automatic cognition literature indicates behavior is influenced by exposure to

elements of the social environment in a manner that occurs below consciousness or purpose. We know
from the common schematic representations of a certain society, the stereotyped behaviors that later
 affect our decisions. When a person is prepared with a definition, often through an implied order to
think about it, it stimulates all forms of relevant knowledge and affects decision taking.

2. Time pressure

Cultural and personal information is accessible to all through cultures. Cultural

knowledge appears to represent a broad sampling of the events in life, whereas personal knowledge
is more based on individual or atypical experiences. The other difference between their accessibility
is the cultural and personal awareness. Cultural community participants are prepared day after day
with a collection of values, behaviors, and behavioral habits that contribute to building up and
storing cultural awareness. Cultural awareness is therefore very available even under a heavy
cognitive load of work. Personal awareness is a record of a particular event and is not replicated in
too many ways. That is why a concerted attempt is required to access it, which takes more time and
effort.
Independent individuals are expected to react better to information based on promotion,
whereas individuals with interdependent self-construction are assumed to respond better to information
based on prevention.

3. Peer Pressure

Individuals in collectivist societies are less likely to behave when they do not encounter
social pressure according to their cultural values. According to what collectivist culture dictates,
Japanese and Chinese students are more likely to decide, compared to American and Italian students,
whether they will eat in fast-subject to the norms adopted in their societies, and less likely to make
choices dependent on their personal attitudes. This peculiarity, however, is much more salient when
they make plans for eating with their friends, and less salient when they decide to eat alone in a fast
food restaurant. The probability that they will behave based on their attitudes increases dramatically
according to the above situation.

The Pressure to Provide Reasons for The Decision

When individuals need to offer reasons for their decision, cultural awareness is recruited.
The need to include explanations evokes an information-processing approach focused on top-down
application of rules and standards, rather than bottom-up processing based on personal experience.
This can be clarified with the aid Of the supposition that when asked to offer reasons, individuals feel
the need to adapt because they do not want to be the outsiders. They feel more able to rely on their
own experience when they are not asked to justify their choices.

Chinese have been shown to have a slightly lower propensity to compromise, which was previously
considered to be one of their signature characteristics when they were not asked to give reasons for their
purchase decisions. On the contrary, Americans are more likely to compromise when it is not their duty to
provide reasons for their decision.

The Individual Tolerance for Cognitive Ambiguity

Widespread common cultural awareness offers a validated context for individuals to view potentially
ambiguous interactions, providing their followers with a sense of epistemic protection and protecting
against ambiguity and unpredictability. The degree to which persons of all cultures need firm answers
varies. It is found that the people with high tolerance for ambiguity are less likely to act with the consent
of their society.
THE UNIVERSAL EFFECTS OF SITUATIONAL DEMANDS ON DECISION MODE SELECTION
ACROSS CULTURES
culture shapes the prevalence of cultural factors— nature of decisions, motivations for decisions, and
situational demands and affordances—and shapes how functional factors are converted into decision-
making modes—modes of measurement, acknowledgement, law, position, and impact-based decision
making. Nevertheless, societies do have a variety of common tendencies.
For example, when action is called for, members of both independent and interdependent social
orientations prefer to employ position-, rule-or casebased decision-making, as they are far more open and
require less cognitive load, whereas calculation-based mode would be less frequent in both orientations
for relationship decisions.

LESSON 5

What is Administration?

Administration refers to actions which are concerned with coordinating and managing an
organization or organization's work. There is also administration of government, charities, and many
other forms of organizations.

"Administration" is the performance of tasks needed to operate an agency for general

purposes. It can have a function of course, or of policy. For example, as companies change their plan, it is
the duty of administrative personnel to make the appropriate communication adjustments to end the
previous policy and begin enforcing the new direction.

Typically, the administration is defined by the person representing the organization appointed
or elected to an position and is responsible for the administrative functions and policy decisions of the
organization they are appointed or elected to manage.

Administration is essential to ensure that all departments within the organization work
effectively. It is the link between the managers and the workers. This provides the workforce with
inspiration and helps them understand the organization's goals.

The Basic Functions of Administration

a. Planning

b. Organizing

c. Directing

d. Controlling
Principles of Administration (Henri Fayol)
 1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Unity of Command

WHAT IS AN ADMINISTRATOR?
An administrator is a person who makes sure an organization is running at full capacity. Their
particular roles depend on the form of company, organization, or agency they operate in. An
administrator may be someone assigned to oversee an organization for its affairs.
An Administrator as an Organizer
Administrators formulate short-and long-term strategies that set specific priorities and
objectives. To put it another way, they strive to get the organization where it needs to go. To ensure that
these plans work, the planner must above all understand how, where, and who of the program as a
whole. The functions of the administrators are essential to the organization they operate. Their roles
usually involve a wide variety of duties including filing and administration.
Clerical Level Administrator
An administrator may be someone in charge of the smooth and effective operation of a single
office. Their responsibilities include handling all the paperwork and will typically report inside the office
to all individuals. Their role is likely to depend upon what the duties of the other colleagues are.

It is the responsibility of most office administrators to manage or distribute all posts within an
office. Mail duties can include opening all letters that come in, and ensuring that they meet the people
concerned. In addition, they are responsible for all of the outgoing post. They are also going to plan and
arrange filing for the court. Filing requires not only fetching the correct documents but also returning
them after they have been used by citizens.

For some organizations the administrator is the first port-of-call for office communications. They then
send the emails to the appropriate people in the same way they do with the message.

WHAT MAKES A GOOD ADMINISTRATOR?

To be a good administrator, a person must be:

deadline-driven and possess a high level of organization

capable of balancing multiple tasks simultaneously and delegate when appropriate.
capable of planning and have the ability to think strategically.
an excellent communicator, both in person and in writing.
always looking for opportunities to improve productivity in the organization.

SKILLS OF AN EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATOR

 Ability implies a capacity that can be created, not inherently inborn, and that is
expressed in output, not mere potential. Therefore, the main ability requirement must be successful
action under various circumstances.

Although good administrators are widely recognized for their selection and training, there
is surprisingly little agreement among executives or educators on what makes a good administrator.
This subject indicates what could be a more useful approach to manager selection and growth. This is
not based on what good executives are but on what they do.

Three Basic Developable Skills of Administrators

I
t is assumed here that an administrator is one who:

Directs the activities of other persons and

Undertakes the responsibility for achieving certain objectives through these efforts.

Within this definition, successful administration appears to rest on three basic skills, which
we will call:

Technical
Human and
Conceptual
Asserting that these skills are not interrelated may be impractical, but there may be real value in
evaluating each person separately and improving them independently.
Technical Skill
Technical skills require an understanding and expertise of a particular form of operation, particularly one
involving methods, processes, procedures, or techniques. It requires advanced expertise, analytical skill
within that field, and facility in the use of the particular discipline's methods and techniques.
Technical skills are perhaps the most common of the three skills mentioned in this topic because they are
the most practical and because they are the skills needed by the largest number of people in our age of
specialization. Most of our on - the-job and vocational training programs focus largely on developing this
specialized technical skill.
Human Skill
The person with highly developed human ability is aware of his own emotions, opinions and perceptions
about other individuals and groups; he can see the importance and weaknesses of those feelings. Through
acknowledging the presence of various perspectives, opinions, and values than his own, he is able to
consider what other people actually mean through their language and actions. He is similarly skillful at
expressing what he means by his actions to others in their own ways.
Human skill is the ability of the executive to function efficiently as a member of the community and
create cooperative effort within the team which he leads. Since technical ability is primarily about
working withthings, processes or physical objects, human ability is primarily about working with people.
This ability is reflected in the manner in which the person perceives and understands the views of his
superiors, equals and subordinates, and the manner in which he subsequently acts.
The administrator works to build an environment of acceptance and protection in which subordinates feel
free to express them without fear of censorship or criticism, by enabling them to engage in the preparation
and implementation of the issues that affect them directly. He is sufficiently responsive to other people's
needs and motives in his organization to be able to judge the likely reactions and consequences of
different courses of action that he may pursue. Knowing this awareness, he is able and eager to behave in
a manner that takes into account the views of others.
Human performance can't be a "sometime thing." Strategies can't be implemented randomly, nor can
personality characteristics be placed on or removed as overcoats. As all that an executive says and does
has an impact on his colleagues, he must demonstrate in his true self, in time. Therefore, to be successful,
this ability must be established naturally and demonstrated unconsciously, as well as consistently, in
every action of the person. This needs to become an important part of his whole being.
Conceptual skill
This competence is the unifying, organizing component of the administrative process, and of
overwhelming ultimate significance because the overall Performance of an organization depends on the
strategic capacity of its executives to formulate and execute policy decisions.
Conceptual competence requires the ability to see the organization as a whole; it includes understanding
how the organization's different functions depend one another, and how all the others are influenced by
changes in any component. The administrator will then be able to behave in a way that promotes the
general interest of the entire organization, understanding these relationships and perceiving the significant
elements of each case. Consequently, the effectiveness of any decision depends on the analytical ability of
the decision makers and those who bring it into effect.
Not only does the successful coordination of the various parts of the operation depend on the analytical
abilities of the concerned managers, but the entire future course and tone of the organization also
depends. The attitudes of a top executive color the entire character of the response of the organization,
and decide the "personality" that distinguishes the ways one organization does its services from the ways
of another. Those attitudes reflect the analytical capacity of the administrator.
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL, HUMAN AND CONCEPTUAL SKILLS
We may recognize that analytical ability represents understanding of the organization's technological as
well as human aspects in a very real sense. However, the definition of skill as the ability to turn
information into practice will allow one to differentiate between the three skills of conducting the
technical tasks (technical skills), knowing and motivating individuals and groups (human skills), and
organizing and combining all of the organization's tasks and objectives towards a common purpose
(conceptual skills).
The separation of effective administration into three core competencies is mainly useful for theoretical
purposes. Both skills are so closely interrelated in practice that it is hard to decide where one ends and
where another starts. Nevertheless, just because the skills are interrelated does not mean that looking at
them separately or varying their importance does not give us any benefit

At Lower Levels

Technical expertise is responsible for many of modern organizations and enterprise's great
advances. Effective activity is indispensable. Even at the lower levels of government it is of utmost
importance. When the administrator ventures farther away from the actual physical activity, this need for
technological expertise is less important, given that he has professional subordinates and can help them
solve their own problems.

At the top, technological abilities may be almost non-existent, and if his interpersonal and
analytical abilities are highly established the executive will still be able to work effectively.

Example:

The subordinate officer was called on in one large police organization to replace the Chief
of Police, who had been unexpectedly struck with a serious illness. The subordinate officer did not have
any prior managerial experience but he had been with the department for more than 20 years and had
intimate knowledge of many of the main police personnel. He was able to devote himself to managing the
various functions by setting up an advisory committee, and by delegating an unprecedented amount of
authority to his department heads. Through this he built a highly productive team. The result was greater
efficiency, and morale higher than the organization had ever experienced before. Management had
worked out that the willingness of this man to deal with people was more important than his lack of
experience in management, and the risk paid off.

At Every Level
Human skill, the skill to collaborate with others, is important for successful management at
all levels. A

current research study has shown that human capacity at the supervisory level is of greatest importance,
finding out that the supervisor's chief role as an administrator is to attain the cooperation of people in the
working group.

Another study supports this finding and applies it to the middle-management community,
adding that the main concern of the administrator is to promote cooperation within the organization. And
yet another report, specifically dealing with top management, highlights the need for executives at that
stage to be self-aware and sensitive to human relationships. These results may appear to suggest that
human ability at any stage is of great importance, but note the difference in focus.

Human ability appears to be the most important at lower levels, where there is the largest
number of direct communications between administrators and subordinates. When we go higher and
higher in the administrative echelons, the number and duration of such personal encounters decreases,
and the need for human skills decreases in comparison, but not necessarily absolute. Around the same
time, conceptual skill becomes even more relevant with the need for strategic decisions and wide-
ranging action. The human capacity to interact with individuals then is inferior to the mental ability to
incorporate group desires and behaviors into an overall perspective.

At the Top Level

As demonstrated in the preceding article , analytical capacity is increasingly important
in more accountable executive roles where its effects are maximized and easiest to observe.
 Nevertheless, recent research results lead to the conclusion that this analytical capacity is the most
essential attribute of all at the highest level of administration. As the president of Bridgeport Brass
Company Herman W. Steinkraus said:
"One of the most important lessons which I learned on this job (the presidency) is the importance of
coordinating the various departments into an effective team, and, secondly, to recognize the shifting
emphasis from time to time of the relative importance of various departments to the business.

It would seem, then, that the greatest need for technological and human skills is at the lower
levels of administrative responsibility. Technical skills at higher levels are becoming increasingly less
important as the need for analytical skills is rapidly growing. Conceptual skills are the most essential skill
for effective management at the highest level of an organization. A chief executive can lack technological
or human skills, and be successful if he has subordinates with strong skills in those areas. But if its
conceptual skill is poor, it may jeopardize the performance of the entire organization. This three-skill
approach makes it possible to test trait gun and replaces it with procedures that evaluate the capacity of a
man to deal with the real problems and circumstances that he will face on his job. These procedures are
the same for selection and for measuring growth, indicating what a man can do in specific situations.

Developing the Skills

This approach indicates that executives should not be recruited on the basis of their
apparent possession of a variety of habits, attributes or personalities, but on the basis of possessing the
necessary skills for the particular degree of responsibility involved.

Many people have argued for years that theCapacity to lead is innate in those individuals chosen.
We're thinking about "born leaders," and "born administrators." It's definitely true that certain men,
inherently or innately, have greater aptitude or ability in certain skills. But studies in psychology and
physi0104T will also suggest, first, that those with good skills and abilities can enhance their ability
through practice and preparation, and second, that even those without natural talent can boost their
performance and overall quality.
Administrative competence conception suggests we will expect to boost our
administrative efficiency and build better administrators for the future. This definition of ability
means learning by doing. Different people learn in various ways, but skills are built by practice and
through linked learning to the personal experience and context of their own. If done well, training in
these basic administrative skills will improve executive skills more safely and faster than through
unorganized practice.

Technical Skill

Creation of technical skills has been attracting tremendous attention from industry and
educational institutions for many years, and much progress has been made. Strong grounding in the
individual specialty's values, systems, and procedures, combined with real practice and experience
through which an person is supervised and encouraged by a superior, appears to be most successful.

Human Skill
Nevertheless, human ability was much less known and systematic progress has only
recently been made in improving it. Today through organizations and experts are following several
 different approaches to the development of human skills.

Many of these methods find their application in "applied psychology," "human

engineering," and a host of other forms that involve professional technicians to support the
businessman with his human problems. However, as a practical matter, the executive must develop
his own interpersonal skills, instead of relying on others' advice. To be effective, he must develop his
own personal point of view toward human activity, so that he will:

Recognize the feelings and sentiments which he brings to a situation;

Have an attitude about his own experiences which will enable him to re-evaluate and
learn from them;
Develop ability in understanding what others by their actions and words are trying to
communicate to him; and
Develop ability in successfully communicating his ideas and attitudes to others.

Some individuals may build the human capacity without formalized training. Others can be
supported individually by their immediate supervisors as an integral part of the later mentioned
"coaching" method. This assist obviously depends on the degree to which the superior possesses human
capacity for performance.

The use of case issues combined with impromptu role-playing can be very useful for
larger groups. This training can be formally or informally defined, but requires a professional
instructor and a sequence of activities coordinated. It provides an approximation to fact as well as can
be given on an ongoing basis in the classroom and creates an opportunity for critical reflection not
always encountered in actual practice. An significant part of the process is self-examining the
trainee's own principles and values which that enable him to develop more useful attitudes about
himself and others. Hopefully with the shift in mindset, some successful abilities can also come in
solving human problems.
A series of analyzes of detailed accounts of real scenarios requiring administrative action
were also evaluated in the classroom, within acceptable limits, along with a variety of role-playing
opportunities where the participant is expected to execute the specifics of the action he has
suggested. In this way an offender can be tested for understanding the overall situation and his own
personal capacity to do something about it.
On the job a superior should be given regular opportunities to evaluate the ability of an individual
to work efficiently with others. They can seem extremely subjective judgments and rely on the rater's
human skills for validity.

Conceptual Skill
Conceptual ability was not generally understood, as was human abilities. A variety of
methods have been attempted, with varying results, to help improve this skill. Some of the best outcomes
were often obtained by superior "coaching" of subordinates. One way a superior can support his
subordinate "coach" is by assigning a specific task, and then by asking for feedback or thoughts instead
of providing answers if the subordinate needs assistance.

Benjamin F. Fairless, chairman of the board of the United States Steel Corporation,
described his coaching activities:
 "When one of my vice presidents or the head of one of our operating companies comes to
me for instructions, I generally counter by asking him questions. First thing I know, he has
told me how to solve the problem himself”

It is, of course, an ideal and completely normal administrative training technique and
relates to the growth of technological and human skills as well as analytical skills. His success,
however, will ultimately be dependent on the superior's skill and willingness to support the subordinate.

Another excellent way of improving analytical ability is through swapping jobs, i.e.
through shifting promising young men through different work functions but at the same level of
responsibility. It practically gives the man the ability to "be in the other fellow's shoes."

Conceptual skills were also tested with reasonable effectiveness in the classroom by providing a set
of comprehensive explanations of real, complex situations. In these, the person being examined is asked
to formulate a course of action that reacts to the fundamental forces operating in each situation and that
considers the effects of this action on the various roles and parts of the company and its overall
environment.

On the job, the alert supervisor should consider regular opportunities to observe the degree to which the
employee is able to respond to the other organization or organization's roles and operations. Unlike
physical intelligence, intellectual capacity must also become a normal part of executive make-up.
Different approaches for cultivating various individuals can be suggested by reason of their experiences,
behaviors, and experience. For each case, however, the approach should be chosen which will allow the
executive to develop his own personal ability to envision the organization as a whole and to organize
and incorporate its various parts.

ADMINISTRATIVE CHALLENGES

Administrative professionals are the organization leaders who keep operations running
smoothly. Therefore, losing a member of the administrative staff or witnessing unexpected changes
in workload will pose tough administrative challenges.

HOW TO HANDLE TYPICAL ADMINISTRATIVE CHALLENGES

 1. Vacations
Once people get a chance to relax and refresh, productivity and work satisfaction
increase. Yet worker absences may create vacancies that can spread out too far to cover other
workers. Bringing temporary workers to bridge those gaps helps maintain smooth running of
things. While the idea of getting a temporary professional up to speed might seem like an
additional administrative challenge alongside the vacancy staffing. Many experienced workers
want to make a career out of temporary work because they might not be able to take time off
when they need a full-time job.

2. Leaves of Absence
As Chief Executive, when an individual needs to take time off for maternity or paternity
leave, extended illness or other personal matters, you are compassionate and supportive. Even, it can
leave you scratching without a star player in your line-up.

Covering an absence leave can seem overwhelming, but specialized staffing agencies may
help you solve those administrative challenges. Organizations should pre-evaluate applicants who are
willing to fill in before the full-time employee returns for a few weeks or several months. In fact,
working with a temporary long-term candidate provides you with a fantastic opportunity to evaluate his
or her on - the-job success in the event that the incumbent will not return, or you choose to fill a similar
role in the future.

3. Busy Seasons and Special Projects

When you encounter seasonal peaks or land a special project at your company or
organization, bringing in part-time employees will help alleviate core working people at these
instances. Specialized recruiting firms will recommend applicants who completed similar tasks and
have the skill set you need to fill out the team on a project-based basis.

4. The Unexpected Loss of an Employee or Personnel

If an employee quits suddenly, you will be saddled to get a handle on in-progress work concurrently
and find a replacement— perhaps with as little as two weeks' notice. In addition to recruiting skilled
applicants looking for temporary-to-full-time jobs, a professional staffing agency will even have
applicants ready to meet you the very next day. This quick turnover can also give your outgoing
employee time to help with your new hire onboard. A company or organization may decide to revamp
the job, restructure the department or merge positions upon the leave of an employee or staff.
Administrative Theory (Henri Fayol)
Henri Fayol's developed the administrative philosophy is also known as 14 management
principles. Henri Fayol was born into a French family in the year 1841. He was a prolific writer on
technological, science, and management matters. The' Financial and General Management' was his
most excellent writing. He named to a Mining firm as an engineer. By 1888 he had risen to the
company's position of Managing Director. He retired from the Executive position in 1918. He was the
company's managing director until his death. Henri Fayol was an accomplished management
practicioner.
The Fourteen Managerial Concepts are:

Division of Work: This principle the same as Adam Smith's 'Division of labor'.

Authority: Manager must be able to give the order. Authority gives this right.

Discipline: Employees must obey and respect the rules and regulations which governs
the organization.

Unity of Command: Every employee should receive order or direction from only one
immediate superior.
Unity of Direction: Each group of the organization should be direction by one manager
using one plan.
Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interest: The management must
see that the aims of the businesses are always supreme.

7, Remuneration of Personnel: The labours must be paid a reasonable salary for their
work.
8, Centralization: The process of transforming assigning decision making authority to a
higher level of an organizational hierarchy, it is centralization that should follow this.

Scalar Chain: Line of authority from top management to the lower ranks represents the
hierarchy or scalar chain.
Order: people and materials should be in the right place at the right time.
Equity: In running a business, a combination of kindness and justice is need.

Stability of Tenure of Personnel: Staffs work is well if job safety and career improvement
are guarantees to the team.

Initiative: Allowing all personnel to show their initiative in some way is a source of
stretch for the organization.

Esprit de Corps: Promoting team spirit will build unity and harmony within the
organization