THE POWER OF

1.8 BILLION
ADOLESCENTS, YOUTH
AND THE TRANSFORMATION
OF THE FUTURE

state of world population 2014

 The State of World Population 2014 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The editorial team is grateful for the indicators analysis, statistical
RESEARCHERS AND AUTHORS tables and chart development by Edilberto Loaiza and Mengjia
Monica Das Gupta Liang in the UNFPA Population and Development Branch. From
Robert Engelman that same branch, Sainan Zhang developed charts related to
Jessica Levy the global survey of countries 20 years after the International
Gretchen Luchsinger Conference on Population and Development.
Tom Merrick
James E. Rosen Yeneneh Terefe analysed and plotted data for the scatter graphs
that appear in chapter 1. The Berlin Institute for Population and
Other contributions from Sarah Castle Development analysed dependency ratio data to determine
countries’ progress through the demographic transition. Data
UNFPA ADVISORY TEAM on key indicators related to education and health were provided
Björn Andersson by the Population Division of the United Nations Department
Satvika Chalasani of Economic and Social Affairs, UNESCO and the World Health
Françoise Ghorayeb Organization.
Mona Kaidbey
Michael Herrmann UNFPA and United Nations colleagues reviewed and commented
Daniel Schensul on drafts at all stages of the report’s development or guided
Sylvia Wong research: Teresa Buerkle, Howard Friedman, Ann Erb Leoncavallo,
Jacqueline Mahon, Diego Palacios, Saskia Schellekens.
RESEARCH ADVISER
David Bloom, Department of Global Health and Population,
Harvard University MAPS AND DESIGNATIONS
The designations employed and the presentation of material in
Youth adviser and contributing editor maps in this report do not imply the expression of any opinion
Irem Tümer whatsoever on the part of UNFPA concerning the legal status of
any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning
EDITORIAL TEAM the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. A dotted line
Editor: Richard Kollodge approximately represents the Line of Control in Jammu and
Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of
Editorial associate: Katheline Ruiz
Jammu and Kashmir has not been agreed upon by the parties.
Copy editor and bibliography editor: Susan Guthridge Gould
Publication design and production: Prographics, Inc.
© UNFPA 2014

UNFPA
Delivering a world where
every pregnancy is wanted
every childbirth is safe and
every young person’s
potential is fulfilled
 state of world population 2014

THE POWER OF 1.8 BILLION

ADOLESCENTS, YOUTH AND THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FUTURE

Foreword page ii

Message from the contributing editor page iv

1 Youth: big numbers, big challenges, big possibilities page 1

2 Young people and the demographic dividend page 13

3 Obstacles to young people's growth and potential page 31

4 Human capital investments open the window to a demographic dividend page 47

5 Aligning policies, investments and the demographic transition page 61

6 The future of sustainable development, with youth at the centre page 77

7 The transformation of the future and the case for young people page 91

Indicators page 103

Bibliography page 119

© AP Photo/Mel Evans
 Foreword
Our world is home to 1.8 billion young people between the ages of
10 and 24, and the youth population is growing fastest in the poorest
nations. Within this generation are 600 million adolescent girls with
specific needs, challenges and aspirations for the future.

Never before have there been so many young of law and security institutions must be
people. Never again is there likely to be such strengthened to protect the rights of all,
potential for economic and social progress. How including young people. Realizing these
we meet the needs and aspirations of young changes will require that young people are
people will define our common future. counted and have a voice—meaningful partici-
Education is critical. The skills and knowledge pation—in governance and policymaking.
young people acquire must be relevant to the With the right policies and investments,
current economy and enable them to become countries can realize a “demographic divi-
innovators, thinkers and problem-solvers. dend,” made possible by falling mortality and
Investments in health, including sexual and fertility rates. With a larger working popula-
reproductive health, are also central. When tion and fewer dependents, a country has a
young people can make a healthy transition one-time opportunity for rapid economic
from adolescence into adulthood, options growth and stability.
expand for the future. Yet today, more than To realize this dividend, investments
2 million 10 to 19-year-olds are living with are needed to build institutional capacity,
HIV: about one in seven of all new HIV strengthen human capital, pursue economic
infections occur during adolescence. models that improve employment prospects,
Strategic investments can allow young people and promote inclusive governance and the
to claim their rights—to education, health, enjoyment of human rights. International
development, and to live free from violence and support can unlock the potential of the next
discrimination. Yet today one in three girls in generation of innovators, entrepreneurs,
developing countries is married before the age of change agents and leaders.
18, threatening her health, education and future Twenty years ago, 179 governments at the
prospects. Up to half of sexual assaults are com- International Conference on Population and
mitted against girls below the age of 16. Rule Development endorsed a groundbreaking

ii FO R E WO R D
“When young
people can
make a healthy
transition from
adolescence
into adulthood,
options expand
for the future.”

Programme of Action, which

recognized the important role of
young people in development. Today,
we have an opportunity to define a
post-2015 sustainable development Young people must be at the centre of the
framework, built on lessons learned, that empowers post-2015 vision for sustainable development
youth and includes specific indicators and targets to drive the future we want.
on education, skills development and employment,
health, especially sexual and reproductive health, Dr. Babatunde Osotimehin
youth participation and leadership. Executive Director

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 iii

 .
A message from Irem Tümer, contributing editor

Calls for investments in young people have increased dramatically in recent

years. Meanwhile, more and more countries agree that policies that help
young people fulfil their potential can also help drive economic development.
This year’s The State of World Population is significant because it frames
investments in youth not solely as responding to the needs of young people,
but also as an imperative for sustainable development. The perspective and
data that are being presented in this report can be a very valuable asset
for the advocacy and programming of youth-led organizations and
youth activists.

In many countries today, there is a discrepancy in broader networks that are often inaccessible to
between rhetoric about the need to invest in youth policymakers.
and young people’s participation in policymaking, While it is vital for policymakers and other
planning and implementation. With the momen- stakeholders to reach out to young people, the
tum that is created by the ongoing discussions on responsibility also lies with youth-led organizations
young people, there also emerges a great opportu- and youth activists to bring their involvement to the
nity for their further integration in development next level by establishing themselves as sustainable
processes. This requires dedication, will and and reliable partners. Being accountable and profes-
commitment on both sides. sional are first steps in establishing their credibility.
Terms like “investment in youth” may imply that Youth organizations must also adapt to our rapidly
young people are or can only be passive recipients changing world and embrace new technologies
of investment. But this view is misguided because that can revolutionize commerce, industry and
young people can and must be indispensable policymaking.
partners in development. In my involvement in Even though it has become well-established that
youth organizations, I have seen firsthand that investing in youth makes good economic sense and
with the right support, young people can be the is a human rights imperative, the latter is sometimes
problem-solvers and innovators who can break forgotten, especially when young people are called
the mould and find new ways of doing things or on to “change the world.” But the world will not
ways to do them better. Young people are in the change, no matter how hard we try, if young people
best position to understand what they and their are not able to exercise their human rights. It is
peers need and are able to ensure implementation true that young people will be the major drivers of

iv C H A P T E R FROM
MESSAGE 1 Yo u th
THE CONTRIBUTING
: big EDITOR
n u mbe rs, big ch a lle n ge s , bi g possi bi l i t i es
© Muhammed Furkan Akıncı

change in the coming decades, but it should still be what the future looks like. Young people must
remembered that most of the investments that this therefore have a say now in shaping the policies
report is advocating should be made to ensure that that will have a lasting impact on humanity and
the fundamental rights of young people are pro- the health of the planet.
tected. A world in which a quarter of humanity is As the sustainable development goals that will
without full enjoyment of rights is a world without follow the Millennium Development Goals are
the basic building blocks for change and progress. being defined, policymakers must not neglect
The My World 2015 survey revealed that globally, to prioritize the needs of young people and
young people see “a good education,” “better health- make room for them to carry the next develop-
care” and “an honest and responsive government” as ment agenda forward. Young people should
actions that would make the greatest difference to be involved in all aspects of the process. Only
their lives. Better job opportunities and protection through meaningful representation by and col-
against crime and violence are similarly important. laboration with youth will it be possible to move
These responses show a lingering global need to away from an entrenched mindset of delivering
provide the essential conditions for the full empow- basic services to youth towards an approach that
erment of young people. empowers young people and enables them to
Young people are about to inherit an enormous realize their potential.
responsibility for resolving many long-standing
complex problems, ranging from poverty to climate Ms. Tümer, 23, is a former Women Deliver
change, yet they have mostly been excluded from Youth Leader and member of the European Youth
participating in the decisions that will determine Parliament. She lives in Turkey.

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 v

There are more young people between
the ages of 10 and 24 today than at any
other time in human history.

FPA
© UN
CHAPTER 1

Youth:
big numbers,
big challenges,
big possibilities
Young people matter. They matter because they have inherent human rights that must
be upheld. They matter because an unprecedented 1.8 billion youth are alive today,
and because they are the shapers and leaders of our global future. Yet in a world of
adult concerns, young people are often overlooked. This tendency cries out for urgent
correction, because it imperils youth as well as economies and societies at large.

About
nine out of 10
people between
the ages 10 and 24
live in less developed
countries.

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 1

 T
here are more young people between their growing numbers of young people as a liabil-
the ages of 10 and 24 today than at any ity, a cohort that will place demands on strained
other time in human history. And in resources, or as an opportunity. With the right poli-
some parts of the world, not only do the cies and investments and the engagement of young
numbers of youth grow, but so does their share of people in nurturing their own potential, the largest
the population. In some countries, more than one generation of young people in human history can
in three is a young person. become the problem-solving producers, creators,
entrepreneurs, change agents and leaders of the
Why do these trends matter? coming decades.
In some countries, the growth of the youth popula- Today’s generation of young people numbers
tion is outpacing the growth of the economy and slightly less than 1.8 billion in a world population
outstripping the capacities of institutions charged of 7.3 billion. That’s up from 721 million people
with providing them basic services. Will schools aged 10 to 24 in 1950, when the world’s population
and universities be able to meet the demand for totaled 2.5 billion (United Nations Department of
education? Some 120 million young people reach Economic and Social Affairs, 2014).
working age every year. Will there be enough jobs The Population Division of the United Nations
to accommodate their need for decent work and a Department of Economic and Social Affairs projects
good income? Are health services strong enough? under its “medium fertility” scenario (often consid-
Will the young, including adolescents, have the ered the “most likely” demographic outcome) that
information and services they need to avoid early, the number of 10 to 24-year-olds will reach two
unintended and life-changing parenthood? Will the billion by the middle of this century. Slight changes
next generation be able to realize its full potential? in expected birth or death rates over time, however,
The emergence of a large youth population of could easily change this outcome.
unprecedented size can have a profound effect Global estimates and projections, nonetheless,
on any country. Whether that effect is positive or mask vast differences in age structures between
negative depends largely on how well governments and even within countries. Large and still-growing
respond to young people’s needs and enable them populations of young people are already challeng-
to engage fully and meaningfully in civic and ing many less-developed and low-income countries,
economic affairs. Governments can choose to see where government capacities and resources are
strained. Without appropriate investments today in
youth—girls, boys, young adolescents and young
DEMOGRAPHICS
adults—to prepare them for the future, these chal-
lenges of meeting the needs of a growing population
will become increasingly daunting with time in
In 17 developing many lower income countries.
countries, half
the population
50% While the ageing of populations is a frequent
topic in the news media and among economists and
is under age 18. policymakers, humanity as a whole is still young.
Most people alive today have yet to reach age 30. In
the world’s 48 least developed countries, most people

2 C H A P T E R 1 Yo u th : big n u mbe rs, big ch a lle n ge s , bi g possi bi l i t i es

are children (under age 18) or adolescents (ages 10
to 19). In Afghanistan, Timor-Leste and 15 countries
in sub-Saharan Africa, half the population is under
18. In Chad, Niger and Uganda, half are under 16.
In six countries—five in sub-Saharan Africa and
Israel—populations are actually “youthening” rather
than ageing, meaning their median age is projected
to decline from 2010 to 2015.
In countries such as Burundi and Niger, this
youthening process will continue at least until 2020
before reversing. After 2020, ageing is projected to
proceed at various rates in all the world’s countries.
The proportions of the young in all populations—
though not necessarily their absolute numbers—
will shrink with time. © UNFPA/Desmond Kwande

This demographic reality, tied to the ongoing shift

in the balance of world population from younger to
older people, creates risks. In more developed coun- If investments are prioritized so that all individu-
tries, smaller cohorts of young people may be tasked als in developing countries gain the power and the
with paying more per person for the pensions and means to decide freely and responsibly whether,
health care costs of larger older populations. But the when or how often to have children—to exercise
ongoing proportional shift towards older age groups, their reproductive rights—fertility rates will decline.
along with the declines in fertility and the lengthen- Research has shown that when individuals have a
ing of life expectancy that bring it about, also offers choice, they will choose smaller families. Lower fer-
opportunities of incalculable value. For example, tility, along with successful interventions in saving
consumption of goods and services by older persons, children’s lives and extending life expectancy, are the
who often have more disposable income than the building blocks for a demographic transition and
young, can result in an expansion of industries that potentially to a demographic dividend, described in
cater to older persons. Rising demand for services the next chapter.
provides significant investment opportunities and
contributes to economic growth. Where today’s young people live
Lack of meaningful work among young people is The highest proportion of young people today is in
playing into frustration that has in some instances poor countries, where barriers to their development
contributed to social unrest or unmanaged migra- and fulfilment of their potential are the highest.
tion. Indeed, many countries in sub-Saharan Africa Poverty is the most prevalent, access to critical health
and southern and western Asia, which have some of care and schooling is the lowest, conflict and violence
the largest cohorts of young people, are confront- are the most frequent, and life is the hardest.
ing or will soon confront seemingly insurmountable Fully 89 per cent of the world’s 10 to 24-year-
challenges to meeting the needs of rising younger olds, almost nine out of 10, live in less developed
generations in future decades. countries. That percentage is even higher among the

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 3

 YOUNG IN THE WORLD: CHANGING PROPORTIONS IN 1980, 2015 AND 2050

1980
Percentage of
10 to 24-year-olds
in population

10% to 19%

20% to 29%

30% or more

2015
Percentage of
10 to 24-year-olds
in population

10% to 19%

20% to 29%

30% or more

2050
Percentage of
10 to 24-year-olds
in population
(projected)

10% to 19%

20% to 29%

30% or more

The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on

this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the
United Nations. Dotted line represents approximately the Line of
Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan.
The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed
upon by the parties.

4 C H A P T E R 1 Yo u th : big n u mbe rs, big ch a lle n ge s , bi g possi bi l i t i es

youngest in this age range. Young people make up THE PROPORTIONS OF YOUTH VARY
slightly less than one quarter of world population. OVER TIME AND BY LEVEL OF NATIONAL
In the world’s least developed countries (a United DEVELOPMENT
Nations category that includes 33 countries in
sub-Saharan Africa, eight in Asia, six in Oceania Globally

and Haiti in the Caribbean) the age group makes

12 World population
up 32 per cent of the population. In the more
World 10-24 population
developed countries the figure is 17 per cent. 10

Population in billions
India has the world’s highest number of 10 to 8
24-year-olds, with 356 million—despite having a
6
smaller population than China, which has 269 mil-
lion young people. These countries are followed 4

by Indonesia with 67 million young, the United 2

States with 65 million, Pakistan with 59 million,
0
Nigeria with 57 million, Brazil with 51 million, and 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050 2075 2100

Bangladesh with 48 million. As proportions of both

the world’s population and that of the less devel-
Less developed countries
oped countries, the young peaked at 30 per cent
and 32 per cent respectively during the decade from 10 Less developed population
1975 to 1985. The proportions have been declining Less developed 10-24 population
8
Population in billions

ever since.
Within the world’s least developed countries, the 6
share of the population that is young crested around
2010. That share has begun declining. 4

It is one thing for youth’s proportion to fall in

2
a population. It is quite another for their total
numbers to decline. There are more young people 0
1950 1975 2000 2025 2050 2075 2100
in most developing countries each year. Even the
more developed countries as a region are projected
to be home to growing numbers of people in this Least developed countries

age group from 2021 until the early 2030s, when

3 Least developed population
their numbers will crest under the medium-fertility
Least developed 10-24 population
scenario at about 219 million. The growth trend in
Population in billions

the numbers of young people is most pronounced 2

in the least developed countries, where no peak
at all is projected for the foreseeable future. In
some sub-Saharan African countries, fertility is 1

barely declining, while the number of women of

childbearing age is rising significantly—leading to
0
larger cohorts of young children and adolescents. 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050 2075 2100

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 5

 of the century—at least for the world as a whole—
even as total population continues to grow modestly,
“… I am skilled, creative as currently projected.
Since young people will live longer into the future
and innovative. As a young
than their parents and other elders, they are more
person, I have innovative likely to face the impacts of accelerating climate
solutions to the social change and other environmental shifts, with accom-
problems in my country— panying risks to human well-being. The need for
social resilience is likely to grow, and today’s young
fresh ideas to help contribute will need in their own adulthood to be the main
to the development of my agents of tomorrow’s resilience. Their resilience
country.” depends in part on whether they are healthy and
educated, whether they have options and oppor-
Robert Nkwangu, Uganda tunities in life, and whether they are fully engaged
citizens whose rights are upheld. If girls and young
women continue to face gender discrimination,
early marriage and barriers to sexual and reproduc-
It is these countries that will struggle the hardest to tive health and rights, resilience to rapid social and
assure basic health and education services, jobs and environmental change will be further undermined.
livelihoods for their young—and indeed for their The question of how young people will manage
still-growing populations—for decades to come. and thrive as adults, preparing the way for their
Futures that differ markedly from the medium- own children and grandchildren, deserves attention
fertility scenario are possible. The United Nations and effort for their sake and for the sake of all of
constructs several projections varying by assump- humanity.
tions about fertility, migration and mortality rates.
Under the high-fertility projection (in which fer- Why some populations are more youthful
tility rates descend from today’s levels, but not as Over time it is birthrates and life expectancy in any
rapidly as in other projections), the world’s youth population that largely determine the median age and
population would exceed 3.5 billion by the end proportion of young people. Migration in and out of
of the century. countries also influences age structure, but in most
cases, the impact is limited. Median age throughout
Agents of change and resilience the world closely correlates with total fertility rates
Whenever it occurs, the approaching reversal of the (the average number of births per woman of
trend of youth population growth underlines an childbearing age).
important point: Under all likely scenarios, the next
few years or decades will witness the rise and then the Challenging correlations
cresting of the most young people ever. If the coun- Unfortunately for the young, the ancient expres-
tries of the world can rise to the challenge of meeting sion “strength in numbers” has not always held true.
young people’s needs in this period, that challenge is Economic power tends to be lowest in this age group,
likely to become easier with time in the second half jobs are at entry levels or in the informal sector when

6 C H A P T E R 1 Yo u th : big n u mbe rs, big ch a lle n ge s , bi g possi bi l i t i es 6

they can be found at all, and only those 18 and older It is not surprising that the young become a priority
typically are able to vote. Even where old enough to for policymakers only in cases where parents vote for
vote, young people tend to be less well integrated the interests of their children.
than older groups into electoral and political pro- Research has found correlations between a high
cesses as reflected partly in their lower voter turnout. proportion of 15-29-year-olds in a population and
a greater incidence of civil conflict—outbreaks of
violence within countries in which 25 or more
LIFE EXPECTANCY TENDS TO BE
people lose their lives. The correlation is not proof
HIGHEST WHERE YOUTH PROPORTIONS
of causality, but it does suggest to some researchers
ARE LOWEST
that societies must make greater efforts to increase
Percentage of 10 to 24-year-olds in national
population (2015) compared to life expectancy opportunities for education, jobs, livelihoods and
(2010-2015), 200 countries political engagement for their youth.
90 Lacking jobs and access to the experience and
85 wisdom of those older than themselves, these
80 young people tend to seek role models, routes to
Life expectancy (2010-2015)

75 self-esteem and even sources of food, shelter and

70 livelihood within their own age group. This ten-
65 dency, if not counterbalanced by hope for a better
60 future, can sometimes lead young people to become
55
involved in violence (Urdal, 2006). Conversely,
50
there is some evidence that declines in fertility
45
that lead to demographic dividends can also make
40
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
transition to democratic governance more likely
Percentage of 10 to 24-year-olds in population (Cincotta, 2008).

YOUNG PEOPLE AND MIGRATION

International migrants aged 10 to 24 constituted just over 12 per cent of the world’s total 232 million international
migrants in 2013, according to the United Nations. Most such migrants moved from one developing country to
another. While the flow of young people rarely alters the age structure or slows the growth of population signifi-
cantly in migrant-sending countries, over time it affects population dynamics in some developed countries that
receive large numbers of migrants.

The search for jobs and a decent livelihood is perhaps the biggest motivator of migration, and the search for
security and freedom from violence and discrimination is a major driver of refugee flows. For the young, the
hope of achieving a good education is also often an incentive to migrate. Between 2000 and 2010, the number
of students enrolled in universities outside of their own country rose from 2 million to 3.6 million. China, India
and the Republic of Korea were the countries of origin for the most foreign university students, while the United
States was the destination for the largest number, followed by the United Kingdom and Australia (United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2013b).

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 7

 There is a strong correlation between the percent- Reproductive and other risks
age of 10 to 24-year-olds in a population and low Complications during pregnancy and childbirth are
life expectancy at age 15. In 2012 an estimated a common cause of death among girls and young
1.3 million adolescents—young people aged 10 to women in developing countries. In a positive devel-
19—died, according to one tally, with 97 per cent opment that demonstrates that the right investments
of these deaths in low- and middle-income nations can save lives, such deaths “among adolescents have
and two thirds divided among sub-Saharan Africa declined significantly since 2000,” according to
and Southeast Asia (Patton et al., 2009). For young the World Health Organization. “This decline is
males, violence—often from gang activity and civil particularly noticeable in the regions where mater-
conflict—is a top killer. Honduras’ murder rate, the nal mortality rates are highest. The Southeast Asia,
highest recorded in the world at 90 per 100,000 Eastern Mediterranean and African regions have seen
people per year, was often cited in the news media declines of 57 per cent, 50 per cent and 37 per cent,
as a leading reason for the exodus of unaccompa- respectively.”
nied minors from that country to the United States The World Health Organization credits this
in mid-2014 (Patton et al., 2009; United Nations improvement to the fact that “ministries of health
Office of Drugs and Crime, n.d.). have intensified efforts to reduce the unaccept-
able toll of deaths among children and women by
applying well-known, well-proven interventions.”
This reflects progress by many developing coun-
tries in achieving the fifth of the United Nations’
eight Millennium Development Goals: to cut the
HOMICIDE RATES TEND TO BE maternal death ratio by three quarters in all age
HIGHEST WHERE YOUTH groups by 2015. The complications of pregnancy
PROPORTIONS ARE HIGHEST and childbirth are nonetheless still the second lead-
Annual homicides per 100,000 people ing killer of females 15 to 19, and the risks of dying
compared to percentage of 10 to 24-year-olds rise with the proportion of young people in popu-
in country populations, 197 countries
lations. The leading cause of death for adolescent
girls aged 15 to 19 worldwide is suicide—a fact
100 that raises questions about hopes and opportuni-
Number of homicides per 100,000

ties for young women, especially in the developing

80 countries in which most of them live (World Health
population annually

Organization, 2014).
60
Although not well studied or quantified, the men-
tal health of young people is increasingly recognized
40
as a global problem, one that may correlate with
the barriers to development that the young in many
20
countries face and that has a major impact on both
life expectancy and quality of life. Mental disorders
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 are high among health disorders suffered by people
Percentage of 10 to 24-year-olds in population of all ages. Most begin between the ages 12 and

8 C H A P T E R 1 Yo u th : big n u mbe rs, big ch a lle n ge s , bi g possi bi l i t i es

24, even if their manifestations and diagnosis occur CHILD MARRIAGE
later in life. Poor reproductive and sexual health is
among the most important contributors to poor
Every day,
mental health (Patel, 2007).
HIV is today the second leading cause of deaths 39,000 girls
become
for adolescents, and in contrast to the case with
maternal mortality, “estimates suggest that num-
bers of HIV deaths are rising in the adolescent age child brides
group,” the World Health Organization reports.
—or about 140 million
Given girls’ and young women’s greater risk of expo-
sure to HIV, this increase in HIV-related deaths is in a decade.
a clear case of failure to respond to young people’s
needs—particularly the sexual and reproductive
health needs of girls and young women.
A particular source of danger to the health and and other sexually transmitted infections. Gender dis-
lives of girls and young women is the prevalence crimination impedes girls and young women, especially
of child marriage in those countries where the in today’s youth-dominated populations. Girls and young
young are most prevalent in populations. Every day, women face the largest gaps between their enrolment
39,000 girls become child brides—or about 140 in secondary school—a critical gateway to participation
million in a decade. (The term “child” here refers in society and the economy. Similarly, they face overall
to those under 18, generally considered minors.) discrimination that further inhibits their engagement
Moreover, this practice is becoming not less but and contributions to their families, communities and
more common—and partly for demographic rea- the larger society, as illustrated by comparing percent-
sons. “The problem threatens to increase with the ages of young people in country populations and those
expanding youth population in the developing countries’ rankings on a United Nations Development
world,” notes UNFPA (2012). Child marriage, Programme index of gender discrimination.
because it usually results in early pregnancy, is Not surprisingly, given the overall correlation
linked to deaths from complications of pregnancy between high proportions of young people in popula-
and childbirth, and married girls are more likely tions and lower national economic and development
than married women to suffer violence and other status, total public and private per-capita spending
abuse at the hands of their husbands. on health care is lower in youthful countries. This
is especially harmful because good health paves the
From vicious to virtuous circles way to economic opportunity, long life, and overall
Correlations between high proportions of young well-being.
people in populations and obstacles to development The young are hardly at fault for the barriers to
feed a vicious circle of poor life chances for the young. their development. In most countries, their numbers
In the critical area of reproductive health, for example, compound challenges in escaping violence, in finding
girls and young women in youth-dominated popula- dignified work, or in gaining access to decent school-
tions tend to be most likely to have an unmet need for ing and youth-friendly health services, including
family planning. They are also most vulnerable to HIV reproductive health and family planning services.

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 9

 © UNFPA/Leslie Searles

For millions of young women and adolescent fully to the communities in which they live.
girls, these barriers to development are connected Among the most promising strategies for spur-
in part to their low status in their homes and com- ring national development and improving the
munities and to their lack of access to the means prospects of young people are energetic and well-
to decide freely whether, when or how often to timed investments in education, health—including
become pregnant. Improved reproductive health sexual and reproductive health—and women’s
and increased access to contraception information status. These investments are not only essential to
and services would offer some of the best hopes for enable young people to enjoy their rights, includ-
removing the barriers that prevent young people ing reproductive rights, but will also help young
from reaching their full potential and contributing people realize their full potential.

10 C H A P T E R 1 Yo u th : big n u mbe rs, big ch a lle n ge s , bi g possi bi l i t i es

 ADOLESCENT BIRTH RATES GENDER GAPS IN SECONDARY
ARE HIGHER WHERE YOUTH EDUCATION TEND TO BE LARGER—
PROPORTIONS ARE HIGHER IN BOTH DIRECTIONS, BUT GENERALLY
Birth rates among 15 to 19-year-old girls and FAVOURING BOYS—WITH LARGER
percentage of 10 to 24-year-olds in populations, YOUTH PROPORTIONS
177 countries
Gender gaps in secondary school enrolment,
168 countries, 2008-2013
(Note: 1=parity. Greater than 1 means more girls than boys
enrolled. Less than 1 means more boys than girls enrolled.)

1.5
200

Ratio of girls for each boy enrolled in

Number of births annually per
1,000 females aged 15-19

1.2
150

secondary school
100 0.9

50 0.6

0 0.3
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Percentage of 10 to 24-year-olds in population Percentage of 10 to 24-year-olds in population

GENDER INEQUALITY HEALTH SPENDING IS LOWEST

CLOSELY TRACKS PROPORTION IN COUNTRIES WITH THE HIGHEST
OF YOUTH POPULATIONS YOUTH PROPORTIONS
UNDP Gender Inequality Index and proportion of Per capita health expenditures (public and private),
young people in populations, 152 countries 2012, and proportion of young people in population,
178 countries
Gender Inequality Index, 2013, in which 0 equals

0.8 $10,000
complete equality and 1 extreme inequality

0.7
Per capita health spending, 2012
Placement of countries in UNDP

$8,000
0.6

0.5 $6,000

0.4
$4,000
0.3

0.2 $2,000

0.1
$-
0.0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Percentage of 10 to 24-year-olds in population Percentage of 10 to 24-year-olds in population

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 11

The demographic dividend is the economic growth potential that
can result from shifts in a population’s age structure, mainly when
the share of the working-age population (15 to 64)
is larger than the non-working-age
share of the population.

o
Dormin
arco
o/M
N Phot
©U

12
 CHAPTER 2

Young people and

the demographic
dividend
Many of the countries with the largest portions of youth today are among the poorest
in the world, but they are also on the cusp of the demographic transition that can
yield a demographic dividend. Transition begins as fertility and mortality rates start to
fall, leaving fewer dependents. More people, proportionally, are in the workforce. The
dividend comes as resources are freed for economic development, and for greater per
capita spending on higher quality health and education services. Economic growth takes
off. A virtuous cycle begins where capabilities and opportunities continuously expand.

Key actions to realize a demographic dividend

Increase investment Expand access to

in young people's contraception
human capital

Increase Improve access to

opportunities for financial systems
employment

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 13

 T
he size of today’s youth population may and succeed in a dynamic economy, enjoy their
seem daunting for policymakers and rights and realize their full potential.
government institutions charged with Policies that empower young people, coupled
providing or paying for education, health with efforts to actively engage them in decisions
and other services. Countries with limited resources that affect their lives and shape their future can
or weak economies face additional challenges of mean the difference between a demographic trend
meeting the rapidly growing demand for jobs and that weighs economies down and one that buoys
income-earning opportunities for the millions who them—through a demographic dividend.
are approaching working age.
When considered solely as a monolithic large From demographic transition to
number, young people may be improperly perceived demographic dividend
by some as a drain on the national economy, on The demographic dividend is the economic-
households or on health and education systems. growth potential that can result from shifts in a
But, when viewed as a font of untapped or unre- population’s age structure, mainly when the share
alized potential, today’s youth cohort can only be of the working-age population, 15 to 64, is larger
seen as a resource, an asset, a force for economic than the non-working-age share of the popula-
and social progress and transformation. tion, 14 and younger or 65 and older (Bloom et
Recent shifts in the age structure towards younger al., 2014). That potential can be enormous, pro-
populations present an unprecedented opportu- vided supportive economic policies are in place
nity to catapult developing economies forward. and investments in human capital, particularly
The “economic miracle” experienced by East Asian of young people, are substantial and strategic.
economies could become a reality for many of Without a solid economic and policy framework
today’s poorer countries, particularly in sub-Saharan to back it up, the demographic dividend may not
Africa. But, such economic change depends on how be fully realized.
well countries create an enabling environment for For a country to realize a demographic dividend,
growth, and more importantly, on how well they it must first undergo a demographic transition,
create conditions for young people to make a safe which means a shift from high fertility and mortal-
and healthy transition from adolescence to adult- ity to low fertility and mortality.
hood, acquire the skills they need to find good jobs During the early stages of the demographic tran-
sition, mortality rates among children fall, mainly
because of interventions such as safe water and
sanitation. Better health for children improves
"Despite the ‘information the chances for their survival.
The immediate effect of fewer child deaths is
explosion,’ youth seldom
a larger cohort of children. When this occurs,
get access to relevant and households devote more of their resources to
reliable information.” feeding and clothing their children and keeping
them healthy, diverting resources that could be
Saket Mani, India used to start up small businesses, expand agricul-
tural production or invested in other ways. It also

14 C H A P T E R 2 Yo u n g p e o p le a n d th e d e mo gra p h ic di vi dend
means governments need to devote more national
resources towards services such as primary edu-
cation and health, sometimes at the expense of
investments that could otherwise support
economic development.
When child survival improves, parents typically
feel more confident about having smaller families,
and this contributes to a gradual reduction in
fertility rates, the next stage of the demographic
transition. Fewer children mean more resources are
available to invest in ways that can raise household
income over the long term.
Over time, the children born during the early
stage of the demographic transition mature and
reach working age. When the share of the popula-
tion that is of working age rises and begins earning Students at a technical and vocational education training, led by
an income, there is greater per capita economic UNFPA, brainstorm ideas on what an ideal youth development
output or income. centre would look like.
© UNFPA/Dustin Barter
Meanwhile, as fertility rates fall, more women are
able to participate in the labour force. Bloom et al.
(2014) say that “…fertility declines are potent driv-
ers of economically consequential changes in the age This period during which a demographic dividend
structure of the population.” may be realized can be long, lasting five decades
The pivotal moment in the demographic transi- or more, but eventually lower fertility reduces the
tion is when the labour force grows more rapidly growth rate of the labour force, while continuing
than the population dependent on it, freeing up improvements in health result in longer life expec-
resources for investment in economic development tancies and corresponding growth of the elderly
and in the household. And, when there are fewer population (Lee and Mason, 2006).
people to support, a country has an opportunity for The majority of research on the demographic
rapid economic growth, provided the right social dividend is based on an analysis of dependency
and economic policies and investments are in place. ratios, measuring the share of the population that
(Lee and Mason, 2006). These forces and trends is of working age compared to the share that is of
together can constitute a demographic dividend. non-working age. A more nuanced analysis of the
The magnitude of that dividend depends on govern- dividend, however, is possible by drawing on data
ments’ policy and economic responses: Emerging on average consumption and earnings by age group
cohorts of working-age youth can represent great in a country and combining it with the population
economic potential, but only if families and gov- structure of that country. This provides a detailed
ernments adequately invest in their health and picture of net transfers and the number of workers
education and stimulate new economic opportuni- needed to support each consumer in a given setting
ties for them (Gribble and Bremner, 2012). at a given time (Lee and Mason, 2011).

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 15

 Drivers of the dividend UNWANTED BIRTHS ARE MORE
According to Bloom and Canning (2011), the COMMON AMONG THE POOR, AND
demographic dividend results from “accounting” VOLUNTARY FAMILY-PLANNING
and “behavioural” effects. One accounting effect is PROGRAMMES CAN REDUCE THE GAP
the swelling of the working age population after a
baby boom. The other accounting effect is the fact
that “working age” coincides with the prime years Philippines

Unwanted births per woman

2

for savings.
Behavioural effects are the rise in women’s work-
force activity as fertility declines; the further boost Average
1 41 countries
to savings that occurs as the incentive to save for
longer periods of retirement increases with greater Indonesia
longevity—sometimes called the “second demo-
graphic dividend” (Lee and Mason, 2006); and the 0
1 2 3 4 5
use of the increased savings to invest in human and
Wealth quintile, poorest (1) to richest (5)
physical capital, infrastructure and technological
Source: Gillespie et al. (2007)
innovation. This last effect is shaped by how condu-
cive the policy environment is to channeling savings
into investments for economic growth.
Some aspects of the demographic dividend may Decades of research has shown that women in
arise simply as a result of the arithmetic truth that, developing countries generally have more children
over time, lower fertility decreases the numbers than they desire. One explanation for the incon-
requiring livelihoods and other resources. This can sistency between desired and actual family size
result in a substantial reduction in poverty in low- is the lack of access to a reliable supply of qual-
income countries, with the extent of the reduction ity contraceptives and voluntary family planning
depending on the policy frameworks. It may also services. Hundreds of millions of women in the
increase per capita resources available for invest- developing world have an unmet need for modern
ments in young people’s health and education, contraception. Access has been limited for a range of
which can accelerate economic growth, and for economic, social and geographic reasons (UNFPA,
investments in physical capital, research and devel- 2012). Young people, particularly adolescents,
opment and infrastructure, which may contribute to routinely encounter obstacles to accessing
jobs growth. contraception.
Expanding access to contraception and informa-
Lower fertility: the start of the demographic tion, including comprehensive sexuality education,
transition can lead to lower fertility rates. When women have
Globally, fertility rates have been dropping since the the power, the means and the information to decide
1950s, from an average of six children per woman to freely whether, when or how often to have children,
about 2.5 today. In a number of countries, fertility they choose to have smaller families.
rates remain high, delaying a demographic transition Increasing access to voluntary family planning
that could pave the way for a demographic dividend. programmes can help reduce the unmet need for

16 C H A P T E R 2 Yo u n g p e o p le a n d th e d e mo gra p h ic di vi dend
contraception and accelerate the pace of fertility less-educated, and increases their income-earning
decline, although the unmet need for contraception capacity. This contributes to the demographic
often rises in the early stages of fertility decline, as dividend not only by reducing fertility, but also by
increasing numbers of women become more aware building human capital.
of the possibility of exercising control over their Lower fertility is also associated with improve-
childbearing (Bongaarts, 1997). ments in maternal health, by reducing the number
Empowering individuals to freely decide on child- of times women are exposed to the odds of dying
bearing requires a set of policies that respect human in childbirth. Maternal mortality is a major cause
rights and freedoms, and assure access to sexual of death for young women in high fertility settings
and reproductive health care, education beyond the (World Health Organization, 2011). Moreover,
primary level, and the empowerment of girls and women’s mortality risk remains elevated long after
women (UNFPA, 2012). Lower fertility is linked childbirth: a study in Bangladesh found that it is
to women’s labour-force participation and earnings, nearly twice as high as normal for up to two years
contributing to the demographic dividend (Bloom et after childbirth (Menken et al., 2003). Child mortal-
al. 2009; Schultz, 2009; Joshi and Schultz, 2013). It ity and stunting is also higher if births are spaced
also enhances the life-chances of their children. less than two years apart, and the outcomes are most
Having easy access to affordable and quality con- negative for adolescent mothers (Cleland et al. 2012,
traception is an enormous step forward in enabling Finlay 2013).
women to exercise their reproductive rights (UNFPA Ensuring young women’s access to voluntary fam-
et al., 2013). It also enhances the health of women ily planning has the greatest impact on educational
and their children and helps build human capital attainment and lifetime earnings. Women who start
among women, especially those who are poor or childbearing early, especially during adolescence, pay

THE WORKING-AGE POPULATION IS POISED TO MORE THAN DOUBLE IN THE LEAST

DEVELOPED COUNTRIES, ESPECIALLY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
Per cent change in the working-age population (ages 15 to 64), between 2015 and 2050

150

125

100

75

50

25

0
Least developed Other developing Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America Asia
countries countries and the Caribbean

Source: United Nations (2013)

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 17 17

 the highest wage penalty for childbearing. Miller and socio-economic success and eventual wages
(2010) found that young women who were given (Madestam and Simeonova, 2013; Rotz, 2013).
access to voluntary family planning were more likely Family size also affects investment in children.
to work in the formal sector. The negative effect of Studies in China and India found that lower fertility
family size on women’s labour-force participation in is associated with better child health and schooling
the United States is strongest among poorer and less- (Rosenzweig and Wolpin, 1980; Rosenzweig and
educated women (Angrist and Evans, 1998). Zhang, 2009). Miller (2010) concluded that fam-
Similar findings emerged from other studies using ily planning may be “among the most effective (and
data both from from Sweden and the United States. cost-effective) interventions to foster human capital
Analyses of policy-induced variation in access to the accumulation.”
means of controlling the timing of births in these Lower fertility has also been shown to mitigate the
countries indicate that expanded access to such ser- shortage of land and jobs in poorer countries (Das
vices was found to reduce births, especially among Gupta, 2014). Land scarcity is acute in large parts of
adolescents and poorer or less-educated women Asia. In sub-Saharan Africa, available cropland per
(Kearney and Levine, 2009; Bailey, 2012). This person engaged in agriculture decreased by 40 per
allowed them to invest in their careers and increased cent between 1960 and 2003, fueling expansion into
their labour-force participation and earnings (Bailey, fragile lands (World Bank, 2007) and rapid urban-
2012; Ragan, 2013). Increasing women’s ability ization (Soucat and Ncube, 2014; UNICEF, 2014).
to plan their births was also associated with sub- As for needed job growth, the World Bank
stantial improvements in their children’s education (2012) estimates that maintaining the 2005 levels

THREE GROUPS OF COUNTRIES AND THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION

In transition

Increasing dependence

Late transition

The boundaries and names shown and the

designations used on this map do not imply official
endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
Dotted line represents approximately the Line of
Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India
and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir
has not yet been agreed upon by the parties.

In transition Increasing Late transition

dependence

18 C H A P T E R 2 Yo u n g p e o p le a n d th e d e mo gra p h ic di vi dend
of employment of the working-age population in
2020 will require generating an additional million jobs
a month in South Asia and East Asia, and a 50 per
cent increase in the number of jobs in sub-Saharan
Africa. This pressure will be eased in Asia due to
fertility decline (UNICEF, 2014).
Research by Ashraf et al. (2013) shows that in
Nigeria, a slight decline in fertility would raise out-
put per capita by 5.6 per cent at a horizon of 20
years and by 11.9 per cent at a horizon of 50 years.
Kelley and Schmidt (2005) and Weil and Wilde
(2009) show that population growth can have a
negative impact on per capita GDP growth and can
actually reduce income per capita in poor countries
that are heavily dependent on agriculture, or on
mineral or energy exports.

How big will the dividend be?

The extent to which an increase in per capita re-
sources resulting from fertility declines translate into
higher living standards depends on policy settings.
With good policy management and investment in
© UNFPA/Micka Perier
physical and human capital, the additional resources
could be used to transform economies, now and well
after this window of opportunity has closed, as expe- population began to soar in East Asia in the 1980s.
rienced by a number of East Asian countries between Today, East Asia has about 2.4 workers for every
the 1960s and 1990s. non-worker (Bloom et al., 2014). About two per-
Bloom et al. (2014) suggest that the dividend centage points of annual per capita income growth
accounts for up to one third of the rise in income in in East Asia over the past few decades can be attrib-
East Asia between 1965 and 1995. In 1995 interna- uted to its shifting demographics.
tional dollars, annual income per capita in the region While East Asian economies continue to reap the
(China, Hong Kong SAR, Japan, Republic of Korea benefits of a demographic dividend, sub-Saharan
and Singapore) more than quadrupled from $2,296 Africa has not yet experienced a dividend; how-
to $9,777. The demographic dividend accounts ever, some countries in the region have had fertility
for between one third and one half of this increase, declines and thus may be soon be in a position to
amounting to between $2,500 and $3,740 per benefit from a dividend, provided that the right
person, per year. policy and economic frameworks are in place.
The region had the fastest and most pronounced East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa had about
demographic transition in history (United Nations, the same fertility rates in the 1970s. While the
2013). The ratio of working-age to non-working-age rate plummeted in East Asia, it declined slowly in

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 19

 sub-Saharan Africa, which meant that the ratio The experiences of Indonesia and Nigeria are a
of working-age to non-working-age people rose useful case study about the relationship between a
slowly and then only in the 1990s. This means that demographic transition and a demographic divi-
sub-Saharan Africa has had a “fairly high burden dend. In 1960, both countries had similar ratios
of youth dependency, due to a long history of con- of working-age to non-working-age populations.
sistently high fertility,” according to Bloom et al. Soon afterward, Indonesia’s fertility rate began
(2014). Today, sub-Saharan Africa has 1.2 workers dropping; Nigeria’s did not. As a result, Indonesia’s
for every non-worker. working-age to non-working age population ratio

CHANGING POPULATION AGE STRUCTURES

Working Non-working

1980 2015 2050

More developed regions Less-developed regions

80+

70-74
Male Female Male Female
60-64

50-54
Age

40-44

30-34

20-24

10-14

0-4

350 250 150 50 0 50 150 250 350 350 250 150 50 0 50 150 250 350
Population (in millions) Population (in millions)

Least developed regions Less-developed regions (excluding least developed countries)

80+

70-74
Male Female Male Female
60-64

50-54
Age

40-44
Source: Guttmacher Institute, 2010.
30-34

20-24

10-14

0-4

350 250 150 50 0 50 150 250 350 350 250 150 50 0 50 150 250 350
Population (in millions) Population (in millions)

Source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2013). World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision.

20 C H A P T E R 2 Yo u n g p e o p le a n d th e d e mo gra p h ic di vi dend
© UNFPA/Pedro Sá da Bandeira.

surged, while Nigeria’s has only recently begun to If countries in sub-Saharan Africa make the right
rise, due to a gradually decreasing fertility rate. human capital investments and adopt policies that
Partly as a result of these trends, Nigeria had a expand opportunities for young people, their com-
slightly higher GDP per capita than Indonesia in bined demographic dividends could be enormous: at
1960 but today has per capita GPD that is about least $500 billion a year, equal to about one third of
half of Indonesia (Bloom et al., 2014). the region’s current GDP, for as many as 30 years.
The British Council and the Harvard School of The size of the dividend could be even larger,
Public Health (2010) found that with increased depending on how rapidly fertility rates fall and
investment in human and social capital in Nigeria, the extent to which governments invest in young
GDP could rise an additional two percentage points people’s human capital. The region stands to reap
by 2030, lifting 2.3 million people out of poverty. the benefits of a demographic dividend much as
Over the next generation, Nigeria’s demographic East Asia did. Sub-Saharan Africa could thus
wave, if accompanied by the right policies and experience an economic miracle of its own.
investments, could also treble per capita incomes
in a generation. A report by the World Economic Young people, human capital and the
Forum (2014) stated that Nigeria’s GDP per capita demographic dividend
would be almost 12 per cent higher by 2020 and 29 Investing in young people’s schooling and health
per cent higher by 2030, simply as a result of demo- not only improves their immediate well-being, but
graphic shifts and increases in life expectancies. also their employability, productivity and earnings

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 21

 IF IT’S NOT A TAILWIND, IT’S A HEADWIND: THE DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND IN
THE PHILIPPINES, THAILAND AND THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA
1950 TO PRESENT
Fertility decline is often seen as providing a “tailwind” in
Philippines Thailand Republic of
support of policy reforms for economic growth by reducing
Korea
dependency ratios, but goes much further than that
Per cent change in child popu- 320 35 -13
by reducing the “headwinds” of population growth that lation (less than 15 years old)
constrain economic growth. Per cent change in working age 549 332 245
In 1950, the Philippines, Thailand, and the Republic of population (ages 15 to 64)

Korea had similar total populations, each between 19 and Per cent change in total 448 227 159
population
20 million. Fertility declines were earliest and steepest in
the Republic of Korea, followed by Thailand. Declines were Philippines Thailand Republic of Korea
slower in the Philippines. Today, populations in the Republic
TOTAL POPULATION 1950 TO 2050 (THOUSANDS)
of Korea, Thailand and the Philippines are about 50 million,
200,000
67 million and 101 million, respectively.

Population in thousands
In the 1960s and 1970s, most East Asian countries 150,000
launched or expanded family planning programmes. In
1962, the Republic of Korea, for example, started its nation- 100,000

al family planning campaign, which included provision of

50,000
maternal and child health services, as well as supplies and
information.
0
Between 1950 and today, the Philippines experienced 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050
320 per cent growth in the numbers of children who need Source: United Nations (2013)
schooling and health and who will need jobs in the future.
It also experienced 549 per cent growth in the number of TOTAL DEPENDENCY RATIO 1950 TO 2050
working-age people needing jobs now. The total population 120

requiring food, services, jobs, and basic infrastructure will

100
have grown 750 per cent by 2050—a substantial headwind.
80
In contrast, the fertility decline in the Republic of Korea
and Thailand gave them a tailwind for economic growth, 60
with far more resources per capita for investing in human
40
capital, in economic growth, and thereby raising living
standards. 20
1950 1975 2000 2025 2050
The experience of these countries also illustrates the
importance of differences in policy settings, as well as in Source: United Nations (2013)

investments in the social sectors, especially education.

GROWTH IN GDP PER CAPITA 1950-2008
Thailand and the Republic of Korea differ modestly in their
20,000
trends in dependency ratios, compared to their pace of
growth in GDP per capita. The latter’s better policy and 15,000
GDP per capita*

institutional settings obtained far higher growth in GDP per

capita during its demographic window of opportunity. The 10,000
former had slower growth.
In 1950, estimated GDP per capita in the Philippines was 5,000

$1,070, compared to the Republic of Korea’s $854 and

0
Thailand’s $817. By 2008, this had grown about 170 per 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2008
cent in the Philippines, 2,200 per cent in the Republic of Source: United Nations (2013)
Korea and 970 per cent in Thailand (Maddison, 2010). * Data in 1990 G-K dollars

22 C H A P T E R 2 Yo u n g p e o p le a n d th e d e mo gra p h ic di vi dend
(UNFPA et al., 2013). This is true regardless of business environment, human capital accumulation,
whether they work in farming, non-farm enterprises, and the rule of law.” Achieving this optimal policy
or in formal sector employment. environment can seem daunting for many developing
Preventive public health services are essential espe- countries. Even some developed and middle-income
cially for youth. The importance of maternal and countries are not in a position to meet all these stan-
child health services is well-recognized, but far more dards at the same time.
attention needs to be paid to reducing exposure to The experience of countries that have developed
infectious and parasitic diseases, which stunt children’s more recently indicates that appropriate policy formu-
physical growth as well as cognitive development, lation can and should proceed gradually, starting by
with long-term consequences for educational attain- focusing on areas that will expand employment and
ment and subsequent earnings (Alderman et al., increase the living standards of broad sections
2006). Preventive public health services were at one of the population and gradually moving up the pro-
point the top health policy priority in countries such duction chain. This has been the model used across
as the Republic of Korea, which has realized its demo- East Asia.
graphic dividend.
Universal access to primary education for children
is a basic step of development policy, and high cov-
erage of secondary schooling improves the livelihood
prospects of youth. However, many countries obtain
low quality schooling for the budgets they allocate,
because of poor governance of the education sector
(World Bank, 2011; Filmer and Fox, 2014:10). Also
important is vocational training to prepare youth
for various levels of skill (high and lower), that can
serve them well whether in home-based enterprises
or in the formal sector. Education and training
policies need to focus on easing the school-to-work
transition and to prevent labour market mismatches
(International Labour Organization, 2013).

Maximizing the dividend

Investment in adolescents and youth, the realization
of sexual and reproductive health and reproductive
rights and the promotion of gender equality are
important but by themselves insufficient to realize
a demographic dividend.
Economic policies also play an important role.
The World Bank (2013) says the “policy environ-
ment must be conducive to growth. That requires
attending to macroeconomic stability, an enabling
© Alfredo D'Amato/Panos

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 23

 The policy settings and infrastructure require-
ments for expanding opportunities in agriculture
and small enterprises are far less demanding than
those for moving the majority of the population
quickly into formal-sector employment. Some basic
institutional arrangements, such as secure property
rights and savings systems that can also be tapped
for credit, are needed. Countries can take steps to
expand livelihood opportunities for the majority
of their young populations—their rural and urban
poor—while they gradually establish full-fledged
business-friendly environments along the lines of
developed economies.
© UNFPA/Ariela Zibiah
Increasing the productivity of small-scale and
micro-enterprises is critical in rural areas, where
Expanding opportunities for livelihoods people are increasingly dependent on them to sup-
Expanding livelihoods and employment opportu- plement and diversify their income (World Bank,
nities for youth requires a number of approaches. 2013). Partly because of population growth, the
Since the estimated proportion of the population average farm size has shrunk to 1.2 hectares in Asia
living in rural areas is very high in the developing and 1.8 in sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank, 2013).
world—71 per cent in the least developed countries, This can do much to enhance employment oppor-
68 per cent in South Asia, 63 per cent in sub- tunities for the growing number of rural youth,
Saharan Africa, and 49 per cent in East Asia—effort while also harnessing their energies more effectively
needs to go into expanding livelihoods in rural areas to reap the demographic dividend.
in agriculture, small enterprises and formal sector Meanwhile, growing numbers of urban poor also
employment. depend heavily on micro-enterprises. Population
The non-agricultural labour-force is growing growth and climate change are pushing people out
much more rapidly than the agricultural labour-force of the rural areas in sub-Saharan Africa, contrib-
(UNFPA, 2011). The greatest potential for job cre- uting to rapid urbanization (Soucat and Ncube,
ation and raising productivity and living standards 2014). Slow growth in formal sector employment
lies in expanding formal-sector employment, espe- expands the numbers dependent on the informal
cially in the manufacturing sector, which can absorb economy (Filmer and Fox, 2014).
a large amount of semi-skilled labour. This is because The formal sector offers far greater scope for cre-
the demand for manufactured goods has far greater ating jobs and raising incomes for young people,
potential for growth in global markets than that for with far higher value added per worker. This is
agricultural produce. The manufacturing sector offers especially the case with the manufacturing sector,
large-scale job opportunities for young people who which can produce for world markets, absorb
may have limited schooling, while helping countries large numbers of semi-skilled workers and create
reap more of the demographic dividend by using the opportunities for young people to benefit from
available labour force in more productive jobs. globalization.

24 C H A P T E R 2 Yo u n g p e o p le a n d th e d e mo gra p h ic di vi dend
 Countries such as the Republic of Korea focused Access to banking and credit
on lower-end manufacturing in the 1960s and Improving access to financial services is essential.
1970s, while building skills and policies to expand Poor people have limited access to formal financial
into higher-end manufacturing and services. institutions, for reasons including physical dis-
Vietnam moved from exporting primary produce tance, inability to meet the requirements to qualify
to manufacturing for foreign companies, such as for an account, and complexities of the paperwork.
Samsung. This created jobs for semi-skilled laborers, Only 11 per cent of adults in low-income coun-
whose primary schooling enabled them to follow tries report they saved at a bank, credit union, or
instruction manuals. micro-finance institution in 2011 (World Bank,
The state can make an enormous difference in 2014).
employment generation and in the productivity Some institutions offer lower barriers to entry
of rural enterprises, which can provide important than banks. For example, post offices provide
income-earning opportunities for young people. accounts to the poor, less-educated individuals and
Meanwhile, basic infrastructure, such as all-weather the unemployed (Anton et al., 2013). These other
roads, is needed, as are rural credit schemes and institutions are often authorized to transfer remit-
reliable electricity supplies. tances from family members living elsewhere or to
The state can help to generate livelihood oppor- process government transfers. They can also partner
tunities on a larger scale, as illustrated by two with other financial institutions to increase their
quite different examples—that of the dairy indus- account penetration. In Brazil, banks and financial
try in India (Kurien, 2007) and of the township institutions have partnered with retail establish-
and village enterprises that flourished in China ments, the post office network and lottery agencies
from the 1980s to the mid-1990s (Xu and Zhang, (World Bank 2014).
2009). Starting in 1970, India’s National Dairy New technologies such as mobile phone payment
Development Board vastly expanded jobs in both services enable the poor to access some low-cost
rural and urban areas by selling milk donated financial services. M-PESA in Kenya, for example,
by European countries and used the proceeds to
finance the establishment of a large milk indus-
try based on a network of dairy cooperatives. By
the late 1990s, milk production had quadrupled, “Myself and other young
and there were 11 million members of these dairy
cooperatives, and many more millions employed in
people definitely need greater
the manufacture and sale of milk products access to funding opportunities
(Kurien, 2007). China’s village enterprises targeted at spearheading/
employed people in villages and small towns by
supporting grassroots NGO
creating manufacturing enterprises that produced
a wide range of products for local consumption
movements and community
and export (Xu and Zhang, 2009). In 1995, the based initiatives.”
village enterprises were contributing 37 per cent
of China’s GDP, more than its state-owned enter- Victoria Melhado, Jamaica
prises (Xu and Zhang 2009).

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 25

 © Marc Shoul/Panos

offers individual electronic accounts which can be Community-based savings methods, such as sav-
used to receive money, make payments, and with- ings clubs, are also common. In sub-Saharan Africa,
draw cash from a network of retail stores (Mas and 19 per cent of adults reported they had used them
Radcliffe, 2011). Young people rely heavily on these in 2011 (World Bank, 2014). These also have the
new technologies. potential to help young people establish a small
Access to financial institutions encourages saving enterprise, while benefitting from the mentoring
and expands access to credit. However, accessing and access to information that come from being a
credit through formal financial institutions is much member. Formal micro-finance institutions such as
more complicated for young people, who typically the Grameen Bank rely on local knowledge of cred-
have little collateral or have no proven creditworthi- itworthiness and social pressure to repay loans.
ness (World Bank, 2014). Relationship lending can also be used by banks.
Indigenous systems of rotating savings and loans BancoSol in Bolivia, for example, relies on a soli-
reduce the risk of default through intimate knowl- darity group lending strategy, whereby members
edge of their members’ creditworthiness. This organize small joint liability credit groups, and the
works especially well in rural areas, where kinship bank lends simultaneously to all group members
and social networks also make it hard to default (World Bank, 2014).
on loans. In Cameroon, the system also worked in The scope and productivity of micro- and
urban areas, but relied on confiscating the prop- small-scale enterprises can be vastly expanded if the
erty of a defaulting member (van den Brink and state or larger entrepreneurs help with skills, ideas,
Chavas, 1997). and marketing.

26 C H A P T E R 2 Yo u n g p e o p le a n d th e d e mo gra p h ic di vi dend
 Girls and young women, particularly those in services, saving behaviour and communication
rural areas, have especially limited access to credit, with parents/guardians on financial issues (United
yet their needs are great. Girls drop out or leave Nations Capital Development Fund, 2012).
secondary school at a much higher rate than boys In 2009, XacBank in Mongolia partnered with
in many developing countries. Leaving school the Nike Foundation, Women’s World Banking and
early often means increased social and economic Microfinance Opportunities to develop a means
vulnerabilities including fewer job opportunities. for girls between the ages of 14 and 17 to save and
Access to credit can therefore help girls establish build their financial literacy. A review of the initia-
livelihoods or seize other income-earning oppor- tive showed that participating girls had a “significant
tunities (United Nations Capital Development increase in savings knowledge and behaviour.” For
Fund, 2012). example, the number of girls with savings plans rose
A youth-friendly regulatory environment that by 85 per cent after receiving financial education.
recognizes the needs of youth, particularly adoles- All of the girls said that they were more confident
cent girls and young women, and is inclusive and asking questions at a bank and that the bank is a
protective of youth is essential. Financial educa- safe place to keep money.
tion and entrepreneurship development can also Increasing access to credit for women can have
assist youth in taking greatest advantage of the an indirect benefit for girls. A World Bank study
financial services available. Government policies found, for example, that a 10 per cent increase in
and incentives can help stimulate the financial women’s borrowing increases girls’ and boys’ school-
sector to design appropriate financial products ing enrolment rates by about 8 percentage points,
as well as innovative delivery channels, including
low-cost access points such as mobile banking
and school banking programmes that are acces- FINANCIAL EMPOWERMENT
sible to young people, particularly young women.
Financial education seeks to reduce the eco- A 10 per cent increase in
nomic vulnerability of youth by providing them women’s borrowing increases
with the knowledge, skills and attitudes to make girls’ and boys’ schooling
wise financial decisions and counteract the nega-
enrolment rates, while reducing
tive influences on their financial behaviour (e.g.,
extreme poverty at the
media, family and peer pressure). To improve
household level.
outcomes for adolescent girls, the Population
Council and MicroSave partnered with four
financial institutions in Kenya and Uganda to increased enrolment
in school +8%
develop, test, and roll out a programme that
included individual savings accounts with no
opening balances or monthly fees, weekly girls'
group meetings with financial mentors and
-5% decreased
financial education. The pilot in Kenya reported
extreme poverty
positive change in social networks and mobil-
ity, gender norms, financial literacy, use of bank

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 27

 while reducing extreme poverty at the household The requirements for setting up a business,
level by about 5 percentage points (Khandker and meeting regulatory requirements, and paying
Samad, 2014). taxes need to be transparent and easy to man-
age. Regulations should be enforceable without
Governance, jobs and the demographic extensive delays or opacity. Slow processing by
dividend bureaucracies, corruption, and above all random-
Good policies and governance are important for cre- ness in processing can be very discouraging for
ating a business-friendly environment for expanding business because it greatly increases the effort and
job opportunities in the formal sector. Although costs of doing business. Such costs are the most
many economies have grown rapidly without all discouraging for smaller firms. Predictability is of
the optimal conditions, sustained growth is helped the essence for a business-friendly environment,
by well-designed and enforced regulations, well- whether it is power availability or regulations.
regulated financial institutions and instruments for Expanding links with regional markets is also
raising large-scale finance, and openness to trade. useful. It saves transport costs and diversifies the
Labour laws need to be flexible enough to encour- risk of dependence on specific markets. Pending
age firms to expand and create jobs. moving up the quality chain, it also enables selling

© UNFPA/Ricardo Ramirez Arriola

28 C H A P T E R 2 Yo u n g p e o p le a n d th e d e mo gra p h ic di vi dend
products that are of adequate quality for consum- Faced with few opportunities, young people can
ers in lower-income countries, but not for markets feel frustrated. Most youth in developing countries
in developed countries. are exposed through the media—if not through
Some countries face specific opportunities and direct observation—to images of much higher liv-
constraints. Those with large natural resource ing standards. This raises their aspirations and raises
reserves have an easy source of income. However, their awareness of apparent large inequalities in
the revenues may not be used to increase skills, jobs opportunity and in wealth.
and living standards for the population as a whole. Especially if opportunities for civic and politi-
For conflict-affected countries, fragile institutions cal participation are low, limited opportunities for
and social cohesion make it difficult to attract pri- economic advancement can lead to political instabil-
vate investment. However, labour-intensive sectors, ity (World Bank, 2006; UNFPA, 2010). As Albert
such as construction, can flourish in a post-conflict Hirshmann (1973) argued, people’s tolerance for
setting, resulting in jobs for the young and others inequality erodes the longer they face limited oppor-
and thus supporting economic recovery. tunities relative to others, and they may resort to
direct action to correct manifest injustice.
The costs of under-investing in young
people’s futures Realizing the potential
Fertility decline in poor countries creates conditions A demographic dividend can drive countries’ econo-
permitting a demographic dividend that can reduce mies forward, as was seen in East Asia, where it
poverty and vulnerability and result in much larger contributed to the 6 per cent annual average growth
gains, when strong economic policies are in place. in per capita income between 1965 and 1995. Never
Many factors determine whether an economy grows before in history had such a large group of countries
or stagnates, including investment in infrastructure grown their economies so fast for so long. An impor-
and the business environment. However, the basic tant feature of that seemingly miraculous wave of
investments in young people’s reproductive health growth was the rapid fertility decline that paved the
and rights and in human capital are essential for way for it.
expanding their opportunities. The demographic dividend may be maximized
As indicated by a recent United Nations global through supportive policies aimed at building the
survey of priorities for the future, a good education human capital of young people, including adoles-
is the highest priority reported among young people cents. Such policies include expanding access to
between the ages of 10 and 24, regardless of whether contraception and information so that individuals
they are from a country with low or high levels of wanting to prevent a pregnancy have the power
human development. and the means to exercise their reproductive rights,
The consequences of under-investing in youth and creating an enabling economic environment that
in expanding the livelihood opportunities available generates jobs and other income-earning opportuni-
to them can be manifold. Slower poverty reduction ties for the current and future generations of youth
and weaker economic growth, and the human cost and increases their access to credit, and investing in
to individuals and households can be devastating for infrastructure and other sectors so that enterprises
individuals, households and entire nations. But the and trade may flourish.
ramifications can go much further.

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 29

Young people everywhere encounter social, economic
and legal obstacles that impede their safe and healthy
transition from adolescence to adulthood, and from
school into the labour force.

s
© Pano

30
 CHAPTER 3

Obstacles to
young people’s
growth and
potential
Despite evidence in recent years of greater attention to young people, including
through successful public policy initiatives, youth as a whole still confront many
obstacles that keep them from safely transitioning into adulthood and the workforce.
Tens of millions do not go to school, or if they do, they miss even minimum benchmarks
for learning. Employment prospects are often dismal, with jobs unavailable or poor in
quality, leading to a worsening global youth unemployment crisis. Up to 60 per cent
of young people in developing regions are not working or in school, or have only
irregular employment.

Key challenges

?
2+2=?
?
In 2011, 57 million Globally, 73.4 million Only 10 per cent of
children were not youth between the young men and 15 per
enrolled in school. ages of 15 and 24 cent of young women
are unemployed. know their HIV status.

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 31

 W
hen young people realize their sexual
and reproductive health and repro-
THE PATH TO YOUNG
ductive rights, they are on a path
PEOPLE'S SEXUAL AND
to realizing their full potential as
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
individuals and as actively engaged members of their
AND REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS
communities and nations. Sexual and reproductive
health and reproductive rights also help young people
achieve important life intentions. EDUCATION
Access to quality, relevant education
To be able to make the choices that promote their that will enable young people to
seize future opportunities.
sexual and reproductive health and happiness, young
people need support from many dimensions of their
cultures and societies (UNFPA, 2013b). Each young
person needs a quality education, decent work, positive
participation in their communities, human rights pro-
tections and access to sexual and reproductive health PARTICIPATION
Engagement in decision-making.
information and services. Tellingly, these are the neces-
sary ingredients not only for realization of their sexual
and reproductive health and reproductive rights, but
also the foundation to help each young person confront
the challenges they face as they inherit responsibility
for their countries’ economic and social development. PROTECTION
Yet, for hundreds of millions of young people, these Enjoyment of all human rights.

basic building blocks are not in place.

Young people everywhere encounter social, economic
and legal obstacles that impede their safe and healthy
transition from adolescence to adulthood, and from
school into the labour force. HEALTH
Access to services that enable
young people to be productive.
Millions, especially girls, still lack access to
high-quality education
A good education gives young people the skills and
knowledge that will enable them to mitigate reproduc-
tive health risks and exercise their rights. Staying in EMPLOYMENT
school means both boys and girls are less likely to have Access to decent work
opportunities and livelihoods.
sex. The longer a girl stays in school, the greater the
chances that she uses modern contraception if she does
have sex, and the lower their chances of giving birth
as an adolescent (Greene et al., 2014; United Nations
Commission on Population and Development, 2014). SRHRR
The risk of HIV infection and of risky sexual behaviour Achievement of sexual
and reproductive health
and reproductive rights

32 C H A P T E R 3 O b sta cle s to yo u n g p e o p le 's grow th and potent i al

OUT-OF-SCHOOL ADOLESCENTS, BY REGION, 1999 TO 2011
120
Out-of-school children
106
100
Out-of-school adolescents
99 World
80
64
60
57
40
38
South and Western Asia
27
20
21 Sub-Saharan Africa 21

0
1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011

Source: UNESCO (2014)

is reduced when a girl stays on through secondary Decent work opportunities still out of
school (Greene et al., 2014). reach for young people poised to enter
Despite all the research showing the health and the labour force
other benefits of attending and staying in school, The ability of young people to get decent work—
the number of children out of primary school in critical on so many levels—underlies their ability
2011 was still 57 million (UNESCO, 2014b). to achieve their sexual and reproductive health
Most of these children are never expected to and reproductive rights. The overall benefits, in
enrol, and in sub-Saharan Africa, most are girls. the words of the United Nations Commission on
(UNESCO, 2014b). Those out of school are Population and Development (2014), are “wealthier
also from the poorest, most remote areas of their economies, fairer societies, and stronger democra-
countries, and thus most vulnerable to sexual and cies.” For young people, access to decent work and
reproductive health problems. At the secondary improved living conditions is a gateway towards
level, 64 million adolescents were out of school in empowerment, and a protective factor.
2011, of which 21 million lived in sub-Saharan
Africa (UNESCO, 2014b).
Troublingly, poor quality deters many from “I strongly believe I am
going to school. Many countries still have unac-
empowered enough to stand
ceptably high pupil-teacher ratios, poorly trained
teachers, insufficient textbooks, poor infrastruc- up and pursue my dreams…
ture, and a lack of female teachers (UNESCO, and make an impact, be it
2014b). Estimates suggest that 130 million chil- political or economic.”
dren stay in primary school for at least four years
but never achieve even the minimum benchmarks Malefswane Modisenyane, Botswana
for learning.

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 33

 Yet, young people in many countries still do not Unemployment in many of the poorest countries
have access to a good job or hope for a useful liveli- is relatively low, because these countries provide
hood. What the International Labour Organization few or no unemployment benefits. Almost every-
(2013) terms a “global youth employment crisis” one works some kind of job, but these are typically
is worsening. In the world’s least developed coun- subsistence activities characterized by very low
tries, every year about 15 million young people productivity. Most jobs are in the informal sector,
enter a labour force in which the large majority of and many of these jobs are also hazardous and dan-
workers suffer from unemployment, underemploy- gerous (International Labour Organization, 2011).
ment, or vulnerable employment (UNFPA, 2011; Ominously, in 18 of 60 countries where data are
International Labour Organization, 2011). The rate available, the proportion of youth between 15 and
of youth unemployment worldwide remains at very 24 who have no job and are not in school is greater
high levels, both in developed and developing coun- than 20 per cent (ILOStat Database, 2014).
tries (International Labour Organization, 2013). An International Labour Organization study of 10
Globally, 73.4 million youth between the ages countries showed that young men have an advantage
of 15 and 24 were unemployed in 2013 (about over young women in completing their labour-
36 per cent of the world’s 202 million unem- market transition. In all 10 countries, young men
ployed people (International Labour Organization, are more likely than young women to obtain stable
2013). Youth unemployment is highest in North employment and to find work in the formal sector
Africa and Western Asia (United Nations, 2014b). (International Labour Organization, 2013).

AFTER A BRIEF RECOVERY, GLOBAL YOUTH UNEMPLOYMENT CONTINUES TO RISE

Global youth unemployment and unemployment rate, 1991-2013
80 13.5

78 Youth unemployment (millions) 13.0

12.8 12.8 12.8 12.8 13.0
Youth unemployment rate (%) 12.7 12.7
76 12.6
12.5
Youth unemployment (millions)

12.4 12.3 12.4

Youth unemployment rate (%)

12.3 12.3 12.5
74
12.0
72 11.9 12.0
11.7 11.7 11.7
70 11.5
11.4 11.4 11.5
68
77.8
76.8

10.9
75.9
75.8

75.6
74.9

74.0

66 11.0
73.8

73.4
72.9
72.6

72.6
70.0

71.2

70.4
70.1

64
69.9

10.5
68.8
68.5
67.7
67.4

66.5

62
65.4

10.0
60

58 9.5
1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013
1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

Source: International Labour Organization (2013)

34 34 C H A P T E R 3 O b sta cle s to yo u n g p e o p le 's grow th and potent i al

YOUNG MALES ARE MORE LIKELY TO COMPLETE THE TRANSITION
TO STABLE OR SATISFACTORY EMPLOYMENT
Share of transited youth in total youth population, by sex (%)

Male Total Female

80

60

40

20

0
Armenia Cambodia Egypt Jordan Liberia Malawi Peru Russian The former Togo
Federation Yugoslav
Republic of
Macedonia
Source: International Labour Organization (2013)

Exclusion, marginalization and programmes and policies that might best meet their
discrimination still the norm needs (Department for International Development,
Starting in early adolescence, young people begin 2010). Age of consent laws bar adolescents under 18
to make choices about their lives that will have a from getting access to needed reproductive health
profound effect on how they navigate the transition services and information (Coram, 2014d).
to adulthood and who they become as adults. The Young people whose gender identity falls outside
older they get, the more they are able to decide and the norm face discrimination in many countries (Pan
act independently.
As a natural part of their development as indi- AS THEY GET OLDER, YOUNG PEOPLE
viduals and as citizens, young people gradually INCREASINGLY ENGAGE AS CITIZENS
gain “agency,” which is critical to their future
100
sexual and reproductive health and reproductive
% of cohort who voted in
most recent election

80
rights. When young people start maturing, they
need those around them with power and influence 60

to treat them appropriately. 40

Yet, in many countries and many contexts,
20
parents, families, and communities do not respect
0
the emerging autonomy of young people, ado- 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
lescents in particular. Young people are generally Age (years)
excluded from decision-making about the types of Source: Filmer and Fox (2014)

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 35 35

 (United Nations Commission on Population and
THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF Development, 2014). These rights are not new and
ADOLESCENTS AND YOUTH are already embodied in hundreds of national laws
and dozens of international treaties and agreements
The human rights of adolescents and youth include,
among others: (UNFPA, 2012b).
• Life, liberty and security Despite these declarations, egregious violations
• Health of human rights continue to be the norm for many
• Education young people (UNFPA, 2013b). According to the
• Information Population Reference Bureau, an estimated 100 mil-
• Expression lion to 140 million girls and women worldwide have
• Association undergone female genital mutilation and more than
• Freedom from discrimination 3 million girls are at risk for this harmful practice
• Freedom from torture and other cruel, inhuman each year on the African continent alone (Feldman-
and degrading treatment or punishment, including
sexual violence Jacobs and Clifton, 2014). Female genital mutilation
• Consent to marriage is a reproductive health and human rights concern
that has devastating short- and long-term impacts on
Source: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights the lives of women and girls.
Sexual and gender-based violence is one of the
most prevalent human rights violations worldwide.
American Health Organization, 2011). Furthermore, A 2013 review by the World Health Organization
young people themselves do not always take advantage estimates that 36 per cent of women have experi-
of the opportunities for civic participation afforded enced intimate-partner violence or sexual violence
to them by societies. For example, statistics show that by a non-partner, with lower rates for men (World
youth are less likely to vote than older people, and Health Organization, 2013a). Young girls and
that today’s youth vote at lower rates than in the past boys are particularly vulnerable, with wide-ranging
(Oxford Analytica, 2014). negative consequences for the health and welfare of
victims. Gender-based violence takes many forms,
Millions of young people lack full enjoyment ranging from domestic-partner violence, rape,
of universal human rights workplace harassment, female genital mutilation,
The human rights that everyone is born with underpin trafficking, and in the worst case, murder.
young people’s realization of their sexual and repro- Child marriage is a human rights violation that
ductive health and reproductive rights. In its 2012 remains commonplace in many countries and most
resolution on adolescents and youth, the Commission regions worldwide—even where laws forbid it. If
on Population and Development of the United current trends continue, an additional 142 mil-
Nations urged “governments to protect the human lion girls will be married before their 18th birthday
rights of adolescents and youth to have control over by 2020. Between 2000 and 2011, an estimated
and decide freely and responsibly on matters related 34 per cent of women between the ages of 20 and
to their sexuality, including sexual and reproduc- 24 in developing regions had been married or in
tive health, free of coercion, discrimination, and union before age 18; further, an estimated 12 per
violence, and regardless of age and marital status…” cent had been married or in union before age 15

36 C H A P T E R 3 O b sta cle s to yo u n g p e o p le 's grow th and potent i al

(United Nations Commission on Population and most at risk—will not benefit from school-based
Development, 2014; UNFPA, 2012a). sexuality education programmes. Consequently,
Human rights violations related to HIV status young people still have very low levels of compre-
disproportionately affect HIV-infected young men hensive knowledge about HIV or AIDS (World
and women, and include forced abortion and Health Organization, 2014c; UNESCO, 2013a).
sterilization, travel and migration restrictions, crimi- For example, the percentage of young people with
nalization of HIV transmission and exposure, drug comprehensive knowledge of HIV was just 39
use, selling sex or sex work, expulsion from school per cent for young men and 28 per cent for
or a job, and mandatory HIV testing, registra- young women 15 to 24 in sub-Saharan Africa
tion, and forced treatment (UNAIDS and Lancet (United Nations, 2014a).
Commission, 2013). In sub-Saharan Africa, females To complement this knowledge, young people
15 to 24 are twice as likely as young men to be require a wide range of sexual and reproductive
living with HIV (UNAIDS, 2013). health services, including for the prevention of ado-
lescent pregnancy, care for pregnant adolescents,
Millions of adolescents and young people HIV prevention, testing, counselling, treatment
lack access to sexual and reproductive and care, the provision of HPV vaccines, and safe
health information and services abortion care (World Health Organization, 2014b).
Access to appropriate health information and services Chandra-Mouli and colleagues (2014) define an
is at the core of the ability of young men and women accessible service as when “adolescents are able to
to realize their sexual and reproductive health and obtain the health services that are available.”
reproductive rights. Tragically, despite all the recent Access to pregnancy prevention means being
attention to their needs, most adolescents and young able to obtain contraceptive services. Yet adolescent
people are still not getting what they need in the way females have low levels of access to contraception,
of information and services. hence their contraceptive use is only 22 per cent
Access to quality comprehensive sexuality compared to 60 per cent for women older than 30.
education remains elusive for most adolescents
(United Nations Commission on Population and CONTRACEPTIVE USE
Development, 2014; UNESCO, 2014a). Although
many countries have a comprehensive sexuality Young females have low levels
education policy and programme, most do not of access to contraception.
implement it widely or in a way that adheres
to international standards (UNFPA, 2014c;
UNFPA, 2013b).
A recent analysis by Anderson et al. (2013) found
a wide range in the percentage of schools providing
22% 60%
skills-based HIV education, with most countries
reporting that less than half of schools provide such
programmes, and many reporting coverage of less Females Females
than 10 per cent. Moreover, the millions of ado- 15 to 24 years old older than 30
lescents out of school—often those boys and girls

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 37

 reproductive health and reproductive rights, particu-
larly because young women bear the brunt of new
“I hope to have a life where infections (UNAIDS, 2013). Access to condoms for
young people have access HIV and STI prevention is a critical prevention strat-
to medical services for free egy, but too few young men and women are using
them (United Nations Commission on Population
and all rights of the young
and Development, 2014).
people are respected.” Adolescents also have significantly lower access to
and use of HIV testing and counselling compared to
Dilnoza Shukurova, Tajikistan older people, the result being that just 10 per cent
of young men and 15 per cent of young women
know their HIV status (World Health Organization,
2013b). Access to programmes to prevent mother-
Emergency contraception is something that ado- to-child transmission is also less for adolescent girls,
lescents particularly need because they use relatively particularly for those from key populations (World
ineffective methods, do not use anything at all, or Health Organization, 2014a). Access to HIV services
are more susceptible to coerced sex. Their access to for key populations, such as men who have sex with
emergency contraception, however, is often limited men, people who inject drugs, people in prisons and
or blocked (Parker, 2005; International Consortium other closed settings, sex workers and others who sell
for Emergency Contraception, 2014). sex and transgender people are generally inadequate,
Adolescents and young women seeking safe abor- with adolescents at even higher risk compared to their
tion or post-abortion care face access problems in older peers (World Health Organization, 2014a)
many countries. Studies have shown that, compared Many studies have shown that adolescents also
to older women, younger women are more likely have less access to HIV treatment and care relative
to wait to seek abortion, use an unskilled abortion to older people (United Nations, 2014a; Kim et al.,
provider or use dangerous methods to self-abort, and 2014.). Even when they do get into HIV treatment
delay seeking care for complications (Rosen, 2009). programmes, their adherence to treatment regimens
Many young women who do get pregnant do is typically lower compared to older adults (Kim et
not use or have no access to prenatal care services al., 2014). Even in a wealthy country like the United
(UNFPA, 2013a, Reynolds et al., 2006; Rosen, States, adolescents who test positive for HIV wait
2009). Moreover, they use prenatal care less and longer to get care compared to older people; about
have fewer visits than older mothers (Guliani et al., one third of adolescents who do enrol in HIV care
2014). Although the World Health Organization programmes drop out (Philbin et al., 2014).
recommends HPV vaccinations of all girls between
the ages of 9 and 13, the high price has meant that Underlying social, economic and
only a fraction of the hundreds of millions of eligible legal obstacles
girls living in developing countries have access to The yawning gap between what young people need as
this vaccine (GAVI Alliance, 2014). a basis for a safe and successful transition to adulthood
Access to HIV prevention and care is a and what they are getting reflects strong and persistent
critical component of young people’s sexual and underlying social, economic, and legal obstacles. Some

38 C H A P T E R 3 O b sta cle s to yo u n g p e o p le 's grow th and potent i al

of these barriers affect people of all ages, while others for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV.
are specific to young people. All contribute to deny- The ability of these “key populations” of young
ing young people the fullest enjoyment of their sexual people to get access to available prevention strategies
and reproductive health and reproductive rights. such as condom use, are severely constrained (World
Health Organization, 2014a).
Social obstacles Young people, whether adolescents aged 10 to
Gender norms and inequalities put girls and 19 or young adults aged 18 to 24, constitute a sig-
young women at a disadvantage nificant proportion of those engaged in selling sex,
Cultures in many countries assign very different and this poses significant challenges in designing
social and economic roles to young men and young and implementing HIV programmes. Evidence sug-
women, roles which often work to the detriment of gests that as many as 40 per cent of female adult sex
girls and young women in particular (Buvinic et al., workers report having begun selling sex when they
2007). Many of these gender inequalities explain the were 16 or younger.
lack of schooling and job opportunities afforded to The attitude of husbands, boyfriends, and other
girls and young women and the human rights viola- male partners who oppose their female partner’s use
tions described above (UNFPA, 2012b; World Bank, of contraception is a problem for women of all ages
2011). When a young person sells sex, is of diverse (UNFPA, 2012b). Adolescent girls face even greater
sexual orientation or injects drugs, the existing power barriers to negotiating contraceptive and condom
imbalances created by gender norms are exacerbated, use, because often their male partners are much
putting young men and women at even greater risk older (UNFPA, 2013). This power imbalance can

SRHRR
Achievement of sexual and reproductive
OBSTACLES health and reproductive rights

YOUNG PEOPLE
ENCOUNTER
ON THE ROAD BEWARE
TO SRHRR SOCIAL OBSTACLES Girls often face
greater obstacles
• Gender norms and inequalities transitioning from
• Opposition and poor adolescent
communication of information to adult
and services
ECONOMIC OBSTACLES
• Girls lack the appropriate safe
spaces to empower themselves • Regulations and conditions of
employment
• The digital divide
• Underinvestment in human capital

LEGAL OBSTACLES
• Laws acting against the best
interests of young peoples
• Age of consent

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 39

 be deadly. A study by Kelly et al. (2003) in rural and leaving her with few options outside of marriage
Uganda found that female adolescents between the and childbearing.
ages of 15 and 19 had double the risk of HIV infec- Gender norms in many societies perpetuate the
tion when their sexual partners were 10 or more image of boys and young men as violent and risk-
years older than them, compared to girls who were takers, while categorizing girls and young women
having sex with men closer to their own age. as submissive in their sexual relationships (Greene
When parents do not place value on educat- and Barker, 2011). These same norms can get in
ing their daughters, this is another sign of gender the way of girls being able to establish relationships
inequalities. In Tanzania, for example, there is with peers and older mentors, role models who are
evidence that higher female adult illiteracy rates critical to them being able to navigate their teen
correlate with the tendency of parents to devalue and young adult years (Austrian, 2012). For boys,
educating their daughters, thus perpetuating the having to conform to norms of being “real men”
cycle of illiteracy and lack of schooling for girls can lead to behaviours that are detrimental
(UNESCO, 2012). As the World Bank points out to themselves and girls.
in its 2012 World Development Report on gender
equality, families in many societies still send their Poor communication between parents
sons to school before their daughters, in part as a and children
rational response to markets and institutions that Being able to talk to parents and other family
value men over women (World Bank, 2011). A members about sexual and reproductive matters is
daughter who receives limited or no education will often an important way for young people to get the
thus have fewer chances to earn a decent living in knowledge they need to protect themselves. Yet, this
the job market, undercutting her life opportunities communication does not happen the way it should.

World AIDS Day, Tbilisi.

© UNFPA

40 C H A P T E R 3 O b sta cle s to yo u n g p e o p le 's grow th and potent i al

 AT PUBERTY, A GIRL'S WORLD SHRINKS WHILE A BOY'S HORIZONS EXPAND
A study in South Africa's KwaZulu-Natal region shows that at puberty, girls typically find their horizons shrink-
ing. The area through which a fifth-grade girl travels from home to school and through her community is equal to
or larger than the area a boy of her same age travels, whether in a rural or urban setting. But when the girl reaches
eighth or ninth grade—the reverse occurs: girls remain closer to home because of concerns about safety, while boys
travel farther and farther from their homes. Limited safe movement for girls can translate into fewer opportunities to
complete an education, stay healthy and safe from violence and realize their full potential (Hallman et al., 2013).

URBAN RURAL

Parents themselves often lack accurate information devices (Rubin et al., 2013). UNAIDS has identified
about sexuality or do not know how to talk to their similar health worker attitudes and practices limiting
children about such matters (Bastien et al., 2011). the access of young people to HIV information and
services, including when workers condition access
Health workers’ negative attitudes drive a by young people to antiretroviral drugs or contra-
wedge between youth and services ception, and chide young women living with HIV
Adolescents, particularly unmarried adolescents, about wanting to have children at all (UNAIDS and
often face hostile and judgmental health care work- Lancet Commission, 2013). Adolescents also often
ers. Some may refuse to provide services, others express concern that health workers fail to main-
may berate adolescents who they believe should tain privacy and confidentiality with regard to their
not be having sexual relations (Chandra-Mouli et use of sexual and reproductive health care (World
al., 2014). Moreover, despite the fact that medical Health Organization, 2012).
guidelines put few if any age restrictions on almost
all contraceptives, many providers mistakenly believe Pressures from many directions
that young women should not be using long-acting As last year’s The State of World Population (UNFPA,
methods of contraceptives. These attitudes are not 2013) noted, “pressures from many directions”—
limited to developing countries. A recent study of friends, families, and communities—conspire to
physicians in the United States found bias in the place obstacles between young people and what
advice they give to adolescents on use of intrauterine they need to realize their sexual and reproductive

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 41

 THE YOUNGEST ADOLESCENTS FACE THE GREATEST OBSTACLES
BUT RECEIVE THE LEAST SUPPORT

Among young people, young adolescents aged 10 to Obstacles to sexual and reproductive health and
14 face the greatest challenges to their development reproductive rights have their greatest impact on
and realizing their potential. Stymied by discrimi- the youngest of the youth cohort
nation that limits their role to the home, denied
equal access to health services and educational and High
economic opportunities, and often blocked from
exercising their rights to decide when and if to marry
and whether and when to have children, adolescent
Girls
girls are the least empowered of all young people.

Level of impact
Adolescent boys also face barriers to information and
Boys
services and are often socialized to conform to harm-
ful gender stereotypes. Very young adolescents who
are sexually active typically have little or no access
to contraceptives (World Health Organization, 2011,
cited in Igras et al., 2014). Being healthy in younger
adolescence means being not only physically and
mentally healthy but also emotionally and physically
Low
safe, having a positive sense of self and developing 10 14 18 22 24
decision-making and life skills (Igras et al., 2014). Age

health and reproductive rights. As Chandra- parents, teachers, and others regulate their access
Mouli and colleagues (2014) noted in their recent to information and services (Inter-Agency Working
report on adolescents and access to contraception, Group on the Role of Community Involvement in
social pressures are a strong impediment to young ASRH, 2007; World Health Organization, 2009).
men and women. These include the pressure for For example, sometimes the strongest opposition
young, married couples to get pregnant and have to comprehensive sexuality education comes from
a baby as soon as possible after getting married. community groups and religious institutions
Communities, including health care workers, stig- (World Health Organization, 2008).
matize as being immoral or worse the unmarried
adolescent or those not in stable relationships who Girls lack the appropriate safe spaces to
want to use contraception. empower themselves
Researchers have identified a lack of safe spaces for
Community gatekeepers’ opposition to young adolescent girls that prevent them from realizing their
people’s access to information and services sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights.
Young people live within communities, and gate- Without these safe spaces, young girls have difficulty
keepers such as religious and traditional leaders, building their social and economic assets; making

42 C H A P T E R 3 O b sta cle s to yo u n g p e o p le 's grow th and potent i al

friends and forming social networks can provide women graduates of agricultural programmes (Filmer
the social capital that forms a safety net or social and Fox, 2014).
protection at various points in their lives. A safety For young women, barriers to the labour market
deficit may also make it difficult for girls to attend include regulations and conditions of employment,
school, where they may face harassment or unwar- distance to work and unsafe conditions of transport
ranted punishment. The forces contribute to an from home to work, and mismatches between what
overall lack of social empowerment that undermines is learned in school and skills required on the job
their ability to obtain the sexual and reproductive (Lloyd, 2005). Young women tend to leave school
health information and services they need. It can earlier, and face sexual harassment and discrimina-
also lead to greater vulnerability to human rights tion based on marital or parenting status (Filmer
violations and abuses. A girl who finds herself in a and Fox, 2014).
school that discriminates against her or harasses her Poverty and economic stagnation are outside the
because of her sex, and to which she cannot safely control of any one young person, or even of their
travel, may end up not enrolling or withdrawing families and communities, but can be a powerful bar-
(Mensch et al., 2001). rier to individuals getting what they need to achieve
their sexual and reproductive health and reproductive
Economic obstacles to young people’s rights (Grepin and Klugman, 2013). Although pov-
sexual and reproductive health and erty is falling amidst widespread economic growth,
reproductive rights millions of young people continue to grow up poor,
Although more girls and boys complete school than and income inequality is increasing (UNFPA, 2014b).
ever before, getting a job or livelihood remains an Data from the World Bank show that children have
elusive goal for millions. While many economies are higher poverty rates than adults in the poorest coun-
growing, the growth is often erratic, especially in the tries of sub-Saharan Africa, with more than half of
poorest countries, and based on a narrow range of children living in conditions of extreme poverty
commodities or industries. It fails to generate suffi- (UNICEF, 2014). Poor boys and girls are less likely
cient and sufficiently productive and remunerative job to enrol and stay in school than their wealthier peers
opportunities. Many young people lack entrepreneur- (UNESCO, 2014b; United Nations Commission on
ial skills and capacity, access to financial services, and Population and Development, 2014). They start at a
access to business advisory services, and have greater disadvantage in getting the requisite skills to enter the
difficulty getting appropriate credit to start a business job market and seek out and maintain a livelihood.
(African Union, 2014). The lack of quality in basic Not being in school precludes access to comprehen-
education and training hinders the productivity of sive sexuality education, thus shutting off a possible
young people (Filmer and Fox, 2014). key source of information.
Entry by young people into the large and growing Poverty also exacerbates the exposure of young
household enterprise sector also faces a series of con- people to a range of human rights violations such
straints (Filmer and Fox, 2014). Both reflecting and as early and forced marriage, and sexual violence
exacerbating gender inequalities, many factors disad- and coercion (International Center for Research on
vantage young women over young men in finding a Women, 2014). For example, the financial element
job. Barriers to getting agricultural education are more involved in forcing a daughter to marry young may
acute for women than for men, for example, with few loom even larger for parents who are poor. If poor

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 43

 young people or their families cannot pay for sexual wealthier countries with better Internet access,
and reproductive health services, their access is in ranging from over 90 per cent in Norway and
effect denied. other wealthy countries to under 10 per cent
Poor people tend also to live in rural and other in much of sub-Saharan Africa (International
remote areas that already lack health services. Poor Telecommunications Union, 2013). Moreover,
young people have less exposure to technology studies show that poor youth are much less
through which they could get critical information. likely than wealthier youth to use digital tech-
Extreme poverty can also drive young girls into sex nologies (International Telecommunications
work (UNAIDS, 2012). Union, 2013).
Inequalities in young people’s access to and use
of sexual and reproductive services and to other Underinvestment in human capital
opportunities persist across and within countries, The cost of schooling for both boys and girls
depending largely on household wealth (Loaiza and remains a barrier that keeps many out of
Lang, 2013; Lule et al., 2005). school. These include the direct costs of school
(such as school fees, uniforms and transport)
Poverty, youth and the digital divide and opportunity costs: schoolchildren from
Poor youth are less likely to have access to digital poor families may be required to work in the
technologies and thus are disadvantaged with regard home, family business or other paid labour to
to information and other means of building social make family ends meet. Furthermore, many
capital. Although 30 per cent of youth aged 15 to countries still do not invest enough in school
24 worldwide in 2012 were “digital natives,” that infrastructure, or in the numbers and quality of
is, with five or more years of online experience, the their teachers (UNESCO, 2014b).
proportions of digital natives are much higher in
Legal obstacles
Laws acting against the best interests of
DIGITAL DIVIDE
young people
Laws, regulations, and policies reflect the
The percentage of youth aged preferences and customs of the societies that
15 to 24 classified as "digital promulgate them. Yet often, such structures
natives" is much higher in act against the best interests of young people
wealthier countries with better seeking to realize their sexual and reproductive
Internet access. health and reproductive rights. The legal, regu-
latory, and policy framework in most countries
has yet to catch up with the commitments
Sub-Saharan
Africa 10% that most countries have made to the various
international treaties and agreements guarantee-
ing the rights of adolescents and young people
World
30% (Greene et al., 2014). In many countries, the
framework has yet to catch up with the realities
of adolescents and youth.

44 C H A P T E R 3 O b sta cle s to yo u n g p e o p le 's grow th and potent i al

Age of consent
Age of consent laws that require adolescents to get the
permission of a parent or guardian to use a service,
or that limit access to people under a certain age, are
barriers to information and services for adolescents.
Despite being signatories to treaties and agreements
that call for adolescents to have access to sexual and
reproductive health care, many countries have laws or
policies that do not allow for unmarried adolescents
or minors to have access to contraceptives (Chandra-
Mouli et al., 2014).
Adolescents who find themselves with an
unwanted pregnancy and want to terminate it may
be more likely to resort to unsafe abortion knowing
that they have to get the permission of their parents
or guardian to get a legal abortion (World Health
Organization, 2014a). Age of consent laws are also
a barrier when adolescents under 18 want access © UNFPA/Ricardo Ramirez Arriola

to HIV testing and counselling, harm-reduction

services, such as needle exchange programmes, and
other services (World Health Organization, 2013b; Overcoming the obstacles
2014a). Besides blocking access to information and As the United Nations Secretary-General said on
services, these age of consent laws contradict the idea World Population Day in 2014, too many of today’s
that young people should participate in decisions 1.8 billion youth “are denied their rightful opportu-
that affect them in line with their evolving capabili- nities to get a quality education, find decent work,
ties. This “age discrimination,” as UNAIDS and the and participate in the political life of their societies.”
Lancet Commission (2013) describe it, “interferes Young people’s access to quality sexual and repro-
with their civic participation, their ability to freely ductive health information and services is too easily
make decisions, and their access to sexuality educa- blocked.
tion and life-saving sexual and reproductive health Many of the obstacles faced by young people, but
and HIV services.” especially girls, are in some way a violation or denial
Many of the HIV-specific legal obstacles, such of their mental and physical integrity. Some of these
as criminalization of same-sex behaviour, drug use, obstacles are directly related to adult attitudes and
and selling sex or sex work, fall particularly hard on behaviours, which only the adults themselves can
young people realizing their sexual and reproductive change. For millions of adolescents, the challenge is
health and reproductive rights. In addition to limit- the combination of adults’ hostility towards them as
ing their access to care and information, such laws they move through puberty coupled with their lack
can exacerbate the social exclusion, discrimination, of power to act autonomously in key decisions and
and marginalization young people already experience behaviours that affect their lives and futures.
(UNAIDS and Lancet Commission, 2013).

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 45

Countries face different economic and social
circumstances, which means there is no
one-size-fits-all approach to investing in
young people’s human capital.

v
akimo
bek H
FPA/Ulug
© UN

46
 CHAPTER 4

Human capital
investments open
the window to
a demographic
dividend
Regardless of their stage of development, all countries bear a responsibility to uphold
the rights of youth and help them establish foundations for their lives. This includes
equipping them with high-quality, relevant education, and comprehensive health care,
encompassing all aspects of sexual and reproductive health. Youth need opportunities
to earn a living and to participate in decisions that affect them. Given the disparities
that persist in all societies, special efforts should reach groups marginalized on multiple
fronts, such as age, gender and ethnicity.

Promising interventions

Stopping child Discouraging harmful

marriage practices

Bolstering y​ oung
people's ​sexual and Promoting gender
reproductive health and parity in education
reproductive rights

Preventing sexual and Improving employment and

gender-based violence earnings opportunities

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 47

 C
ountries with large cohorts of people’s access to health, including sexual and repro-
adolescents and youth can reap a ductive health, are also critical.
demographic dividend for national Young people, including adolescents, need quality
development, resilience and sustain- education, training, health information and services,
ability. But the size of that dividend depends as well as human rights protections and opportuni-
critically on investment in human capital and the ties to participate in decision-making to equip them
strengthening of human capabilities, as well as for the future and enable them to participate in the
on policies that support the empowerment of affairs of their communities and contribute to eco-
young people. nomic development. With these investments, young
Countries face different economic and social people are also better able to develop the judgement,
circumstances, which means there is no one-size- values, behaviours and resilience they need to thrive
fits-all approach to investing in young people’s in their rapidly changing and globalizing world.
human capital. The obstacles encountered by ado- The economic arguments for policy interventions
lescents and youth on the path towards healthy, to achieve demographic dividends are inextricably
productive futures differ among and within coun- linked to the human rights rationale for action on
tries. Obstacles are often more imposing for those sexual and reproductive health and reproductive
who are poorer, rural, less educated and otherwise rights. For example, one driver of the dividend is
marginalized or denied their basic human rights. increased participation of women in the paid econo-
Even though many of the obstacles are daunt- my. Child marriage and early childbearing can erode
ing, developing countries have found innovative or even erase this potential through their detrimental
ways to overcome them. Many of the solutions effects on the health, education, and earnings poten-
found to help young people enjoy their rights tial of young mothers and their children. Though
and access sexual and reproductive health infor- less is known about the impact of unintended par-
mation and services have been small in scale or enthood on young fathers, the limited evidence we
scope but have the potential to reach many more have suggests that effects on their earnings potential
individuals. Others were the unintended benefit are also negative.
of initiatives aimed at achieving other develop- The examples of the Republic of Korea, Taiwan
ment objectives. Either way, countries are finding Province of China, and Thailand between 1965
ways to ensure young people’s sexual and repro- and 1990 testify to the importance of economics,
ductive health and reproductive rights and tear rights and social policies to realize the demographic
down barriers to their entry into the productive dividend. All capitalized on their potential demo-
labour force. graphic dividends through economic policies as well
as social investments in health, education and gender
Prioritizing investments equality. Girls’ enrolment rates in secondary school
Actions taken by governments to build human increased substantially from 1965 to 1980, and
capital have typically prioritized increasing access gender inequities in enrolments diminished. Trends
to education, particularly beyond the primary towards fewer children and later marriage resulted
level. But education alone will not suffice to in more women entering the work force. Increased
build a critical mass of human capital to reap the female labour force participation was a key driver of
demographic dividend. Policies that ensure young economic growth (Bauer, 2001).

48 CHAPTER 4 Human capital investments open the window to a demographic dividend

 Building human capital among young people
and supporting their employability must be com-
plemented by productive investment in the real “Decisions. Decisions. Each
economy, which creates employment opportunities day you make thousands
for people.
of them. The decisions you
How can policies and interventions aimed
at increasing access to sexual and reproductive make throughout life and in
health, enabling young people to exercise their your various roles...will affect
reproductive rights and other human rights and different people. Therefore, we
promoting gender equity help governments realize
need to stand on our own feet
a demographic dividend? Recent reviews of poli-
cies and programmes are shedding light on which to become involved in making
investments in sexual and reproductive health and decisions.”
reproductive rights may be most effective at empow-
ering young people and help countries more fully Manisha Byanjankar, Nepal
realize a demographic dividend.

Promising interventions include:

• Stopping child marriage and preventing
adolescent pregnancies
• Bolstering sexual and reproductive health preventing child marriage or supporting girls who
and reproductive rights among young people, are already married or in partnerships (Haberland
including adolescents and Chong, 2003). Keeping girls in school and sup-
• Preventing and addressing sexual and porting them in making healthy decisions about
gender-based violence their own lives have been found to be the most
• Discouraging harmful practices, such as important determinants of age at marriage.
female genital mutilation While almost all countries have established some
• Promoting gender parity in education legal minimum age at marriage, the laws often
• Improving employment and earnings remain unenforced, particularly in sub-Saharan
opportunities for young people. Africa, the Arab States and South Asia. For example,
in India, which has criminalized child marriage, only
Child marriage and adolescent pregnancy 11 people were actually convicted of perpetuating
Marriage is a critical divide for millions of girls in child marriage in 2010 (UNFPA, 2013; UNICEF,
developing countries. Child marriage derails a girl’s 2011). Thus, legal activism is necessary but insuf-
future and means she has no control over her fertil- ficient for ending this practice.
ity, thus making the demographic dividend a more Because of the weakness or absence of legal sanc-
distant possibility. This “neglected majority” of mar- tions on child marriage, other approaches are being
ried children has received a great deal of attention tried, including those aimed at keeping girls in school
in recent years, with the allocation of new resources and working with community members to change
and the refocusing of existing resources targeted to norms around early marriage and childbearing.

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 2014 49

 The majority of programmes working to end child a two-year programme in Egypt, prepared out-
marriage have not yet been adequately evaluated, of-school girls for re-entry into the formal school
(Greene, 2014). One review, however, classifies the system, teaching literacy and numeracy, life skills
limited number of programmes that have been eval- and sports (Brady et al., 2007).
uated into five categories (Lee-Rife et al., 2012). Another approach has been the provision of eco-
The first category focuses on the empowerment of nomic support and incentives for girls and families.
girls at risk for early marriage through information, Economic training, support and sometimes incen-
skills, safe spaces and support networks. These pro- tives that address families’ economic justifications
grammes have sought to reduce girls’ social isolation for marrying their daughters early provide alterna-
and to prepare girls to act on the choices they must tives to marriage and increase the value of girls to
make in life. An example is the Maharashtra Life their families of origin. One example is Berhane-
Skills Programme in India, which taught girls about Hewan in Ethiopia, which provided families with
social institutions, life skills, and health, including a goat as long as their daughters remained in the
child health and nutrition (Pande et al., 2006). programme and remained unmarried until age 18
Another group of programmes designed to end (Karei and Erulkar, 2010). Another example is the
child marriage has aimed at enhancing girls’ access Zomba cash transfer programme in Malawi, which
to school and improvement in the quality of educa- found that unconditional cash transfers were more
tion. Quality schooling provides a viable alternative effective in delaying marriage than conditional
to marriage for some girls by providing them with transfers (Baird et al., 2009).
social networks and raising their expectations of Education and mobilization of parents and com-
their own lives. Weak schools can contribute to par- munity members can also help end child marriage.
ents’ views that marriage is the best place for their By educating and mobilizing parents and com-
daughters. The expectation that girls will marry early munities—those who decide when and whom girls
undermines the commitment to schooling. Ishraq, will marry—to change social norms relating to
expectations of girls and their marriage prospects,
these programmes aim to delay marriage. Reframing
concepts and redefining traditions around female
genital mutilation are strategies used by several
countries. In Kenya, for example, alternative rites of
passage have been developed to preserve the positive
sociocultural aspects of the ritual without requiring
girls to undergo female genital mutilation.
Some countries have taken steps to stop child mar-
riage through fostering an enabling legal and policy
framework. Most countries, even those with high
levels of child marriage, have established legal mini-
mum ages for marriage. Laws and the legal systems
serve two purposes in this domain: they provide the
Nancy Tomee, youth activist, speaking out against
female genital mutilation. overarching framing for any kind of programmatic
© UNFPA/Omar Kasrawi interventions in multiple sectors, and they provide

50 CHAPTER 4 Human capital investments open the window to a demographic dividend

refuge and justice for the girls who seek it. Policy Sexual and reproductive health and
advocacy to clarify, strengthen and enforce such laws reproductive rights
is needed. In Afghanistan, the Community-based This largest-ever generation of adolescents has health
Rural Livelihoods Programme has convened groups needs, including sexual and reproductive health,
of women to mobilize for action on local issues of which must be met if the potential of the world’s
gender inequality and strengthened local shura coun- young people is to be realized and long-term nega-
cils to respond to problems including child marriage tive health outcomes are to be avoided. As a recent
(Gandhi and Krijnen, 2006). analysis by the World Health Organization (2014)
According to the United Nations (2011), in coun- highlights, health events during adolescence have
tries where women tend to marry at young ages, an impact across the life course. Adolescents differ
the difference between the singulate mean age at from other groups in the population and are served
marriage, or SMAM, between males and females less well than many other groups, so they are a key
is generally large. SMAM is the average length of population to address in efforts to achieve universal
single life among persons between ages 15 and 49. health coverage. Policies play a key role in protecting
Countries with the lowest SMAMs as of 2008 were adolescent health; it is insufficient simply to provide
Niger (17.6 years), Mali (17.8 years) and Chad adolescents with services, since the broader social
(18.3 years). All had age differences between male and normative context for their health is especially
and female SMAMs of at least six years. important.
UNFPA’s The State of World Population 2013 on The presence of supportive policies, laws and sys-
adolescent pregnancy notes that while many gov- tems forms the backdrop for health services that are
ernments have invested in programmes to enable accountable to the people who use them. A legal
adolescents to prevent a pregnancy, fewer of them framework that facilitates redress to problems or
invest in systems and services that support girls who obstacles in a health system is essential for ensuring
have become pregnant or have had a child. Greene quality. Likewise, a framework that ensures every
et al. (2013) reviewed a number of programmes person’s right to services, without requiring special
in the United States and developing countries that permissions of other family members, can facilitate
sought to increase the desire to delay further child- the use of services and a sense of entitlement on
bearing, increase contraceptive use, and increase the part of young clients. Behaviours and outcomes
birth intervals among young mothers. They iden- could be influenced by policy interventions, such as
tified a number of promising interventions and those that loosen age or parental-consent restrictions
suggested a “mix and match” strategy of combining on adolescents’ access to services, or policies that
interventions where effective prevention methods allow pregnant students to return to school after
are used and tailored to specific epidemiological and giving birth.
cultural contexts. In the majority of instances, ado- Millions of girls become pregnant during adoles-
lescent pregnancies occur within child marriages or cence. The numbers of young women with unmet
are linked to other circumstances that are beyond a need for contraception are significant. A compilation
girl’s control. In every region of the world, impover- of recent data from countries where Demographic
ished, poorly educated and rural girls are more likely and Health Surveys include information about
to become pregnant than their wealthier, urban, contraceptive use among married and unmarried/
educated counterparts. sexually active young women reports an estimated

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 51

 33 million women between the ages of 15 and 24 use of contraception. In Tanzania, reported use was
would use contraceptives if they had access to them significantly higher for females and males exposed to
(MacQuarrie, 2014). There is substantial regional the intervention. But in Ghana and Uganda, use of
variation. For girls aged 15 to 19, the figures range contraception was higher only for females exposed to
from 8.6 per cent of married women in the Middle the intervention compared to males and unexposed
East and North Africa to 30.5 per cent in West and females (Daniels, 2007; Williams et al., 2007). A
Central Africa. For the countries reporting informa- systematic review of research on interventions to
tion on unmarried/sexually active young women, improve adolescents’ contraceptive behaviours had
nearly half of those in the two African country several positive findings, in areas such as training
groups have an unmet need for contraception. of providers to reduce their reluctance to serve ado-
Variation across countries indicates the importance lescents, building better communication skills for
of conducting country-level analyses of patterns of working with this age group and making services
exposure to pregnancy risk by age (Blanc and Way, more attractive to adolescent users (Gottschalk and
1998). Ortayli, 2014). The authors noted the importance of
The African Youth Alliance sought to enhance community buy-in to help break down community-
youth-friendly services in Ghana, Tanzania and level socio-cultural barriers and the contribution of
Uganda. An evaluation showed that all three coun- school-based comprehensive sexuality education.
tries experienced mixed results regarding reported They cautioned that the impacts of interventions
varied by context, and that the evidence base
remained sparse.
AVERAGE PER CENT OF UNMET NEED Another systematic literature review by Denno
FOR CONTRACEPTION AMONG et al. (2012) shows that the most effective out-
ADOLESCENTS AND YOUNG WOMEN of-facility approaches to reaching youth with
(BASED ON DATA FROM RECENT services include condom distribution via street
DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH outreach and promotion of over-the-counter
SURVEYS SURVEYS)
access to emergency contraception. In a literature
Regional groupings of countries with available data review, Denno et al. (2013) found that more
research needs to be done to determine if training
Currently Unmarried/
married sexually active health care workers and making facilities more
Ages Ages Ages Ages
youth-friendly is an effective way to improve ado-
Regional groupings 15-19 20-24 15-19 20-24 lescent sexual and reproductive health outcomes.
West/Central Africa 30.5 29.1 46.3 35.1
Evidence was strong for programmes using a
combination of interventions, including those
East/Southern Africa 25.6 24.9 48.7 29.9
that increased community approval of services
Middle East/North Africa 8.6 11.3 No Data No Data
for, or accessible by, adolescents.
Eastern Europe 19.3 15.9 15.7 16.1 A study in Zimbabwe found a significant increase
Asia 24.2 23.0 No Data No Data
in reported contraceptive-seeking behaviour and
a reduction in reported pregnancies as a result of
Latin America/Caribbean 30.1 30.8 30.8 20.6
an intervention to improve access and quality
Source: MacQuarrie (2014) of services for adolescents (Cowan et al., 2010).

52 CHAPTER 4 Human capital investments open the window to a demographic dividend

Integrating services into school settings can be an
CONTRACEPTIVE USE
important way of making them friendly to young
people. A comparative study of two schools’ youth
The cost savings in
health services showed the school that referred
preventing unintended
students for hormonal contraceptive services had a
higher pregnancy rate than the school with on-site pregnancy is greatest among
services (Smith et al., 2011). One evaluation of adolescent mothers at
youth-friendly services found that over five years,
the cost savings in preventing unintended pregnancy $17.23 for every $1
was greatest among adolescent mothers at a savings spent on contraception for
of $17.23 for every $1 spent on contraception for 14 to 19-year-old females.
14-to-19 year old women (Eisenberg et al., 2013).
McQueston et al. (2012) reviewed seven assess-
ments of interventions that tailored existing
reproductive health programmes to meet the needs Comprehensive sexuality education has been
of adolescents. Two of them, Kanesathasan et al. found to delay sexual debut for adolescents, and
(2008), on a large scale adolescent programme in those who learned about abstinence and contracep-
India, and Bhuiya et al. (2004), on adolescent- tion, especially females, were significantly more
friendly services in Bangladesh, had positive effects likely to use contraception at sexual debut (Lindberg
on contraceptive awareness or knowledge, with and Maddow-Zimet, 2012). UNESCO’s systematic
Kanesathasan et al. (2008) also showing increased research on the impact of comprehensive sexuality
contraceptive use among married adolescents. education on sexual behaviour found that one third
Portner et al. (2011) reported an actual decrease in of programmes decreased the frequency of sexual
the number of children, even though the Ethiopian intercourse, and more than one third delayed the
programme he studied was not specifically designed initiation of intercourse and decreased the number
for adolescents. All of the studies involved multiple of sexual partners (UNESCO, 2009). No pro-
types of interventions and outcomes, so that it is dif- gramme hastened sexual debut. Also, curricula
ficult to disentangle the impact of a specific type of that emphasize critical thinking about gender and
intervention on a specific outcome. power are far more effective than conventional
An additional area of intervention that has “gender-blind” programmes at reducing rates of
received some attention is finding ways to “normal- sexually transmitted infections and unintended
ize” adolescent access to services, much as services pregnancy. These important results echo a body
for young children are normalized. An example is of research demonstrating that gender norms are a
the “12+” model being tested in Rwanda with sup- “gateway factor” for a range of adolescent outcomes
port from the United Kingdom and GirlHub. The (Haberland, 2010).
programme aims to educate young girls before the As the World Bank’s 2007 World Development
age of puberty on reproductive health as it applies Report notes, the voices of young people themselves
to them. It empowers them with broad life skills can improve service delivery by monitoring and
to help them make informed choices as they go giving feedback on the quality of services (World
through life. Bank, 2006). Brazil’s Vozes Jovens institutionalizes

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 53

 © UNFPA/Elianne Beeson

youth voices through participation in the formation cent pregnancy—measured by the young mother’s
of youth policy at the national, state and local levels. foregone annual income over her lifetime—ranges
Young people have introduced new ways of doing from 1 per cent of annual GDP in China to 30
business: “different language, different organizing per cent of annual GDP in Uganda (Chaaban and
methods, and different ways of presenting cases and Cunningham, 2012).
results that need to be incorporated into policy devel-
opment and programming” (World Bank, 2006). Gender-based violence
While some would argue that multifaceted inter- Gender-based violence in all its forms is a human
ventions to delay early marriage and pregnancy are rights violation that occurs with alarming frequency
costly, the costs of failing to act are high. Researchers in every country. Along with the physical and psy-
at Johns Hopkins University estimated that billions chological costs are the short- and long-term medical
of dollars are lost globally as a result of adolescent costs and reduced income and productivity. Gender-
childbirth through decreased earnings from less based violence may take many forms, ranging from
schooling, with estimates of the total cost of a ado- intimate-partner violence, rape, workplace harass-
lescent childbirth for a cohort of 35 million girls ment, female genital mutilation, human trafficking
from 72 countries ranging from $168 to $503 per and murder. A 2013 review by the World Health
girl, depending on the rate of return to schooling Organization estimates that 36 per cent of women
(Bonnenfant et al., 2013). A recent World Bank study have experienced intimate-partner violence or sexual
employed methodology developed by Maynard and violence by a non-partner, with lower rates for men
Hoffman for the United States (2008) to measure the (World Health Organization, 2013). Young girls and
lifetime opportunity costs resulting from an adolescent boys are particularly vulnerable, with wide-ranging
pregnancy in developing countries. They reported negative consequences for the health and welfare
that “the lifetime opportunity cost related to adoles- of victims.

54 CHAPTER 4 Human capital investments open the window to a demographic dividend

 Incident rates from a series of National Violence and Oxfam’s “We Can End All Violence against
Against Children Surveys estimate that among Women,” can help shift entrenched social norms,
women ages 18 to 24, 38 per cent in Swaziland, 27 such as the acceptance of wife-beating and male
per cent in Tanzania and 32 per cent in Zimbabwe, superiority in relationships. “Gender transforma-
had experienced sexual violence before they were tive programming” involving males and females has
18. Among men, about one in nine in Tanzania and promoted change by challenging harmful gender
one in 10 in Zimbabwe had similar experiences. In norms to address the adverse distribution of power,
Central America, between 3 per cent and 10 per roles, responsibilities and resources between men
cent of men between the ages of 19 and 30 reported and women in countries such as Brazil, Egypt,
having been sexually abused as a child (Willman and Ethiopia, India and Peru.
Corman, 2013).
Early sexual activity among girls is often linked Preventing childhood exposure to violence
to coercion and violence, exposing them to sexually Recognizing that witnessing or being the victim of
transmitted infections, HIV and unintended preg- violence as a child predisposes individuals to per-
nancy. Early sexual activity also often stems from petrate violence in adulthood, programmes aimed
persistent gender inequality and low value for girls, at improving parental behaviours and curbing the
which together deny them the power to decide when practice of corporal punishment at home and in
or whether to have sex or with whom they will have schools have proven effective in higher-income
sex. Seven types of policy interventions have been settings, and there is emerging evidence that par-
shown to be effective in preventing or reducing sexu- enting programmes in lower- and middle-income
al violence by intimate partners (Heise, 2011). settings work to improve parenting and reduce the
practice of harsh punishment.
Changing gender norms According to Heise (2011), boys who are sub-
Evidence shows that awareness-raising campaigns jected to harsh physical punishment, who are
such as the Secretary-General’s “UNiTE to End physically abused themselves, or who witness their
Violence” campaign, the UNFPA Breakaway cam- mothers being beaten are more likely to abuse
paign, Amnesty International’s “Say No to Violence,” their partners later in life.

SOUL CITY AND SOCIAL CHANGE

South Africa’s Soul City Institute has become a force for social change with diverse interventions reaching more
than four of every five South Africans. The core of Soul City’s strategy is harnessing popular culture and commu-
nication to bring about social change. Using South Africa’s public broadcasting infrastructure, the programmes
communicate key public health messages and stimulate dialogue and debate. Soul City Institute works with
partner non-governmental organizations in eight other southern African countries. The Institute has been inde-
pendently evaluated through large nationally representative quantitative surveys and qualitative research (Usdin,
2009). The evaluations showed Soul City’s positive impact on knowledge and awareness of the extent and sever-
ity of domestic violence, the definition of violence against women (in particular of domestic violence), the status of
the law on violence against women, and what to do and where to go in cases of violence (Guedes, 2004).

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 55

 Curbing alcohol abuse
There is considerable evidence on the link
between heavy drinking by males and intimate-
partner violence. Successful interventions include:
counselling for problem drinkers; laws related to
young people’s access to alcohol and advertising
targeting them; community-based social-norm
campaigns, school programmes and public dialogue;
the formation of local women’s organizations that
discourage alcohol abuse; and treatment and self-
help initiatives, including Alcoholics Anonymous.

Economically empowering girls and women Young people attending a youth debate on teenage pregnancy
Evidence points to positive links between empower- organized by UNFPA and its partners in Uganda.
© UNFPA/Els Dehantschutter
ment measures (ownership of assets, employment,
participation in credit schemes), girls’ and young
women’s bargaining position in households, and Engaging men and boys
decreased vulnerability to partner violence. Programmes that work with men and boys also
play an important role in promoting gender
Legal and justice systems reform equality, addressing gender-based violence and
Despite the expectation that arrest and prosecution bolstering sexual and reproductive health and
of perpetrators may reduce violence, the evidence to reproductive rights. A review of research by Barker
support this view is weak. International treaties such et al. (2007) yielded compelling evidence that
as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms such programmes can change attitudes and behav-
of Discrimination against Women are an important iours. One such initiative, Brazil’s Programme H,
stimulus towards reform at the country level. resulted in positive changes in attitudes, measured
through a Gender-Equitable Men scale, about
Mitigating the effects of violence, particularly topics such as prevention of HIV infection, part-
in conflict and post-conflict settings ner violence, and sexual relationships (Pulerwitz et
Sexual violence typically escalates during conflicts, al., 2006).
forced migrations and natural disasters. The physi-
cal, psychological and social impact on adolescents Female genital mutilation
and young people can persist into adulthood and Female genital mutilation poses serious physi-
last a lifetime. Preventive measures are essential, cal and mental health risks for women and girls.
but so are actions to prosecute perpetrators and The World Health Organization reported that the
provide health care and psycho-social, legal and practice was linked to increased complications in
economic support for survivors of violence, which childbirth and maternal deaths as well as a range
may lead to sexually transmitted infections and of other health problems (Feldman-Jacobs and
unwanted pregnancies (Inter-Agency Standing Ryniak, 2006). Approaches to eliminate the prac-
Committee, 2005). tice include changes in laws and policies, public

56 CHAPTER 4 Human capital investments open the window to a demographic dividend

education and dialogue, and introduction of alter- transfers, and the recruitment and training of female
native rites of passage. Among the better known teachers (Lloyd, 2009; Biddlecom et al., 2007; Baird
programmes is the Community Empowerment et al., 2009; Arends-Kuenning and Amin, 2000).
Programme implemented by Tostan, which Attending school has a protective value in that girls
originated in Senegal and has expanded to several in school are seen as children, not as individuals who
other countries. Tostan mobilizes community and are ready for marriage (Marcus and Page, 2013).
religious leaders to help change attitudes. The pro- Paying for school uniforms can reduce dropout rates,
gramme has reduced the incidence of the practice reduce adolescent marriage and lead to a reduction
and has contributed to other favourable outcomes, in adolescent pregnancy (Duflo et al., 2006).
such as a reduction in the number of child mar- The quality of education matters: if it fails to
riages (Diop et al., 2004). prepare girls for jobs and participation in civil soci-
ety, it may not delay marriage and childbearing
Attending school and completing secondary (Schurmann, 2009). Subsidized childcare may facili-
education tate girls’ schooling (Glick and Sahn, 2000). Gender
Most countries have made substantial progress in equality in teaching, learning and management,
increasing enrolment in primary school for both including attention to the curriculum, learning
boys and girls, but many lag behind in secondary materials, and pedagogical practices are important
education, particularly for girls. Many constraints areas for action. Also, in-school health interventions
need to be addressed, including socio-cultural and raising awareness about reproductive health
norms, vulnerability to violence, costs (both direct issues can enhance learning gains for both boys and
costs and opportunity costs), inadequate school girls (Unterhalter et al., 2014). For adolescent girls,
infrastructure and poor quality of teaching, as well the availability of hygiene supplies and sanitation
as the impact of HIV on girls and their families. infrastructure is also important.
Lewis and Lockheed (2006) recommended a Girls need the flexibility to be able to return to
number of policy changes to help advance girls’ edu- school if they become pregnant or leave school for
cation. These included changing policies, laws and other reasons (Jimenez and Murthi, 2006; Greene
administrative rules that discriminate against girls et al., 2002). One study in Pakistan found that
(for example, those who are pregnant or have given while girls with more schooling did not delay their
birth to a child) and the establishment of compen- marriages or first births, they were more likely to
satory programmes for them, providing incentives use contraception and delay second births (Alam
for households to help overcome their reluctance to et al., 2010).
send girls to school and reduce the costs they incur Around the world, cash transfers and vouchers
in doing so, improving the quality and relevance of designed to alter a variety of behaviours and out-
education and expanding educational options for comes are gaining credibility. Successful cash-benefit
out-of-school girls. Distance from schools and the programmes to improve health and education
safety of girls on the way to and from school also indicators in Brazil and Mexico, for example, have
need to be addressed. helped girls overcome gender disadvantage in school
Actions to increase girls’ schooling and to improve (Lindert et al. 2007; Barrientos and DeJong, 2004;
the quality of girls’ education are taking a variety Merrick and Greene, 2007). Evidence suggests they
of forms. These include scholarships, stipends, cash may also help delay marriage (Baird et al., 2011).

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 57

 A team at the Center for Global Development A recent study of the Oportunidades found no
identified four evaluations of the effects of cash direct impact on pregnancy and contraceptive use
transfers on adolescent fertility and related out- among young rural women, though the programme
comes (McQueston et al., 2012). They reported may have had an indirect effect via other variables
that cash transfers had the greatest impact on such as education, which were positively impacted
marriage-related indicators, noting that the trans- (Darney et al, 2013). The mixed results suggest that
fers worked as an incentive to stay in school and the design of transfer programmes may be important
increase financial independence, both of which for achieving outcomes. Cash payments made direct-
could have reduced adolescent marriage. ly to girls rather than their parents had the greatest
Findings from Mexico’s Progresa-Oportunidades impact on reducing adolescent pregnancy and HIV
programme, a nationwide antipoverty interven- in Malawi’s Zomba programme (Baird et al., 2009).
tion aiming to improve education and health
through cash transfers, showed a significant Overcoming obstacles to productive
effect in delaying young women’s sexual debut labour-force participation
(Gulemetova-Swan, 2009). Enrolment rates were Measures to integrate women more fully into the
higher for children participating in the programme, economic and political mainstream help improve gen-
and there was a slight increase in the number of der equity. For example, legal changes can empower
years of schooling they received. women by enabling them to inherit and own
property, access credit, and reduce barriers to their
participation in the labour force. Policies for granting
maternal leave reduce the likelihood that childbear-
ing will cost women in terms of career prospects
and lower lifetime earnings. Legal changes can also
enable them to vote and increase their representation
in political positions. Other policies seek to increase
overall levels of education for both men and women,
while ensuring that women are not left behind.
Many of the gains in girls’ secondary school atten-
dance have failed to reap benefits in employment and
earnings because of obstacles in the labour market,
including regulations and conditions of employment,
distance to work and unsafe conditions of transport
from home to work, and mismatches between what
is learned in school and skills required on the job
(Lloyd, 2005).
Workforce initiatives for girls can contribute great-
ly to delaying marriage and shifting norms (Amin et
al., 1998). Girls often leave school unprepared for
work, or cannot translate educational accomplish-
ments into remunerative jobs. Programmes can help
© Jocelyn Carlin/Panos

58 CHAPTER 4 Human capital investments open the window to a demographic dividend

girls manage or overcome prevalent gender expecta- enterprises and the modern wage sector. On the sup-
tions, negotiate the school-to-work transition, and ply side, the authors called for investments in human
play a role in the identification and promotion of capital to increase abilities and skills as well as family
safer and more accommodating workplaces than connections and networking that allow young people
currently exist. Buvinic et al. (2007) point out that to find opportunities to be productive, increase earn-
investments in transport, water and sanitation and ings and achieve income security. On the demand
energy supplies can relieve young women’s domes- side, they call for improved access to land, capital and
tic time burdens, and that interventions to increase finance, improved infrastructure, and technologies
girls’ participation in sports have potential beneficial and regulations to widen opportunities for economic
effects in health, self-confidence building and agency. activity and improve the manner in which activity is
Subsidized childcare may make it possible for young conducted (Filmer and Fox, 2014).
women to work, particularly in formal jobs (Ruel
et al., 2006). The World Bank’s Adolescent Girls Tailoring interventions to meet local needs
Initiative works with the private sector to provide Governments and donors can employ a variety of
vocational training and employment opportunities policies and programmes to advance the sexual and
for girls, but these interventions need to be evaluated reproductive health and reproductive rights of young
and scaled up (Taliento, 2009). people. These policies and programmes are desir-
Programmes in Latin America promote women’s able from both a human rights and economic growth
equal access to vocational training, especially in non- perspective, creating a “win-win” situation. Most of
traditional skills, and provide stipends for childcare, these interventions have been effective in countries
thus increasing their employability and earnings. that have already benefitted from the demographic
Programmes that reinforce social supports for dividend. They could be adapted and introduced in
adolescent girls take a variety of forms. Old-age countries whose dividend window is still opening.
pensions to grandparents caring for grandchildren But there is no universal panacea or intervention
may, for example, benefit girls in areas from overall that can benefit all countries or apply to all economic
anthropometric measures to increased school attain- and social settings. Interventions need to be tailored to
ment (Duflo, 2003; Carvalho, 2008). The creation specific contexts and needs. Many of the interventions
of girl-only safe spaces has helped transform girls’ will need to be multi-pronged and multi-sectoral,
self-concepts, provide social support and finan- and require changes in policies and laws, community
cial literacy, generate new opportunities for them, mobilization, and actions and incentives to modify
encourage continued schooling and reduce HIV behaviours that undermine reproductive health and
infection and other negative outcomes (Bruce and rights. The time to act is now because changes need
Bongaarts, 2009; Bruce and Hallman, 2008). to be in place before or during the demographic shift
Increased employment and earnings opportuni- that accompanies rapid fertility decline. Failure or
ties for young people of both sexes are critical for delay in making these changes will undermine coun-
the achievement of the demographic dividend. A tries’ potential to translate their demographic windows
recent World Bank review of youth employment of opportunity into sustained and gender-equitable
prospects in sub-Saharan Africa highlighted the need economic growth and development.
for policies and interventions to improve prospects
for young people working in agriculture, household

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 59

Whether the demographic dividend is
large or small depends on the way a
country invests in the human capital of
its young people.

id Puig
Dav
PA/
© UNF

60
 CHAPTER 5

Aligning policies,
investments and
the demographic
transition
At different stages of the demographic transition, which paves the way to a
demographic dividend, priorities evolve. Policies and investments can have a greater
impact if they are aligned with and adjusted to each stage of the transition. When
the right policies are in place at the right time, the impact of the demographic
dividend can be magnified.

What are countries doing?

Niger
Created 50
youth-friendly centres
and made information
and services more
Solomon Islands
accessible
Integrated approaches
with HIV are increasing
access to sexual and Vanuatu
Bolivia reproductive health for
Introduced a core Is phasing out
adolescents school fees
curriculum designed to
reduce gaps between
boys and girls Zimbabwe
Opened
Youth-friendly service
centres used by
increasing numbers of
young people.

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 61

 A
demographic dividend is possible when girls and young women have the power and the
the working-age population becomes means to decide freely and responsibly whether,
relatively larger than the non-working- when or how often to become pregnant. Expanding
age population. Whether that dividend access to contraception and information is key. In
is large or small, however, depends on the way a general, measures that build the human capital of
country invests in the human capital of its young women and girls and enable them to exercise all
people, on the extent to which economic and other their human rights also lead to lower fertility rates
policies foster the growth of jobs and income- and can lead in the long run to smaller dependency
earning opportunities, and on the extent to which ratios, which are critical to capturing a demographic
household and national savings are productively dividend.
invested in the real economy. Countries in the late stages of the transition are
Almost as important as the policies and invest- ones that have experienced marked reductions in
ments themselves are their timing and sequencing. both mortality and fertility rates. In this group, the
At different stages of the demographic transition, population’s age structure has changed so that the
which paves the way to a demographic dividend, dependency ratio is comparatively small, where the
priorities evolve. Policies and investments can have a share of the working-age population is larger than
greater impact if they are aligned with and adjusted the non-working-age population. This means that
to each stage of the transition. the share of the population that is 15 to 64 has
When the right policies are in place at the right grown larger, relative to the share of the popula-
time, the impact of the demographic dividend can tion that is either 14 and younger or 65 and older.
be magnified. In these countries with small dependency ratios,
In countries that have not yet begun the tran- economic and other policies need to be formulated
sition—those with high rates of fertility and
mortality—making wider and deeper investments
in health, especially primary health, as well as safe
water and sanitation, child vaccination programmes, WHERE DEPENDENCY RATIOS
and school lunch and child nutrition programmes ARE HIGH AND A DEMOGRAPHIC
are critical. These interventions can improve child DIVIDEND IS POSSIBLE
survival and thus reduce child deaths. And when
more children survive, parents usually choose to
have smaller families, translating to a reduction in Afghanistan Chad
fertility rates. Angola Comoros
In countries at the beginning of the transition, Benin Congo
with declining mortality rates but no commensurate
Bolivia (Plurinational Côte d’Ivoire
drop in fertility, and with relatively large dependency State of)
Democratic Republic
ratios, investments to empower girls and women
Burkina Faso of the Congo
through education and health, including sexual and
Burundi Equatorial Guinea
reproductive health, become even more important.
Actions are also needed to protect individuals’ rights, Cameroon Ethiopia
including reproductive rights, by ensuring adolescent Central African Republic Gabon

62 C H A P T E R 5 A l i gn in g p o licie s , inve stme n ts a n d the demographi c t ransi t i on

or adjusted so that a demographic dividend may their nations at all periods, regardless of their stage
be captured and maximized, whether the coun- in the demographic transition.
try’s non-working age population is very young Interventions are more effective when they reflect
or very old. For example, trade policies that do the conditions and circumstances within each part
not take advantage of international markets to sell of a country. Rarely are conditions and circumstanc-
goods and services produced by a large working- es uniform from one region to the next. Fertility
age cohort can limit the benefits of having a large rates, for example, are rarely the same in rural or
working-age population. remote areas as they are in cities, and even within
Aligning policies and investments to demo- cities, they usually vary according to income group
graphic shifts, however, is more a matter of or educational attainment.
emphasis than absolute prescription for advanc- Are countries prioritizing investments in young
ing one set of policy measures at the expense of people’s human capital at key stages of the demo-
another. When a country shifts, for example, graphic transition? Are policies and investments
from the pre-demographic transition phase, with timed for maximum impact?
high mortality and fertility rates, into the midst This chapter focuses on those countries and
of the transition, with reduced mortality rates areas where their dependency ratios suggest they
and falling fertility rates, countries should not are at the early stages of the demographic transi-
abandon investments in primary health, child- tion. The dependency ratio compares the size of the
hood vaccination programmes or sanitation in working-age population with the non-working-age
favour of policies that empower girls and women. population. The countries and other areas below
Investments in health are always critical to the have high dependency ratios but are approaching a
well-being of all individuals, communities and stage when a demographic dividend is possible.

Gambia Liberia Samoa Uganda Yemen

Ghana Madagascar São Tomé and United Republic of Zambia
Malawi Principe Tanzania
Guatemala Zimbabwe
Mali Senegal Vanuatu
Guinea
Mauritania Sierra Leone
Guinea-Bissau
Mozambique Solomon Islands
Guyana
Namibia Somalia
Haiti
Nepal South Sudan
Honduras
Niger Sudan
Iraq
Nigeria Swaziland
Kenya
Palestine Timor-Leste
Lao People’s
Democratic Republic Papua New Guinea Togo
Lesotho Rwanda Tonga

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 63

 An unprecedented global survey of and young women to decide for themselves whether,
policies, investments and achievements when or how often they will become pregnant.
In the lead-up to the twentieth anniversary of the
1994 International Conference on Population and The global survey and countries’ responses
Development (ICPD), the United Nations General The survey asked countries to assess their own
Assembly called on UNFPA to lead a global review progress in addressing key areas of the ICPD
of progress in implementing the ICPD’s Programme Programme of Action, ranging from promot-
of Action. ing gender equality to supporting the health,
An ICPD Beyond 2014 Secretariat, located in including the sexual and reproductive health, of
UNFPA, coordinated and led the review in consulta- youth. Some of the questions—and governments’
tion with Member States and in cooperation with responses—related directly to young people,
the United Nations system and other international including adolescents. Many also related to actions
organizations. The review entailed consultations that governments in the early stages of a demo-
with civil society, United Nations partners and graphic transition would want to take to position
other stakeholders, and regional and global thematic themselves to realize a demographic dividend. This
conferences and meetings. It also included a global chapter looks at six possible actions countries could
survey of governments to assess progress achieved be taking, depending on their national contexts,
by governments in implementing all aspects of the to empower young people in general and girls and
ICPD Programme of Action. young women in particular:
The global survey, completed in 2013, reached • Ensuring equal access to sexual and
176 Member States and seven territories. The survey reproductive health services, including HIV
yielded a unique and unprecedented global picture prevention and treatment
of countries’ policies, programmes and strategies • Keeping more girls and adolescents in
for achieving the goals of the ICPD Programme secondary school
of Action in areas such as education and health, • Improving the well-being of the girl child
including sexual and reproductive health. The quan- • Increasing access to comprehensive sexual and
titative and qualitative data gathered during the reproductive health for adolescents
survey show whether countries are making progress • Ending child marriage
towards realizing the vision of the ICPD, which • Reaching out-of-school youth with sexual and
placed the rights of the individual at the centre of reproductive health information and services.
development.
This chapter situates findings from the global The above are six of 21 actions that were identi-
survey within the context of the demographic tran- fied in the global survey as pivotal to young people’s
sition, paying particular attention to the policies, enjoyment of their human rights, including repro-
programmes and strategies countries implement as ductive rights, and to helping them realize their full
they move from a state of high mortality and fertil- potential in life.
ity to low mortality and fertility, and as the share of The global survey of governments found that
their working-age population becomes larger than most of the countries considered to be at the early
the population that is not working. Critical during stages of the demographic transition have ambitions
this stage are actions that empower adolescent girls to take the six actions listed above. For example,

64 C H A P T E R 5 A l i gn in g p o licie s , inve stme n ts a n d the demographi c t ransi t i on

95 per cent of them report they have taken steps to What countries are doing
keep more girls and adolescents in secondary school. Countries have very different approaches to
However, ambitions, as reported by governments implementing policies, in line with their national
themselves, do not always translate into achieve- contexts and priorities. There is no single path
ments. For example, while more than nine tenths of towards, for example, ensuring equal rights and
the countries show a commitment to ensuring equal access to sexual and reproductive health. Similarly,
access to sexual and reproductive health, less than each country encounters a different set of obstacles
one fourth reported achievements in this area. along the way. What is important is that most
Similarly, 59 per cent of the countries in the countries in the early stage of a demographic
early stages of the demographic transition reported transition have set out to adopt policies that are
ambitions to reach out-of-school youth with sexual appropriate to this stage, and some are seeing
and reproductive health information and services. results. In responding to the global survey, coun-
But only 9 per cent of them reported progress in tries reporting progress provided specific examples
this area. of achievements in empowering adolescents and
young people.

EFFORTS AND ACHIEVEMENTS IN ADDRESSING SIX YOUTH EMPOWERMENT ISSUES

Countries reporting that the issues Countries reporting a budget to address Countries reporting
are addressed in policies or strategies the issue and reporting implementation having achieved progress

100
94.9 94.9 94.9

88.1
83.1 83.1
81.4 81.4 81.4
80

62.7
59.3
60
Per cent of countries

50.8
46.4

40

26.8
25 25

18.8
20

8.6

0
Ensuring the same Keeping Increasing Improving the Ending Reaching
rights and access more girls and access to welfare of the child marriage/ out-of-school
to sexual and adolescents comprehensive girl child, forced marriage youth with sexual
reproductive health in secondary sexual and especially with and reproductive
services, including schools reproductive health regards to health, health information
HIV prevention for adolescents nutrition and and services
education

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 65

 Ensuring equal rights and access youth most at risk of HIV. Progress in Tonga reflects
In Malawi, where political will and donor sup- successful partnerships among all stakeholders, espe-
port are strong, the national youth policy spells out cially governmental.
young people’s rights while health-care standards An enabling policy environment in Zimbabwe led
govern youth-friendly services. Pregnancy among to a national Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive
adolescents had declined by 2010, and youth HIV Health Strategy, opening the door to new youth-
prevalence remained significantly lower than the friendly service centres that are visited by increasing
national average. Yet traditional beliefs prevent many numbers of young people. Centres are being estab-
young people from gaining access to available youth- lished despite financial constraints.
friendly services.
Namibia’s expansion of adolescent-friendly health Keeping girls in secondary school
services to almost every health facility, including The introduction of Bolivia’s national and region-
training for health workers, benefitted from youth alised core curriculum is improving educational
serving on committees and from donors’ technical opportunities and reducing the gender gap in
and financial support. One pervasive challenge is pri- schools. The curriculum was translated into seven
vacy for youth, due to lack of separate infrastructure. indigenous languages (Chiquitano, Guarayo,
Tonga’s inclusion of adolescents and youth in its Guaraní, Ayoreo, Quechua, Aymara and Mojeño).
national policy generated action in many areas: cre- The “Huertos Escolares” project, which focuses
ation of school clinics; publication of information, on better nutrition and other objectives, has been
education and communication materials; training incorporated in the curriculum, since 2013, as an
of youth peer educators; and focused attention on incentive to increase school retention.

© UNFPA/Ulugbek Hakimov

66 C H A P T E R 5 A l i gn in g p o licie s , inve stme n ts a n d the demographi c t ransi t i on

 Parents in Guinea increasingly recognize the Improving the well-being of the girl child
need to educate girls as well as boys, forming asso- Accelerating education for girls is a centrepiece
ciations to support their schools that help overcome of Burkina Faso’s commitment to improving the
prevailing customs. Opening school canteens, drill- well-being of the girl child while combatting low
ing wells to relieve the burden of rural household rates of literacy. The active participation of civil
chores, and creating a school national health service organizations includes a youth network’s project on
are actions in support of girls’ education. education, gender and HIV; action to protect the
In Kenya, readmission for girls who drop out sexual and reproductive health and human rights
of school when pregnant is keeping more girls of young housemaids and street vendors; and wide-
in school. The country’s emphasis on girl child spread creation of community homes or hostels for
education, plus pragmatic steps such as provid- schoolgirls.
ing sanitary supplies at schools and reaching out In Namibia, where school enrolment has
to girls in remote arid and semi-arid areas, has improved for girls, efforts to increase girls’
brought the ratio of boys to girls to almost par- well-being include a focus on primary health care
ity in secondary school. However, instability, low services and a school feeding programme. Civil
levels of education and lack of women’s empower-
ment pose obstacles to keeping girls in secondary
schools. GIRLS NOT IN SCHOOL
Tanzania’s construction of a secondary school
in each ward, along with a growing number of Per cent of adolescent girls not
residential hostels, is saving girls a long—some- in lower secondary school
times unsafe—walk to school. A combination of
North America
easier access, lower fees, educational guidance and and Western Europe 3.02%
empowerment programmes, and facilities for girls’
privacy in schools are helping more girls stay in Central and
Eastern Europe 4.75%
school and complete their studies. Infrastructure
shortages are significant, however, with need for Central Asia 6.47%
hostels, teachers’ housing, classrooms, laboratories,
libraries and sanitary facilities. Latin America and
Phasing out school fees in Vanuatu is part of the Caribbean 7.39%
government education policy, as is greater funding
East Asia and
for school grants—though high school fees remain the Pacific 7.8%
a barrier in secondary schools. A series of policies
covering cross-cutting issues are advancing inclusive Arab States 16.03%
education and improving monitoring of gender and
equity issues. For girls, such policies can mean a South and West Asia 25.72%
return to secondary school after giving birth, access
to an equal number of toilets for girls and boys, and
Sub-Saharan Africa 35.89%
civil society's support for programmes raising aware-
ness about girls’ safety.

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 67

 policy, a children’s parliament, gender
mainstreaming and a policy on gender
in basic education.
Immunization programmes, universal
primary and secondary education, and
affirmative action at the university level
are some of the ways Uganda is improv-
ing girls’ well-being. A governmental
department of gender has worked to
ensure gender mainstreaming across
the ministries of health, agriculture and
education.

Increasing access to comprehensive

sexual and reproductive health for
adolescents
The creation of 50 youth-friendly
centres and training for “father”
(male) educators in Niger are making
reproductive health information and
services more accessible to adolescents
and youth, with access extended through
condom vending machines and a tele-
phone “green line” for youth to find
answers to questions about their repro-
ductive health. Ministry-level support is
Youth advocates, activists and peer counsellors.
strengthening youth rights and access,
Top left: © UNFPA, top right: © UNFPA/Ulugbek Hakimov, though obstacles are many, including
Bottom left: © UNFPA/Diego Diaz, bottom right: © UNFPA
religious beliefs, parental attitudes and
early marriage.
society organizations are instrumental in addressing In Ghana, “youth corners” at health facilities spe-
challenges such as maternal death, gender inequality cifically address adolescent sexual and reproductive
and cultural factors in the family and geographical health. Strong national-level partnerships are facili-
isolation in remote areas. tating their establishment, with involvement of civil
The Child Rights Act in Nigeria has passed in society and community-based organizations and the
23 States and the Federal Capital Territory, with private sector. The youth-friendly approach counters
advocacy ongoing in the remaining 13 States. Other prevailing customs and practices reflecting women’s
policies and programmes benefitting the girl child low status.
include a national database for vulnerable children, More than one third of youth in Madagascar
a girls’ mentorship programme, a national nutrition have been reached by a national programme for

68 C H A P T E R 5 A l i gn in g p o licie s , inve stme n ts a n d the demographi c t ransi t i on

young people’s health. Operating since 1997, the to end child marriage, building on the Child Act
programme is supported by many non-governmental of 2009. Many partners are working with the
partners, despite a lack of data and resources. Government, including civil society and com-
São Tomé and Principe is integrating aspects munity-based organizations, schools and media.
of sexuality and reproductive health into school Implementation of laws, policies and strategies
curricula, training health service providers to be remains constrained, however, due to socio-cultural
more youth-friendly, and incorporating repro- factors limiting women’s status, inadequate resources
ductive health into the minimum package of and lack of men’s involvement in addressing
services for adolescents. Youth non-governmental gender issues.
organizations are active in awareness-raising and
community mobilization to improve contraceptive Reaching out-of-school youth with sexual and
use among sexually active teens, increase the qual- reproductive health information and services
ity of services, and provide much-needed access to Young people seeking vocational training outside
information. of school in Uganda are also learning about sexual
Integrated approaches with HIV are increasing and reproductive health. Youth-friendly services
access to sexual and reproductive health for ado- are offered at the training centre, as well at schools,
lescents in the Solomon Islands. Guidelines for youth centres and health facilities. Mobilizing
youth-friendly services, human resources training, out-of-school youth can be challenging, yet many
and the establishment of youth-friendly centres community-based programmes, such as Straight
in two provinces and Honiara are also expanding Talk, actively pursue these young people, who rep-
access while availability is ensured through a steady, resent an underserved population with significant
reliable supply of reproductive health supplies. unmet need for reproductive health information
Stakeholder participation and partnerships are effec- and services.
tive; hindering factors include misconceptions and
lack of funding. Barriers to implementation
Most of the countries responding to the survey cited
Ending child marriage obstacles to implementation of policies, which in
In Palestine, efforts are under way to amend the many instances explain the discrepancy between
personal status law and increase the legal age of ambitions and results.
marriage. The initiative includes community The obstacles cited most frequently were related
engagement and dialogue to raise awareness of to low women’s status, limited women’s empower-
gender-sensitive legal reforms. ment, limited participation by women or prevailing
From 1997 to the present, Nigeria’s Child Rights local customs or practices. While most countries
Act has formed the basis of law and policy in vari- have formulated policies that are aligned with their
ous parts of the country. In addition to promoting stage in the demographic transition, more needs
gender equity in education, the act prohibits child to be done to address the obstacles so that achieve-
marriages and taking girls out of school. ments may keep up with intentions. Some obstacles
With a high degree of political will, Tanzania can be overcome by mobilizing sufficient resources
is developing a supportive policy and strategic or committing a larger share of national budgets
framework and using sensitization programmes towards these goals. But other obstacles, such as

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 69

 CITED OBSTACLES TO ACHIEVING PROGRESS IN SIX YOUTH-EMPOWERMENT AREAS

Youth-Empowerment Areas

Improving Ending child Increasing Ensuring the Keeping more Reaching out-
the welfare of marriage/ access to same rights and girls and of-school youth
the girl child, forced comprehensive access to sexual adolescents with sexual and
especially with marriage sexual and and reproductive in secondary reproductive
regards to reproductive health services, schools health
health, nutrition health services including HIV information and
Cited Obstacles and education for adolescents prevention services

Low women status/woman’s

empowerment/limited a a a a a a
participation of women

Prevailing local customs/

social practices a a a a a
Low degree of commitment
from politicians/decision- a a a a a
makers

Low literacy rates/level of

education a a a a
Lack of/limited financial a a a
resources

Political instability/conflict a a a
Low degree of commitment a a
from civil society
organizations

Existing political/economic a a
environment or change
in political/economic
environment

Lack of implementation or a
enforcement of relevant
laws

Inadequate family planning a

services

Limited physical access a

Lack of cultural a
acceptability

Opposition of parents/ a
guardians

Discriminatory attitudes by a
service providers

Poor quality education a

Opposition by organized a
groups

70 C H A P T E R 5 A l i gn in g p o licie s , inve stme n ts a n d the demographi c t ransi t i on

the low status of girls and women, may only be growth. Lastly, educated youth can better ben-
overcome by taking concurrent actions to address efit from the impact of a demographic dividend
the challenges through means such as making it and advocate more successfully for programmes
possible for more girls to attend school, particu- and investments that further support and engage
larly at the secondary level, and remain enrolled young people.
longer. The global survey data shows that more than
90 per cent of countries in each region had a pol-
Commitments and progress vary by region icy, strategy or programme to ensure equal access
The global survey also yielded regional data that of girls to all levels of education. In sub-Saharan
paint a different picture about commitments to Africa and Arab States, around three quarters of
addressing challenges through policies or invest- countries reported that their initiatives were on
ments. One example is in the realm of education. schedule.
Investments in education are not only a matter In Kenya, the advent of free primary educa-
of upholding human rights and enabling indi- tion in 2003, increased the rate of transition from
viduals to develop, grow and realize their own primary to secondary education for children of
potential, but they can also help accelerate the both sexes to about 60 per cent in 2007 (from 46
demographic transition. Educated women are per cent in 2003). However, substantial subna-
more likely to use family planning, and this can tional disparities exist in overall enrolment rates
lead to lower fertility (Cleland and Shah, 2013). in secondary schools. In 2006, the secondary
Education, particularly at secondary and tertiary gross enrolment rate (number of enrolled chil-
levels, can also create a skilled and productive dren as a per cent of the number of children in
workforce that can then catalyse economic the official school-age group) was 6.3 per cent in

ENSURING EQUAL ACCESS OF GIRLS TO EDUCATION AT ALL LEVELS

Issue addressed in policy Budget allocated Concrete implementation Implementation
programme or strategy measures taken is on schedule

100 95.6 95.6 97.1

93.8 94.7 92.9 92.5
88.9 87.5 87.5 85.3 84.2 84.5
82.1
79.4 79.5
80 75 75
73.3 73.7 73.7
Per cent of countries

68.4 67.9 68.4 68.4 68.9

61.8
60
52.6

40

20

0
Sub-Saharan Arab States Asia and Eastern Europe Latin Countries World
Africa the Pacific and Central America not supported
Asia and the by UNFPA
Caribbean

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 71

 Northeastern Province (8.6 per cent of boys and 3.6 latrines in schools, as an absence of girls’ toilet
per cent of girls), compared with a national average facilities has been shown to be an important barrier
of 32.2 per cent (34.6 per cent of boys and 29.9 per to their education. These measures underscore the
cent of girls), according to Keombe (2013). Kenya's importance of equity-based approaches to managing
Girl Child Education initiative, mentioned earlier, the demographic transition.
specifically targets communities in the arid and The global survey also revealed regional differ-
semi-arid areas of the country in order to increase ences in countries' efforts to provide training and
girls' enrolment in school. This indicates that poli- employment opportunities to out-of-school girls.
cies that carefully target particularly vulnerable For example, sub-Saharan Africa is the region with
groups and address, for example, logistics pertinent the largest proportion of countries reporting they
to nomadic groups or socio-cultural concerns about are addressing the needs of out-of-school girls,
the value of education, can make a difference once but it is also the region reporting the least prog-
economic barriers are overcome. ress in implementation. In fact, despite measures
The Kenyan Government has put in place a read- being taken, the percentage of countries stating
mission policy for pregnant school girls and noted their programmes and activities are on schedule
in the global survey that this has enabled more girls is relatively low across regions. Nearly half of the
to complete their education. In addition, it notes countries reported effective partnerships with
the importance of providing sanitary protection as stakeholders at the national level and the involve-
monthly absences due to menstruation are a com- ment of community-based organizations as being
mon reason behind girls’ poor attendance. It has the main factors in achieving progress in address-
also addressed the issue of providing sex-segregated ing the needs of out-of school girls.

PROVIDING TRAINING AND EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES TO OUT-OF-SCHOOL GIRLS

Issue addressed Budget allocated Concrete implementation Implementation

is on schedule

100
88.6
86.4 84.8
84.1 83.3 83
80 80 80 81.8
78.9 78.9
80 75.8 74.2 74.2
72.2
70
Per cent of countries

66.7
60
60 57.9
54.5
50 50
44.4 45.3
42.1
38.6 40
40

20

0
Sub-Saharan Arab States Asia and Eastern Europe Latin Countries World
Africa the Pacific and Central America not supported
Asia and the by UNFPA
Caribbean

72 C H A P T E R 5 A l i gn in g p o licie s , inve stme n ts a n d the demographi c t ransi t i on

 Ghana’s response to the global survey noted that positioning countries to realize a demographic
in order to improve employment opportunities for dividend. It also illustrates how young men are
out-of-school girls, it had collaborated with Marie key not just to securing optimal sexual health
Stopes International in supporting the kayayei, for young women, but also in their own right
the female vendors and porters in Accra’s markets as stakeholders in young people’s collective
(Marie Stopes International, 2014). The project future.
targets very vulnerable, poor, migrant market Different regions also cited different barri-
workers and provides them with family planning ers to implementing or measuring the impact
and integrated gender-based violence services of policies to support young people. Despite
along with HIV prevention and testing. In order the differences, they all share the view that
to do this successfully, the Ministry of Health, low political commitment is less of a problem
with support from Marie Stopes International, than the low status of women, low literacy and
engaged other sectoral partners including the other socio-cultural factors. In Latin America
police and Ministry of Justice for forensic test- and the Caribbean, for example, socio-cultural
ing and prosecution in cases of sexual violence. factors were perceived by the majority of coun-
They also offered savings and credit opportuni- tries as an important barrier to implementing
ties and provided the girls with skills to lobby policies to further adolescents’ well-being.
the local authorities for better housing and child Further analyses revealed that these factors
care. This example illustrates how multisectoral are likely to be associated with conservative
policy actions can contribute to women’s and attitudes towards pre-marital sex and the use
girl’s empowerment, with the additional benefit of of contraception. In sub-Saharan Africa, other

SELECTED BARRIERS TO ACHIEVING PROGRESS IN AREAS RELATED TO ADOLESCENTS

AND YOUTH ACROSS REGIONS
Low degree of commitment Low literacy rates Low women’s status Prevailing local
by politicians customs/social practices

40 37.8
35.5
35

30
Per cent of countries

25
25 23.5
22.2
20 20.6 20
20

15 12.9
11.8 11.9
9.7 9.7 10.2
10 8.9 8.8
6.9 6.9 6.9
5 5.7
5 2.9
0 0 0 0 0 0
0
Sub-Saharan Arab States Asia and Eastern Europe Latin Countries World
Africa the Pacific and Central America not supported
Asia and the by UNFPA
Caribbean

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 73

 reported barriers include low status of women An analysis of data at the regional level shows
and illiteracy (which are likely to be linked). In progress has been made on many levels and that ado-
Asia and the Pacific, the low status of women and lescents are at the forefront of most countries’ policy
socio-cultural factors were cited as the main barri- agendas. But in virtually no region are intentions or
ers. Differences between regions mask sometimes commitments matched by reported achievements.
significant differences among countries within each Many policies and strategies exist but are not fully
region, and cannot offer critical insights into vari- funded or are not implemented on schedule.
ability within countries. The data also show that policies and programmes
are country-specific, reflecting national circumstan-
Alignment successes and shortcomings ces and context. A one-size-fits-all approach neither
The data from the global survey of countries in the exists nor would be feasible. It can also be argued
lead-up to the twentieth anniversary of the ICPD that interventions need to be customized to the stage
show that most of the countries in the early stages to which each region of a country has progressed,
of a demographic transition are striving to imple- in recognition of the considerable demographic and
ment policies that are of utmost importance in this economic differences within countries.
period, particularly if countries are to realize a demo- In order for countries to better align their policies
graphic dividend. These policies are generally aimed to demographics, they need better population data,
at empowering girls and young women through which are disaggregated by age, sex, location, and
measures that allow them to exercise their rights to income quintiles. Without complete, reliable and
health, including sexual and reproductive health, detailed data about their populations, policymaking
and that enable them to complete at least their sec- will inevitably fail to have its maximum impact. Solid
ondary schooling. But most of these countries also population data can also bolster the formulation
report that they have not yet achieved what they had of targets to be included in the proposed sustain-
intended, citing economic, social, cultural, legislative able development goals, which will succeed the
and security obstacles. Millennium Development Goals in 2015. Data can
The survey data also found that countries in the offer a better understanding of the challenges young
early stages of the demographic transition are paying people are facing and inform global initiatives aimed
greater attention to creating employment oppor- not only at helping them realize their own potential
tunities for young people than to expanding access and make a safe and healthy transition from adoles-
to sexual and reproductive health information and cence to adulthood, but they can also help individual
services. About 90 per cent of the countries in this countries manage their way along the demographic
group stated they were confronting the challenge of transition and position them to capture and maxi-
creating jobs for the young, and 71 per cent reported mize a demographic dividend.
significant achievements in this regard. While creat-
ing jobs and income-earning opportunities for the
young are vital in most developing countries, they
should not, particularly at the early stages of the
demographic transition, supersede other efforts to
empower young people and to build their human
capital.

74 C H A P T E R 5 A l i gn in g p o licie s , inve stme n ts a n d the demographi c t ransi t i on

REPORTED EFFORTS AND ACHIEVEMENTS IN 21 AREAS OF THE GLOBAL
SURVEY RELATED TO ADOLESCENTS AND YOUTH AMONG 59 COUNTRIES
IN THE EARLY STAGES OF THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION

% of countries reporting that the issues are % of countries reporting a budget and % of countries reporting
addressed in policies or strategies implementation to address the issues having achieved progress

Providing social protection

Keeping more girls and and medical support for
adolescents in adolescent pregnant women
secondary schools
Incorporating sexual and
Increasing access to reproductive health and life
comprehensive sexual planning skills into young
and reproductive health people's non-formal education
for adolescents

Ensuring the same Incorporating comprehensive

rights and access to 100 sexuality education into young
sexual and people's formal education
90
reproductive health
services, including 80
Reaching out-of-school
HIV prevention 70
youth with sexual and
60 reproductive health
Ensuring equal access information and services
50
of girls to education at
all levels (primary, 40 Facilitating school
secondary, tertiary) 30 completion for
pregnant girls
20
Instituting concrete Improving the safety of
10
procedures and pupils, especially girls,
mechanisms for 0
in and on their way to
participation school

Creating employment
Collecting
opportunities for youth
disaggregated data

Improving the welfare Addressing the adverse

of the girl child, effects of poverty on
especially with regards adolescents and youth
to health, nutrition and
education
Preventing trafficking and
smuggling in persons,
Addressing violence,
particularly girls and women
exploitation and abuse

Incorporating life
Promoting age-appropriate
planning skills into
sexuality education and
young people's formal
counselling in schools
education
Ending child marriage/
forced marriage Providing training and
employment opportunities
to out-of-school girls and
illiterate adults

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 75

The formulation of a post-2015 sustainable
development framework presents an opportunity to
more deeply integrate the needs, aspirations and
potential of young people into the global strategy
for the coming 15 years.

lk
l Ka
PA/Ara
© UNF

76
CHAPTER 6

The future of
sustainable
development, with
youth at the centre
A youth of 10 in 2015 will be an adult of 25 in 2030, the target year for
achieving the next generation of sustainable development goals. Governments
aiming high today will make that young person’s future a brighter one, with
rights upheld, promises fulfilled and potential realized.

Young people are central to the next

generation of sustainable development
goals, but especially those aimed at:

Ending poverty Ensuring healthy

in all its forms lives and promoting
everywhere well-being for all

Realizing inclusive, Achieving inclusive and

equitable and sustainable economic
quality primary growth, full and
and secondary productive employment
education and decent work for all

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 77

 I
n 2000, world leaders committed to the With great progress across all goals, and with
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) some already having been met, the MDGs have
to address eight of the great development chal- been the most successful global anti-poverty push
lenges of the day: poverty and hunger, lack of in history.
access to primary school, gender inequality, child The MDGs included several targets and indi-
mortality, poor maternal and reproductive health, cators of direct relevance to young people. For
HIV and other diseases, environmental decline and example, MDG 1, to eradicate extreme hunger and
structural obstacles to countries’ rise out of poverty. poverty, included a target for achieving full and
productive employment and decent work for all,
including women and young people.
The 2015 target for achieving the MDGs is only
about a year away. Governments, international
organizations, civil society and ordinary people from
around the world are already engaged in crafting a
transformative post-2015 development agenda and
a new set of global sustainable development goals to
succeed the MDGs.
The journey towards a post-2015 development
agenda began in 2012 at a meeting of world lead-
ers and top-level stakeholders in Rio de Janeiro on
the twentieth anniversary of the Earth Summit.
The 2012 event concluded with a declaration, “The
Future We Want,” which provided a foundation
and guide for development of a strategy for achiev-
ing an economically, socially and environmentally
sustainable future for the planet for present and
future generations.
As part of this process, the General Assembly in
January 2013 established a 30-member intergov-
ernmental Open Working Group to lead the debate
about new post-2015 sustainable development
goals. As of August 2014, the Open Working Group
had proposed 17 goals and 169 targets to guide the
international community over the coming 15 years
(United Nations, 2014). With sustainable develop-
ment at the nexus, the goals cover economic, social
and environmental dimensions aimed at improving
people’s lives and protecting the planet for future
generations. The new goals and targets would also
aim to fully realize the MDG agenda.
© Mikkel Ostergaard/Panos

78 C H A P T E R 6 Th e f u tu re o f su sta in a ble d eve lo p me nt , wi t h yout h at t he cent re

 The formulation of a post-2015 sustainable devel-
opment framework presents an opportunity to more
deeply integrate the needs, aspirations and potential “I chose to study legal science
of young people into the global strategy for the because I think the first thing
coming 15 years.
to do is demand, understand
Role of youth in the post-2015 sustainable
and act upon our rights as
development agenda young people.”
The aspiration of the post-2015 sustainable devel-
opment agenda is to create a just, prosperous and Starlyn Hernandez, Dominican Republic
responsive world where all people, regardless of
their age, realize their rights and live with dignity
and hope. Eradicating poverty in all its forms, tack-
ling exclusion and inequality, and empowering the
world’s 1.8 billion young people will be instrumental as they age. Today’s youth will also shoulder the
in bringing this vision to life. responsibility for supporting the existing and
Sustainable development is development that growing population of elderly persons.
meets the needs of the present without compro- Today’s youth are also important to the future
mising the ability of future generations to meet because the majority of them are growing up in poor
their own needs. Implicit in this definition is the countries where they are facing challenges of educa-
idea that in order to meet the social and economic tion and health systems that are weak, limited access
needs of people today and in the future, there must to sexual and reproductive health and a dearth of
be continued efforts towards poverty eradication, jobs or income-earning opportunities.
human rights, and equity, as well as sustainable con- The aspirations of young people will also influence
sumption and protection of our natural resources our sustainable future. Today’s youth have higher
(UNFPA, 2010; UNICEF, 2013). expectations than the generations before them for
The largest cohort of young people in human self-direction, freedom and opportunity. The infor-
history is about to enter the workforce, and their mation age has taught them their human rights and
success will define development trajectories not only given them a broader vision of what their lives could
for sub-Saharan Africa and Central Asia, where they be (United Nations, 2014).
represent a high proportion of the population, but The declining fertility rates are providing low-
for the entire world, given our increasingly intercon- and middle-income countries with a window of
nected and globalized economies. opportunity because the proportion of the popula-
But young people are important to our sustain- tion that is of young working age is historically
able future not just because of their unprecedented high, and these cohorts can, if they are in good
numbers. Globally, fertility rates are falling. That health and assured learning and work opportuni-
means that the current generation of young people ties, jump-start economic growth and development.
will have smaller cohorts of young people to sup- Therefore, the well-being and the positive social
port them as they themselves age. And this means participation of this cohort of adolescents and
they must be able to support themselves and thrive youth hinges on the commitments of governments

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 79

 to protect their human rights, develop their Adolescents (ages 10 to 19) are at a critical stage
capabilities, secure their sexual and reproductive in the life cycle. Because puberty occurs early in
health and reproductive rights, prepare them for adolescence, social exposure begins to expand, and
productive and creative activities and reward them various pressures, including to try new things and
for their labours. to take risks, intensify throughout this life stage
Investments in human development targeting (United Nations General Assembly, 1999). Each
young people, including adolescents, are most criti- person develops agency and many begin to be
cal to ensure that they have the capabilities and leaders. During their transition from dependence
opportunities to define their futures, and to spur to independence, the choices and decisions that
the innovations needed for a sustainable future. today’s adolescents and youth make, or that they
Young people can drive economic growth for- are forced to make by others, influence whether or
ward. Investing in the health, education and safety not they are healthy and can take full advantage
of young people improves future productivity and of opportunities for education, employment and
economic returns. Furthermore, because human political participation and carry the sustainable
development is cumulative, it would be extremely development agenda forward (UNFPA, 2013).
costly—for young people and society—to reverse It is today’s young people who will face the task
missed opportunities for investing in and preparing of creating economic success and human security.
this generation for the future (World Bank, 2006). Allowing youth to take the lead will mean of course
In the case of adolescent girls and young women, ensuring they have a good education and good
the positive effects of investments go beyond labour health (Bloom, 2012).
force participation and productivity. Improvements At the heart of the post-2015 quest for sustain-
in the status of girls and women lead to better able and inclusive development is the individual
maternal health, lower child mortality, and an whose potential must be realized. The key to the
increase in reinvestment to households and agenda’s success will lie in developing the resilience
communities (UNFPA, 2013). of individuals, particularly young people.

Humanitarian youth volunteers in the Philippines. Youth workshop in Uzbekistan.

© UNFPA © UNFPA/Ulugbek Hakimov

80 C H A P T E R 6 Th e f u tu re o f su sta in a ble d eve lo p me nt , wi t h yout h at t he cent re

Guiding principles
When planning for the post-2015 sustainable
development agenda and the new sustainable ”I feel determined to pursue
development goals began, the international com- my goals, my dream. And I
munity agreed that both should be visionary,
will never give up. Nobody
transformative and inclusive and founded on the
principles of respect for human rights, equality
else will do it for me. The
and sustainability. coming world belongs to me
and young people of today, so
Human rights
we have to make it the best
Sustainable, inclusive development is possible
only where the human rights of all individu- we can.”
als, particularly young women and girls, are
Krah Kouadio Modeste, Côte d’lvoire
respected, protected, promoted and fulfilled.
The lessons of the MDGs show that a human
rights-based approach to devising, implementing
and monitoring development goals is essential Equality
both normatively and for achieving the desired The current global development model has
impacts. brought many out of poverty. However, prevail-
The post-2015 discussions and consulta- ing inequalities in income, living standards and,
tions concluded that there is a need to ensure a more generally, opportunity remain at the root
human rights-based approach to the new sus- of economic, social, environmental and political
tainable development agenda and goals, in every segmentation, with 8 per cent of the world popu-
theme and every sector and with due regard to lation accumulating 82 per cent of global wealth
national development processes and outcomes. as part of a trend of steeply rising wealth inequal-
A human rights-based approach to sustainable ity for the past 20 years.
development can provide a normative basis on When growing inequality precludes human
issues of equality and non-discrimination, qual- well-being for vast numbers of people, every part
ity of basic social services and accountability. of society is impacted. Inequality is a threat to
Sexual and reproductive health and reproduc- social cohesion, empathy and shared responsibil-
tive rights are universal human rights. They are ity because it generates and exacerbates social
an indivisible part of broader human rights. segmentation. A broadly educated, healthy, secure
The promotion and protection of sexual and and empowered population is the goal of develop-
reproductive health and reproductive rights are ment, and also necessary for inclusive economic
therefore instrumental to the achievement of growth.
other human rights, including the right to edu- The cost of inequalities on young people,
cation, the right to work, the right to food and whether in health, education or economic
the right to participation—all rights that must opportunities, is immense. They include school
be upheld for young people to realize their full dropout, lower productivity, reduced efficiencies,
potential. slower economic growth, economic instability

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 81

 support sustainable growth for all. Yet, their
contribution will only materialize if we invest
“Young people in Africa now in adolescents’ health, education and their
potential for innovation.
and the rest of the
Many young people, especially those who are
world need a favourable most disadvantaged and marginalized, are particu-
entrepreneurial larly vulnerable to environmental risks associated
ecosystem to realize with, for example, access to clean and safe drink-
ing water. Additionally, young people will have to
their full potential.”
live longer than their elders with the repercussions
of current environmental decisions. Aside from
Charlie B. Wandji, Cameroon
being subjected to environmental consequences,
young people are especially well-positioned to be
advocates, problem-solvers, and agents for envi-
ronmental change. Meaningful partnerships with
young people can raise wider awareness, create
capacity, and drive behaviour change that pro-
and weaker social cohesion. Young women and girls motes sustainable consumption and protection of
may experience the most severe forms of inequali- our natural resources (United Nations, 2003).
ties, often reflected in sexual coercion and violence,
including domestic violence, child marriage, female Proposed sustainable development goals
genital mutilation and other harmful practices that and targets
violate human rights and lead to blocked access A cornerstone of the post-2015 sustainable
to sexual and reproductive health information development agenda is a new set of sustainable
and education (including comprehensive sexual- development goals.
ity education). Inequalities in access to sexual and As of August 2014, none of the proposed
reproductive health services are enormous in the sustainable development goals makes specific refer-
poorest countries and severely affect disadvantaged ence to “youth,” “young people” or “adolescents.”
young people. And of the 169 proposed targets, only seven make
such reference.
Sustainability Judging only by the wording of the goals and
Young people are both important actors and targets, it would seem that young people, includ-
subjects in environmental sustainability. They ing adolescents, are so far mostly an afterthought,
will be the frontline in the race for the inno- despite the central role they will play in realizing a
vation needed to transform the relationship sustainable future.
between development and the environment. But even though references to young people are
Over the course of the coming 15 years and sparse, young people remain central, since few
beyond, the adolescents of today will grow to if any of the goals can be met without their full
become the engineers, scientists and entre- engagement, and virtually all of the goals impact
preneurs who can create new technologies to their lives and potential in ways large and small.

82 C H A P T E R 6 Th e f u tu re o f su sta in a ble d eve lo p me nt , wi t h yout h at t he cent re

End poverty in all its forms everywhere the labour force. Conversely, when young people are
Topping the list of proposed sustainable develop- in poor health, their range of options in life narrows.
ment goals is the ending of poverty in all its forms Poor health is one of the more common risk factors
everywhere. and manifestations of poverty, curtailing economic
Poverty eradication is an indispensable require- growth and human well-being and limiting the capa-
ment for sustainable development. bility of both individuals and societies to innovate
Millions of youth face poverty, often stemming and thrive in a changing world.
from gender discrimination, disability and other Adolescent pregnancy has lifelong consequences
forms of marginalization. Approximately 515 million on girls’ health, with girls under age 15 five times
adolescents and youth aged 15 to 24 live on less than more likely to die during childbirth than women
$2 a day (UNESCO, n.d.). Despite the alarming over 20. Complications related to pregnancy and
numbers of young people in poverty, young people childbirth, including unsafe abortions, are a
have mostly been left out of efforts
to raise living standards and incomes:
Young people are consulted in prepa-
rations of national poverty-reduction
strategies of national development plans
in only one in three countries (UNFPA,
2010). This fact is striking insofar as all
countries with rapidly growing popula-
tions of young people who are reaching
working age have the potential to realize
a demographic dividend, which can raise
per capita incomes and lift large num-
bers of people out of poverty. But this
dividend may only be realized if coun-
tries invest in the human capital of their
youth and pursue policy changes that
can result in jobs, livelihoods or other
income-earning opportunities for those
reaching working age.

Healthy lives
Proposed goal 3 calls for ensuring
healthy lives and promoting well-being
for all at all ages. Young people who
The aspiration of the post-2015 sustainable development agenda is to create a just, prosperous
are in good health, including sexual and and responsive world where all people, regardless of their age, realize their rights and live with
reproductive health, are in a better posi- dignity and hope. Eradicating poverty in all its forms, tackling exclusion and inequality, and
empowering the world’s 1.8 billion young people will be instrumental in bringing this vision to life.
tion to realize their potential and to seize Top left: © UNFPA/David Puig, top right: © UNFPA/Arlene Calaguian Alano,
opportunities as they mature and enter Bottom left: © UNFPA/ Pedro Sá da Bandeira, bottom right: © UNFPA/Aral Kalk

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 83

 leading cause of death among 15 to 19-year old girls plications, such as obstetric fistula. As many as
in low- and middle-income countries (World Health 3.5 million women live with obstetric fistula in the
Organization, 2014). developing world, and up to 65 per cent of them
Approximately 2.5 million adolescents have unsafe developed the condition as adolescents (United
abortions every year, and 14 per cent of all unsafe Nations, 2014).
abortions in low- and middle-income countries are More than 2 million adolescents between the
among adolescents between the ages of 15 and 19. ages of 10 and 19 are living with HIV or AIDS.
The health consequences of adolescent pregnancy About one seventh of all new HIV infections occur
are closely linked to long-term economic and social during adolescence (UNAIDS, 2014). Deaths due
consequences. Many girls who become pregnant to cervical cancer are on the rise and concentrated
drop out of school or are dismissed from school, in low- and middle-income countries, due to lack
drastically limiting their future opportunities, of screening and early diagnosis programmes.
including future earnings, and both their own Expanding access to good-quality sexual and repro-
health and the health of their children. ductive health services, especially for disadvantaged
For every woman who dies of pregnancy-related women, adolescents and youth, and protecting
causes, an estimated 20 others experience maternal their human rights, will dramatically reduce such
morbidity, including severe and long-lasting com- inequalities and advance inclusive social develop-
ment by empowering women, enhancing their role
in decision-making and improving their prospects
for employment and livelihoods.
Approximately two thirds of premature deaths
among adults and one third of their total disease
burden are associated with conditions or behav-
iours that began during youth. These behaviours
may include tobacco use, minimal physical activ-
ity, unprotected sex or exposure to violence.
Furthermore, each year nearly 20 per cent of youth
between the ages of 15 and 24 experience a mental
health condition, and in 2012 an estimated 1.3
million adolescents died from preventable or treat-
able diseases (World Health Organization, n.d.).
The development of young people’s human
capital depends on investments that protect and
improve their health, and goals such as poverty
eradication cannot be achieved if young people
are unable to lead healthy and productive lives.
Sustainable development, therefore, depends in part
on the health, including the sexual and reproduc-
tive health, of the world’s 1.8 billion young people
and that of future generations.
© Alfredo Caliz/Panos

84 C H A P T E R 6 Th e f u tu re o f su sta in a ble d eve lo p me nt , wi t h yout h at t he cent re

WHAT DO YOUNG PEOPLE SAY SHOULD BE A PRIORITY IN THE POST-2015
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AGENDA?

The United Nations and partner organizations sponsored a global My World poll through which about 597,000 young
people between the ages 10 and 24 ranked their priorities for the world after 2015, the target year for achieving the
Millennium Development Goals. About 65,000 of the votes were cast by youth in countries with a very high Human
Development Index rank, while about 532,000 were cast by those in countries with a low Human Development Index
score. The Human Development Index is a summary measure of average achievement in key dimensions of human
development: a long and healthy life, being knowledgeable and having a decent standard of living.

in countries with low levels of human development

in countries with high levels of human development

Ranking

A good education 1 363,637

1 37,955

2 303,941
An honest and responsive government
3 26,567

Better healthcare 3 292,821

5 22,794

Affordable and nutritious food 4 263,750

4 24,288

5 253,841
Reliable energy at home
15 7,115

6 248,836
Protection against crime and violence
6 22,517

Equality between men and women 7 204,377

8 21,424

8 177,111
Better job opportunities
10 18,345

9 171,942
Support for people who can’t work
13 8819

Phone and Internet access 10 171,397

14 8,409

11 143,440
Better transport and roads
16 5,873

142,442
Access to clean water and sanitation 12
2 26,951

Freedom from discrimination and persecution 13 137,853

7 22,140

137,846
Political freedoms 14
12 14,892

Protecting forests, rivers and oceans 15 69,337

9 20,452

16 39,275
Action taken on climate change
11 18,202

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

(thousands)
Source: [Link]

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 85

 Campaign to end adolescent pregnancy in Uganda.
© UNFPA/Martha Songa

Education GDP growth. Greater educational attainment

Sustainable development goal 4 aims for inclu- also promotes more progressive attitudes of
sive, equitable and quality primary and secondary girls and boys about gender equality (United
education. Primary school enrolment rates have Nations, 2014).
reached 90 per cent, with significant gains in Education expands opportunities for girls
parity that have particularly benefitted girls, but and young women and raises their aspirations
there is enormous variation in access and qual- for work outside the home. It enhances girls’
ity across regions and within countries. Further, social status, increases their bargaining power
secondary education remains a challenge for girls within marriage, increases their use of health
in many regions, especially in sub-Saharan Africa services and enhances the health and survival
and South and West Asia, and girls may face of their children.
gender discrimination that limits their access to Greater educational attainment also shapes
education. attitudes of both girls and boys to gender
Education increases children’s capacity to par- equality, with greater education leading to
ticipate socially, economically and politically, and more positive attitudes towards gender equal-
when girls are educated it reduces the likelihood ity among both males and females (United
of child marriage and delays childbearing, lead- Nations, 2014).
ing to healthier birth outcomes. Female literacy Comprehensive sexuality education, as part
is associated with increased use of contraception, of in- and out-of-school education, is rec-
lower fertility, healthier families and stronger ognized as an important means to empower

86 C H A P T E R 6 Th e f u tu re o f su sta in a ble d eve lo p me nt , wi t h yout h at t he cent re

young people to make responsible and autono- economies, fairer societies and stronger democra-
mous decisions about their sexual and reproductive cies. Decent work involves opportunities for work
health. Evidence also suggests that rights-based that are productive and deliver a fair income;
and gender-sensitive comprehensive sexuality provides security in the workplace and social pro-
education programmes can lead to greater gen- tection for workers and their families; offers better
der equality. The Commission on Population prospects for personal development; and empowers
and Development, in its resolutions 2009/1 and people by giving them the freedom to express their
2012/1, called on Governments to provide young concerns, to organize and to participate in deci-
people with comprehensive education on human sions that affect their lives (United Nations, 2014).
sexuality, sexual and reproductive health, and gen- Although all regions face a youth employment
der equality to enable them to deal positively and crisis, large differences exist across countries and
responsibly with their sexuality. regions. For example, youth unemployment rates
in 2012 were highest in the Middle East and North
Jobs and livelihoods Africa, at 28 per cent and 24 per cent, respectively,
Proposed goal 8 aims to promote sustained, inclu- and lowest in East Asia (10 per cent) and South
sive and sustainable economic growth, full and Asia (9 per cent). The youth unemployment rate
productive employment and decent work for all. for the developed economies and the European
Young people are especially vulnerable to macro- Union in 2012 was estimated at 18 per cent, the
economic downturns, and have borne the brunt highest level for this group of countries in the past
of the global economic crisis that began in 2008 two decades (United Nations, 2014).
and the subsequent sluggish employment recovery In many countries, the unemployment scenario
(Bloom, 2012). is further aggravated by the large numbers of young
Young people are overrepresented among those people in poor quality and low-paid employment
who are unemployed, in informal or insecure with intermittent and insecure work arrangements,
employment, and in poor quality and low-paid including in the informal economy.
jobs. Youth account for nearly 40 per cent of the Full, productive and remunerative employment
197 million people who were unemployed in 2012 along with comprehensive social protection mea-
and up to 60 per cent of young people in develop-
ing regions are not working, not in school, or are
engaged in irregular employment. YOUTH EMPLOYMENT

Creating employment opportunities for youth is

a critical challenge as 600 million productive jobs Youth account
need to be generated globally over the next decade for nearly
to reduce current unemployment levels and provide 40 per cent of
employment opportunities to the 40 million labour the 197 million 40%
market entrants each year. The challenge of provid- people who
ing decent work to young people is a concern for were unemployed
both developing and industrialized countries.
in 2012.
Achieving decent work for young people is
crucial for the progression towards wealthier

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 87

 sures are the sine qua non of attempts to eradicate represent a large portion of those affected by crises.
poverty. Ensuring decent work and income-earning Some of the factors that may leave young people
opportunities for young people is therefore integral especially vulnerable include the breakdown of
not only to the eradication of poverty but also to social and cultural systems; personal traumas such
the achievement of sustainable development. as the loss of family members; exposure to violence
and chaos; and the disruption of school and friend-
Achievement of other goals ships. Conflicts and upheaval can deny societies the
Young people are key players or intended ben- possibility of harnessing the contributions young
eficiaries of virtually every other sustainable people could make to their families, communities
development goal, even if the connection may not and nations.
be immediately obvious. Another goal, to end hunger, achieve food secu-
Goal 16, for example, aims to promote peace- rity and improve nutrition, has a youth dimension
ful societies. How do young people figure into that may not be immediately apparent. At least
the achievement of that goal? Young people often 160 million young people aged 15 to 24 are under-
nourished worldwide (United Nations, 2005). The
health of adolescent and young mothers is also sig-
nificantly linked to low birthweight babies and has
a direct influence on child mortality and malnutri-
tion (UNFPA, 2010). Nutritional status, especially
in early childhood, can enhance intellectual devel-
opment and academic success during youth and
adolescence, as well as economic status and human
capital into adulthood.
A goal to ensure availability and sustainable
management of water and sanitation for all also
has a youth dimension. Fetching water is primarily
allocated to young women and girls. In Africa and
Asia, women and girls walk, on average, six kilo-
metres daily to transport water for their families.
The long hours spent collecting water reduce the
amount of time spent on education, income gen-
eration and other productive endeavours (United
Nations et al. 2010). Young women and girls
regularly face harassment and fear sexual assault
and rape when going to the toilet, especially after
dark. (Massey, 2011). Easy access to safe, clean and
private washrooms, especially at school facilities,
can allow girls to maintain privacy and manage
menstrual hygiene, which is key to ensuring school
attendance (WaterAid, 2012).
© Commerce and Culture Agency/ Image Bank/Getty Images

88 C H A P T E R 6 Th e f u tu re o f su sta in a ble d eve lo p me nt , wi t h yout h at t he cent re

Accountability young people are able to address their aspirations
Once the sustainable development goals are and challenges and fulfil their potential will influ-
finalized, how will progress be monitored? The ence current social and economic conditions and
goals are accompanied by 169 specific targets, the well-being and livelihood of future generations
such as an increase in the number of youth and (United Nations Commission on Population and
adults who have relevant skills for employment, Development, 2012). When fully engaged, edu-
and a reduction in the number of young people cated, healthy, productive and empowered to realize
who are not in school or not employed. their full potential and enjoy their rights, young
Negotiations are still under way to assign people can help stop multigenerational poverty and
indicators to each target to enable an accurate can contribute effectively to the preservation and
assessment of progress. Indicators can also help strengthening of their communities and national
hold governments and the international commu- resources.
nity accountable to young people—and all other A meaningful future agenda for young people is
stakeholders. one that recognizes the protection of their human
Inclusion of youth in local and national poverty- rights and empowerment to ensure their well-being
reduction strategies could, for example, provide and role as citizens, expand their opportunities
insights into the extent to which governments are for social and political participation, promote
committed to ending poverty among all groups, their abilities and innovativeness to become
including the young. Measurement of progress—or entrepreneurs, and support their safe and healthy
setbacks—will therefore be critical to the success of transitions from adolescence to adulthood and
the post-2015 agenda. Ensuring young people can beyond.
be—and are—engaged in the achievement of the A young person aged 10 in 2015 will have
sustainable development goals will increase the like- become an adult of 25 in 2030, the target year for
lihood of success because they have a stake in their achieving the sustainable development goals. Those
own futures. charged with forging the post-2015 agenda would
do well to imagine what the life of that 10-year-old
From 2015 to 2030 is like now and what it could be in 2030 with the
Through the new sustainable development goals, right support.
governments and the international community
have an unprecedented but fleeting opportunity to
enrich the lives of young people and support the
development of the capabilities they will need to
expand their individual choices and shape the inno-
vative and sustainable future of the planet.
Young people in all countries have the potential
to be agents for social change, economic develop-
ment and technological innovation. Comprising
about one quarter of the world’s population, today’s
youth are tomorrow’s parents, workers, investors,
active citizens and leaders. The ways in which

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 89

The future of today's young people is the
future of the world.

nos
le/Pa
i Vita
© Am

90
CHAPTER 7

The transformation
of the future and
the case for young
people
Youth are better equipped to reach their full potential when they are
healthy and well educated, and when they have opportunities to thrive
and fulfil their aspirations. With appropriate support to achieve their
potential, defined by decisions rooted in their participation, they can be
an immense source of productivity, innovation and creative dynamism
that accelerates development.

The post-2015 agenda provides

accumulating evidence of the
IMPORTANCE OF YOUTH
to development, the growing recognition of
their rights and the proven benefits of the
demographic dividend.

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 91

 T
oday the world has the largest number of source of productivity, innovation and creative
young people in history—1.8 billion and dynamism that accelerates development.
counting. Most people alive right now Young people with jobs, for example, propel
have not yet reached age 30. flourishing economies. A voice in decisions that
On the cusp of their sexual and reproductive affect them can lead to decisions that reflect their
and economically productive lives, young people’s realities and leave them less likely to turn to alterna-
future is the world’s future. Choices to foster their tive routes for expressing themselves through, for
development and protect their rights could usher example, civil unrest. Full access to reproductive and
in enormous benefits for them and societies as a sexual health means they can make informed choices
whole—and can be made right now. about their lives and those of their families, and con-
tribute to healthier societies overall.
The development case for youth Where investments are not made in youth, nation-
Youth are better equipped to reach their full poten- al prospects are constricted, dramatically in some
tial when they are healthy and well-educated, and cases. Many of the poorest countries have the highest
when they have opportunities to thrive and fulfil numbers of young people and some of the steepest
their aspirations. With appropriate support to barriers to development. They are locked in a vicious
achieve their potential, defined by decisions rooted cycle where large numbers of young people fiercely
in their participation, they can be an immense compete for scarce resources, especially jobs. When
lacking education and health care, they may marry
while they are still children and become parents
before they are ready, undermining their transition
to a happy, stable adulthood. Gender discrimination
makes all of these issues particularly acute—even
“I would like to live in a world life-threatening—for young women.
where women have full access This cycle is not unbreakable. But it continues
to spin unless plans, policies and other instruments
to the health services and
of development, from conceptualization through
human rights they need to have implementation, take young people into account.
control over their sexual and They should recognize that development is not
reproductive lives. I would like age-neutral, and that demography matters. In many
societies, however, youth are assumed to face the
this world to be available to men same issues as older adults—or are viewed as second-
too, which would require men to ary citizens, subordinate to adult priorities, who will
work towards gender equality and earn their turn later on.
The result is that young people often end up
support women in their sexual and
overlooked and shortchanged, even as they lack the
reproductive health choices.” economic or political clout to advocate their issues.
The consequences are felt most immediately by
Lindsay Menard-Freeman, United States
youth, but extend through societies at large, particu-
larly those that are largely young.

92 C H A P T E R 7 Th e tra n s fo rma tio n o f th e f u tu re a n d t he case for young peopl e

 The world can look to some recent hopeful tion, as occur, for example, when laws allow forced
successes in reversing this tendency. While com- marriages between adolescent girls and male adults
plications from pregnancy and childbirth are the or fail to protect against gender-based violence.
second leading killer of young women aged 15 to There needs to be broader, clearer understanding
19, deaths have significantly declined since 2000, of youth as equal rights holders, and of the specific
when, spurred by the Millennium Development shortfalls they may face as people of a particular
Goals, health ministries ramped up actions to age. Also critical is to recognize that these may vary
reduce rates using basic, proven interventions. across diverse groups of youth—defined by param-
The rate fell across Africa by 37 per cent, for eters such as gender ethnicity, location, income
example, even though it still has the largest number group, and specific age—where for a variety of rea-
of poor, youthful countries. This was a case of the sons some enjoy their rights to a greater degree than
right priorities, backed by the right policies and others. Expanded awareness would help shift social
investments. norms, which could lead to the better alignment of
Most-likely scenarios suggest that within the laws and legal practices with human rights norms,
next few years or decades, the numbers of young and the fulfilment of commitments that have been
people will peak. Investing now in meeting their made.
rights and needs has the added value of locking Youth, both female and male, need to be wel-
in progress, as they develop capabilities and find comed as full partners in claiming their rights, from
opportunities that improve their lives and can be sitting at tables where these are defined to taking
passed to future generations. Investing now also part in legislative processes, making proposals for
builds the resilience they will likely need in the service provision and beyond. Their participation is
face of accelerating climate change, and its poten- a right in itself. And it is an avenue for empowering
tially major consequences for the environment and them to navigate the transition to adulthood as full
human well-being. citizens who uphold fair, well-functioning societies.

The rights case: commitments include Unleash youth potential

youth too Countries that choose to invest in youth have many
The development case for youth is inextricably options, some of which may be more appropriate
linked with a rights rationale. Universal human than others, depending on national context. This
rights to health and education, for example, are report outlines a few broad categories that may be
codified in an array of international agreements most relevant, stressing that these and the issues
signed by the vast majority of countries and in under them are interlinked and should be under-
many cases translated into national laws, with an stood in connection to each other.
accompanying obligation to uphold them.
In principle, universal rights do not break down Build capability—starting with youth
by age or other categories, where they apply more Investing in human capability is essential for sustain-
to some groups than others. In practice, however, able, resilient national development, and it needs to
youth suffer from many egregious violations. begin with youth. Capabilities in many ways define
Some relate to social norms that treat youth as less what people can be and do, and determine whether
important; others relate to breaks in legal protec- or not they can lead lives that they value. Youth with

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 93

 the right capabilities, because they are educated and and healthy, and full of hope and inspiration to bet-
healthy, in particular, set in motion a long chain of ter the world. Yet their abilities fall flat—as do the
choices and opportunities that can carry them skill- public and family investments in them—if youth
fully through their lives, shape the broader progress cannot find meaningful jobs, start businesses, enjoy
of their society, and even determine the well-being of legal protections, or know that political and social
the next generation. institutions will respond to their concerns.
Many countries still underinvest in youth capa- Decent work is a particular problem, given a
bilities. Further, much of the focus has been on global crisis of worsening youth unemployment.
education, even though knowledge learned in school Young people with jobs are more empowered and
may not be sufficient for young people to transition protected. They have better prospects for healthy
into successful adult lives. Young people also need families. They contribute to prosperous economies,
to be healthy, with sexual and reproductive health and fair and stable societies. But as the high youth
an integral aspect. They require skills most relevant unemployment rates explicitly underscore, barri-
to competing in the labour market and grasping ers to a productive work life can be steep for young
the opportunities of a high-tech world. Capabilities people.
come as well through the protection of the full spec- Those of particular concern include mismatches
trum of human rights, and through participation between the skills that young people have and those
in society, especially on decisions that affect young demanded by employers, a lack of labour market
people directly. information, and poor access to financial and other
Some barriers to capabilities among youth that business services. Gender discrimination throws up
deserve priority attention include child marriage, additional obstacles for young women, even in coun-
sexual and gender-based violence and gender dis- tries where their educational achievements surpass
crimination. Improving the education of girls helps those of young men. Young people have rarely been
more stay in school and empowers them to make invited into discussions on how these issues could be
choices about their lives. Universal access to quality, resolved, or what interventions have proven success-
comprehensive reproductive and sexual health infor- ful and should be expanded.
mation and services allows all women to exercise In general, labour policies need to recognize and
their reproductive rights, which can lead to fertility respond to the specific concerns of youth, grounded
declines and better maternal health. Further, more in the understanding that this can make a major
women participate in the labour force and contrib- contribution to national development and social sta-
ute to economic growth, and the life chances of their bility. They need to link to macroeconomic policies
children improve. Family planning, as a single inter- to ensure that while economies grow, so do good
vention, may be one of the most effective ways to job options for young people. Policymakers also
accelerate the accumulation of human capital. can consider how economic structures can operate
to trap young people in situations of poverty and
Create an environment where youth can flourish inequality, as when an anaemic manufacturing sec-
Capabilities are grounded in individuals. Once capa- tor reduces avenues for rural young people to leave
bilities have been provided, making full use of them subsistence agriculture and find better-paying jobs.
depends on individual choices, but also the sur- Social protection programmes can cushion risks,
rounding environment. Youth may be well-educated reduce disparities and fairly ensure that no one, at

94 C H A P T E R 7 Th e tra n s fo rma tio n o f th e f u tu re a n d t he case for young peopl e

any point in life, falls below a minimum standard
of living.

Prioritize science, technology and innovation

In 2013, more than 2.7 billion people used the
Internet, and 2.1 billion had mobile phone sub-
scriptions. The penetration of technology is such
that it can now be considered fundamental to many
basic dimensions of human well-being—improved
delivery of health and education services, more
accountable governance, and an array of economic
benefits, from the creation of jobs to the planting
of climate-resilient crops (Yousef et al., 2014).
Today’s youth were born into a technological
world. Opening every opportunity for them to
make the most of it can lead to more competi-
tive, diverse and productive economies, and more
connected and inclusive societies (Mhenni, et al.,
2014).
Many issues are involved. Access to technol-
ogy has improved as costs have fallen, but some © Sven Torfinn/Panos
countries face the more basic problem of adequate
electricity. Public access points for technology can
be one option for beginning to address this gap open-source technologies can capitalize on existing
(United Nations Economic and Social Council, research and development. Innovation “ecosystems”
2013). Once technology is available, young people such as science and technology parks can be linked
need digital literacy or e-skills, which encompass in a national system of innovation, supported by
not just using devices, but also being equipped public policy, and with the engagement of both pub-
to think critically, communicate and collaborate. lic and private concerns (Mhenni, 2014). Market
Abilities to manage risk and act with an entrepre- research can probe opportunities, such as in mobile
neurial spirit are also relevant. Education systems, applications, that over time can help shift countries
at all levels, and including both formal and infor- from technology consumers to producers.
mal avenues, need to help young people acquire In all of these areas, specific strategies can galva-
these skills. nize the talents of youth, with a special emphasis
While these capabilities will help some youth on young women, since gender stereotypes may
with the critical problem of unemployment, discourage them from careers in science and tech-
including in the essential transition from infor- nology. Options include mentoring, scholarships,
mal to formal jobs, attention also needs to go to access to finance and gender-neutral hiring practices,
an environment that fosters new opportunities in among many others (United Nations Economic and
science, technology and innovation. Encouraging Social Council, 2013).

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 95

 Keep the promises is the case with the high cost of the HPV vaccine.
The ICPD Beyond 2014 Global Survey conducted This makes it inaccessible for hundreds of millions
by UNFPA in 2012 found that 80 per cent of coun- of girls in developing countries, despite a World
tries have at least some type of policy focused on Health Organization recommendation that it be
youth. Around two-thirds have youth programmes given to all between the ages of 9 and 13.
or youth strategies. These are positive steps forward,
joining other polices in health, education and so on Mobilize political will
that specifically benefit young people. Political will is one of the most important ingre-
Across the broader framework of laws, policies dients in shaping a better future for youth. It can
and regulations, however, most countries fall short take multiple forms, from leaders highlighting the
of the commitments they have made to the rights essential role of youth in national development,
of young people in international agreements. These to adequate budgetary allocations for youth pro-
gaps need to be filled, and then implementation grammes, to legislative changes that better protect
and measurement of impact taken seriously, towards the rights of youth, to a high visibility of youth and
improvement of youth well-being and the full pro- youth issues in political campaigns.
tection of their rights. The success of all policies, But political will is also subject to ideas about
programmes and strategies is premised in part on youth that may be prevalent across a society, some of
whether or not young people were involved in their which lead to marginalization. Political figures aware
formulation, and have roles in making decisions on of the importance of youth can exercise leadership by
implementation. beginning to question these norms. They can stress
As an example of the implementation gap, the civic value of youth participation, and avoid the
although many countries have comprehensive sexu- tendency to mobilize youth for elections and then
ality education policies, on the ground, there is drop engagement in the aftermath. They can reach
wide variance in terms of whether or not schools are out to different groups of youth, including those at
actually teaching it. Further, the millions of young younger and older stages, recognizing that these may
people who are out of school will not benefit, even offer distinct and valuable perspectives.
as they are often at highest risk of the consequences In many countries, youth themselves may not be
of missing out. Comprehensive knowledge about seen as a political constituency worthy of notice. But
HIV is still low for young men and even more youth movements around the world have demon-
so for young women, yet HIV deaths are increas- strated how powerful they can be, including through
ing among adolescents, in contrast to all other age the creative use of new technology, in coming
groups. Another case of implementation that starts together to make their voices heard.
but does not go far enough is when countries invest
in preventing adolescent pregnancy, but do little to Question assumptions
support girls who do become pregnant and/or have The way a society thinks about youth has a major
a child. In general, far too little has been done to impact on how youth are treated and their prospects
understand and respond to the needs and rights of in life. Some norms celebrate the unique value of
very young adolescents aged 10 to 14. young people. But others are discriminatory and
Implementation also needs to be considered in damaging. They can be reflected in formal institu-
terms of issues that transcend national borders, as tions, as when laws fail to uphold youth rights, or

96 C H A P T E R 7 Th e tra n s fo rma tio n o f th e f u tu re a n d t he case for young peopl e

policies ignore youth as a population group requir- Adults can take up the task of questioning
ing specific attention. They appear in reproductive assumptions about youth, both individually and
and sexual health care if youth cannot access a full through institutions, as can young people them-
complement of services to realize their rights, such as selves. With a basic knowledge of their rights, and
contraception because they are not married. the keen sense of justice and fairness felt by many
Norms affecting youth operate more informally as youth, they can point to the most harmful norms,
well. This occurs, for instance, when parents decide and engage parents, teachers, peers, employers and
not to send their daughters to school, or employers others in understanding how these undercut their
decline to hire qualified young women. prospects, and could shift in favour of more positive,
Norms often seem to make sense in a particular supportive attitudes.
context, in part because they may have been operat-
ing for a long time and the majority of people agree Recognize and rectify inequities
on them. But in many cases, they stand in the way While this report frequently talks about youth as
of rights and development, and the full potential a group, they are as far from being a monolith as
of youth will never be realized without questioning humanity itself. Youth face a variety of opportunities
them. Assumptions that young adolescents are not and constraints, depending on age, gender, ethnicity,
sexually active, for instance, and therefore do not sexual orientation, location and many other param-
require sexual and reproductive health information eters. Even within the group of people between the
and services, open doors to early pregnancy and the ages of 10 and 24, issues vary significantly among
many consequences that stem from it, in addition younger and older adolescents, and young adults.
to failing to acknowledge realities such as sexual Not enough is even known at this point about very
violence. young adolescents, between the ages of 10 and 14,

© Cristina Garcia Rodero/Magnum Photos

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 97

 youth involved because they respond more closely to
youth realities.
"Live your best life now, do Young people do not always take advantage of
your best work today and options for participation. They vote at lower rates
than in the past, and in many cases, voting is their
let your voice be heard on
main avenue for political expression. This may be
matters you are passionate due to a variety of factors, including the feeling that
about." mainstream institutions dominated by adults do not
reflect their interests, or a deep-seated pessimism
Adebayo Alonge, Nigeria about prospects for making a difference.
In the United Nations MyWorld survey conducted
in 2013 and 2014, with over 2 million participants
around the world, youth in countries with low and
beyond the fact that there are substantial gaps in high development unequivocally dubbed honest
protection, as happens when girls in that group are and responsive government as among their priori-
married and/or pregnant. ties, even above health care and nutritious food.
Broader social inequities are reflected among Decision-making, with its multiple impacts on their
youth, and may have a greater impact on them in lives, is clearly important to them.
many cases, because they are less prepared to coun- The explosive growth of social media among youth
teract them. Inequalities have deepened between shows that they will engage and put forward their
the richest and poorest in many countries, making own ideas, perhaps where they consider forums more
it more difficult for those at the bottom to improve dynamic and open to change. At the 2013 Youth
their lives. Youth in the poorest population seg- Forum at the United Nations Economic and Social
ments will likely end up with the wrong education, Council, youth discussed how social media is more
the wrong health care, the wrong skills to navigate compelling for young people today than other types
employment, and the wrong start in life, condemn- of social movements. They called for increasing
ing them to lives no better than those of their access for youth in order to better engage them in the
parents. development process, particularly given the large por-
Public policies and programmes need to take tion of youth in many developing countries (United
youth diversities and disparities on board, develop- Nations Economic and Social Council, 2013).
ing strategies to unblock bottlenecks to progress, There are roles for both adults and youth in
making deliberate efforts to identify and reach broadening opportunities for youth participa-
young people who are otherwise overlooked, and in tion. Adults need to provide new opportunities,
general living up to the principle of equity, which is while ensuring that these are respectful and take
inherent in human rights. youth concerns seriously—including by acting on
them. Youth can encourage each other to get more
Youth must be part of shaping their own destiny involved, and better equip themselves for participa-
Youth have a right to participate in decisions that tion through, for example, honing advocacy skills.
affect them. From a more instrumentalist perspec- They can call on youth organizations to be well run
tive, those decisions may end up being better with and effective.

98 C H A P T E R 7 Th e tra n s fo rma tio n o f th e f u tu re a n d t he case for young peopl e

Seize the demographic dividend There are some generally applicable truths, how-
The period of demographic transition between high ever. One is that demographic trends respond to
fertility and mortality rates and low ones will happen policy choices that can be embedded in good devel-
at some point in virtually every country. But only opment planning. A second is that demographic
those that make the appropriate choices and invest- issues matter to everyone, in light of potential
ments will reap a demographic dividend, taking full dividends. They are a common cause for national
advantage of the point where there are fewer depen- political figures, finance officials, businesses, tradi-
dents and more people in their productive years. tional leaders, community groups and more. All of
These countries will ensure that young people can be these can make the case for investing in youth and
most productive because they have both capabilities act on this understanding themselves.
and opportunities, including sound health care, rel-
evant education and employment choices, and their Managing before, during and after
rights are consistently protected. While recognizing diverse national situations, this
The potential benefits are great, even beyond report offers some general guidelines about the
the fact that investing in young people is the right types of policies that may be relevant at different
course of action for any society. They include greater stages of demographic transition. At the beginning,
economic productivity, more resources for better where fertility and mortality are still high, some of
quality infrastructure and services as fertility rates the most important investments can be made in
decline, increased political stability and transmission infant and child survival, with interventions such
of achievements to coming generations. as safe water and sanitation, adequate nutrition and
By contrast, shortsighted thinking that fails to rec- immunization.
ognize and grasp these benefits will result in the loss As more children survive, larger numbers of peo-
of an already-closing window of opportunity offered ple may see the advantages of smaller families. While
by the next generation. The current waste of human earlier interventions for survival are sustained, addi-
potential that young people experience, given the tional emphasis on reproductive and sexual health
lack of protection, respect and targeted investments care supports family planning, including through the
in them, is unconscionable in the best of times. At a provision of contraception, counselling and other
moment of increasingly scarce resources, with numer- services.
ous and growing threats from conflict, climate and When fertility and mortality rates decline to a
diseases, it is beyond comprehension. point where there are fewer dependents and more
people in their productive years, the dividend has
One size does not fit all begun and economies can take off. Basic services
How a country can best manage its demographic for health and education need to be sustained, but
transition and achieve a demographic dividend fewer people require them. Resources once required
depends on its own context. This encompasses his- in these areas can be redirected into economic
torical, political and cultural factors, as well as where investments to spur productivity, build human and
it stands in terms of trends in fertility and mortality. physical capital, and pursue innovation.
Rates may both be high, or declining, or one may be Once the dividend begins, policymakers need to
high but not the other. Policy and investment choices understand how to maximize its benefits, putting the
have to hew closely to these realities. country on a permanent trajectory of lower poverty

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 99

 al levels, which may require improving systems for
civil registration and vital statistics to secure accurate
information, including where it needs to be broken
down by different age segments among youth, and
diverse groups (UNICEF, 2013). The process as a
whole should never lose sight of those who are most
excluded and furthest behind, because the full demo-
graphic dividend cannot be realized without them.
Improvements in data collection could begin with
Demographic and Health Surveys collecting much
more comprehensive and age-disaggregated informa-
© UNFPA/Camila Rodrigo tion about youth, including adolescents, that provide
insights into their sexual and reproductive health
and reproductive rights. Computer-based survey
rates and higher standards of living. The right bal- instruments are increasingly an option to protect pri-
ance of policies is essential. This can entail managing vacy for sensitive tasks such as exploring relationship
the imperatives of economic growth, the quality of histories.
that growth in terms of how equitably its benefits Major data gaps on adolescents urgently need to
extend, the sustainable use of resources and protec- be closed, with priorities encompassing the young-
tion of human rights. est age bracket, unmarried mothers and those living
This stage can also warrant a look ahead to what with HIV. Even though boys comprise half of ado-
happens after the dividend. Countries that have lescents, the paucity of statistics on issues specific to
passed through the demographic transition may face them limits understanding of vital concerns such as
new challenges from a high portion of older people. gendered patterns in contraceptive use that could
Health care burdens may be significant, yet threat- inform more targeted pregnancy prevention (World
ened by limited resources, since fewer economically Health Organization, 2014a).
active people are in the population. Elderly voters
may pull political choices towards their concerns, Planning across the life cycle
potentially resulting in the neglect of younger People have different opportunities and needs at
groups, or even setbacks in youth well-being. While various points of the life cycle. This may be obvious
these issues may be far in the future for many coun- in everyday life, but it is not consistently reflected
tries, some current experiences show the value of in public policymaking. A life-cycle approach looks
anticipating them and striving, over time, for a across generations to consider equitable and effective
point of intergenerational balance. ways of apportioning resources and fulfilling rights.
It could consider questions of balance across
Staying on top of change generations, including in relation to potential
Across all stages of demographic transition, policies demographic dividends. If policy choices, for exam-
and planning need to be dynamic, based on regular ple, result in too few young people in a nation, in
assessments of the issues at stake. Analysis should proportion to the whole population, there is a risk
account for variations at the national and subnation- of declines in economic productivity and a struggle

100 C H A P T E R 7 Th e tra n s fo rma tio n o f th e f u tu re a n d t he case for young peopl e

to support the elderly. Too many young people, Adopt youth-specific targets—including at the
and countries may strain to meet their needs for national level
education, employment, health care and so on. Agreement on new international targets specific to
Investments in training and employability across youth will keep them visible and sustain focused
lifetimes, social protection measures for downturns action, including on priority issues such as education,
and routine access to high-quality health care at health and employment. Where possible, these
different stages of life are among the key factors should reflect some of the variances in youth of
that help avoid either extreme. different ages, with one particular priority being great-
er attention to defining and responding to
Put youth at the centre of the young adolescents.
post-2015 agenda Once the targets are agreed, all countries should
The post-2015 agenda offers an unprecedented work to achieve them. At the same time, countries
opportunity to build on the achievements of the can elaborate additional targets that may reflect
Millennium Development Goals, and the accu- national or subnational realities, including disparities
mulating evidence of the importance of youth to among groups of youth, or are even more ambitious
development, the growing recognition of their in scope. This process should operate within the
rights and the proven benefits of the demographic agreed post-2015 framework, linking to the overarch-
dividend. ing goals, and can build on successes with similar
experiences with the Millennium Development Goals.
All issues relate to young people As appropriate, it can involve both national and inter-
To be most effective and fair, the post-2015 agenda national partners, so that their efforts can be aligned
needs to consider the needs and rights of youth accordingly. Across all efforts towards implementation,
in all issues under the three pillars of sustainable youth should be encouraged to participate, to play
development: social, economic and environment. leadership roles and to provide inputs that become the
All agreed goals and targets, whether or not specific basis for action.
mention is made of “young people,” can be looked
at in terms of opportunities and constraints for Financing that pays off
them, and in light of prospects for enhancing the A full complement of domestic and international pub-
demographic dividend. As often as appropriate, lic and private resources will be needed to fund the
goals and targets need to be tailored to the rights post-2015 agenda. This report has repeatedly under-
and needs of diverse groups of youth, including scored the rationale for choosing to direct significant
young women and men, and those in distinct age sums to youth, where the returns can multiply many
brackets, from early adolescence to adulthood. times over, and in fact can be key to unlocking much
In both national planning and appropriate forms faster and more sustainable development.
of international support, the goals and targets National ministries of finance, development banks,
need to be viewed as interdependent and mutu- bilateral and multilateral development agencies and
ally reinforcing. Given the multiple dimensions of even businesses should consider the experiences of
empowering youth at the start of their lives, this countries that have reaped the demographic dividend,
may be more the case for them than any other and commit to what might be one of the smartest—
population group. and rightest—investments around: youth.

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 101

 #SHOWYOURSELFIE—A PETITION TO WORLD LEADERS TO SAY “YOUTH MATTER”

Today's young people are a powerful force, both indi- quality health care, access to contraception,
vidually and collectively. But millions of today's youth comprehensive sexuality education, protection
have been failed by the world, lack access to basic from violence and harmful practices and
rights, and don't have a genuine chance to reach their participation in decision-making.
potential in life.
The campaign seeks to mobilize millions of young
In some countries girls are more likely to die in child- people and their supporters to tell decision makers
birth than they are to finish school, and an estimated across the world that young people must be at the
one in three girls is married before the age of 18, some centre of plans that will shape our future. It asks
as young as eight. More than 500 million young peo- them to do this by taking a selfie and sharing it
ple live on less than $2 a day, and nearly 175 million of with the campaign.
them in poor countries cannot read a full sentence.
Each selfie is a visual signature that shows the person
On International Youth Day 2014, UNFPA and pictured believes in the power of the world's 1.8 billion
Global Citizen launched #showyourselfie, a global young people. Thousands and thousands of photo-
petition campaign to urge world leaders to prioritize graphs, from all corners of the globe, will send a clear
the needs and rights of young people in the agenda message to leaders that it's time to put young people
for international development once the Millennium in the spotlight.
Development Goals expire in 2015. Needs and rights
include education, employment skills The visual petition will be delivered to
and opportunities, world leaders in September 2015 during
the UN General Assembly. If you support
the cause please can you—and everyone
you know who shares this belief—
#showyourselfie for youth!

[Link]

PA
© UNF

102 C H A P T E R 7 Th e tra n s fo rma tio n o f th e f u tu re a n d t he case for young peopl e

Indicators

Monitoring ICPD goals: selected indicators page 104

Demographic indicators page 110

Notes page 116

THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 201 4 103

Monitoring ICPD Goals – Selected Indicators
Monitoring ICPD goals:
selected indicators

Sexual and Reproductive

Maternal and Newborn Health Education
Health
Country, Maternal Births Adolescent Contraceptive Contraceptive Proportion Adjusted primary Gender Secondary school Gender
mortality ratio attended by birth rate per prevalence prevalence of demand
territory or
school enrolment, net parity index, enrolment, net parity index,
(deaths per skilled health 1,000 women rate, women rate, women satisfied, per cent of primary primary per cent of secondary secondary
100,000 live personnel, aged 15-19, aged 15-49, aged 15-49, women aged school-age children, education, school-age children, education,
other area births)a, per centb, 1999-2012 any method†, modern 15-49†, 2014 1999-2013 1999-2013 2000-2013 2000-2013
2013 2006-2013 2014 method†, 2014 male female male female

Afghanistan 400 36 90 x 28 23 51 – – – 39 14 0.37

Albania 21 99 12 66 18 83 93 90 0.96 66 64 0.96

Algeria 89 95 4 64 56 84 98 96 0.98 – – –

Angola 460 49 x 188 18 12 38 97 74 0.77 15 12 0.81

Antigua and Barbuda – 100 x 67 63 60 82 87 84 0.97 72 85 1.18

Argentina 69 99 70 70 64 87 100 99 0.99 81 89 1.09

Armenia 29 100 28 59 29 81 89 98 1.10 76 91 1.19

Aruba – – 42 – – – 94 98 1.04 73 81 1.10

Australia 6 99 y 15 69 66 87 97 97 1.01 85 86 1.01

Austria 4 99 y 9 68 65 87 – – – – – –

Azerbaijan 26 100 x 47 56 21 80 90 88 0.98 88 86 0.98

Bahamas 37 99 x 40 67 65 85 94 99 1.06 80 86 1.07

Bahrain 22 100 x 14 66 43 85 100 98 0.99 84 87 1.04

Bangladesh 170 31 128 63 54 83 94 98 1.05 44 51 1.16

Barbados 52 100 x 49 64 61 83 97 97 0.99 84 96 1.15

Belarus 1 100 x 21 68 58 87 94 94 1.00 95 96 1.00

Belgium 6 99 9 69 67 88 99 99 1.00 87 84 0.97

Belize 45 95 93 58 53 77 98 100 1.01 70 75 1.06

Benin 340 84 98 16 10 35 100 88 0.88 25 12 0.47

Bhutan 120 58 59 67 66 86 90 93 1.03 53 61 1.15

Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 200 71 89 62 40 77 87 87 1.00 68 69 1.02

Bosnia and Herzegovina 8 100 14 48 16 73 – – – – – –

Botswana 170 99 x 51 56 54 76 83 85 1.01 56 65 1.16

Brazil 69 99 y 65 x 79 75 91 – – – – – –

Brunei Darussalam 27 100 x 17 – – – 96 95 0.99 94 95 1.01

Bulgaria 5 100 x 42 67 47 83 96 97 1.00 86 84 0.98

Burkina Faso 400 67 136 19 18 43 68 65 0.95 22 18 0.83

Burundi 740 60 65 27 22 47 94 94 1.00 20 17 0.87

Cambodia 170 71 30 x 56 41 78 100 97 0.97 40 36 0.92

Cameroon, Republic of 590 64 x 128 28 17 56 97 86 0.88 – – –

Canada 11 98 y 14 73 71 90 100 100 1.00 – – –

Cape Verde 53 99 92 62 58 80 99 96 0.97 64 74 1.15

Central African Republic 880 40 229 23 12 49 81 64 0.79 18 10 0.52

Chad 980 17 203 6 3 20 72 56 0.77 16 5 0.33

Chile 22 100 y 52 65 61 83 93 93 1.00 82 86 1.04

China 32 96 y 6 84 83 96 – – – – – –

China, Hong Kong SAR – – 4 80 75 94 99 98 0.99 81 81 1.00

China, Macao SAR – – 3 – – – 87 87 1.00 77 80 1.04

Colombia 83 99 85 78 72 90 87 86 1.00 71 77 1.08

104 I NDII NDI CATORS

CATORS
 Monitoring ICPD goals: selected indicators
Sexual and Reproductive
Maternal and Newborn Health Education
Health
Maternal Births Adolescent Contraceptive Contraceptive Proportion Adjusted primary Gender Secondary school Gender
mortality ratio attended by birth rate per prevalence prevalence of demand school enrolment, net parity index, enrolment, net parity index,
(deaths per skilled health 1,000 women rate, women rate, women satisfied, per cent of primary primary per cent of secondary secondary
100,000 live personnel, aged 15-19, aged 15-49, aged 15-49, women aged school-age children, education, school-age children, education,
Country, territory births)a, per centb, 1999-2012 any method†, modern 15-49†, 2014 1999-2013 1999-2013 2000-2013 2000-2013
or other area 2013 2006-2013 2014 method†, 2014 male female male female
Comoros 350 82 70 23 16 41 86 80 0.93 – – –

Congo, Democratic Republic of the 730 80 135 23 8 46 37 35 0.95 – – –

Congo, Republic of the 410 90 147 47 22 72 88 96 1.09 – – –

Costa Rica 38 99 67 79 76 93 92 93 1.01 71 75 1.07

Côte d’Ivoire 720 57 125 20 14 45 67 56 0.84 – – –

Croatia 13 100 12 66 43 85 98 100 1.02 92 95 1.03

Cuba 80 100 y 54 74 72 89 96 97 1.00 86 87 1.01

Curaçao – – – – – – – – – – – –

Cyprus 10 97 y 4x – – – 98 98 1.00 91 93 1.02

Czech Republic 5 100 y 11 80 71 93 – – – – – –

Denmark 5 98 y 5 71 66 88 98 99 1.01 90 92 1.02

Djibouti 230 78 21 22 21 42 62 55 0.89 29 21 0.72

Dominica – 100 x 47 63 60 82 95 97 1.03 79 88 1.11

Dominican Republic 100 95 96 72 70 87 90 88 0.98 58 66 1.15

Ecuador 87 91 100 73 61 89 96 98 1.02 73 75 1.03

Egypt 45 79 50 63 60 85 100 97 0.97 83 82 1.00

El Salvador 69 85 y 63 71 64 86 95 95 1.00 61 62 1.03

Equatorial Guinea 290 68 128 15 10 32 62 62 0.99 25 19 0.77

Eritrea 380 – 85 19 15 40 36 32 0.88 28 23 0.82

Estonia 11 99 y 16 65 59 84 96 97 1.01 90 91 1.01

Ethiopia 420 10 87 34 33 56 72 66 0.91 18 11 0.61

Fiji 59 100 x 31 50 44 73 98 100 1.02 79 88 1.11

Finland 4 100 y 8 74 72 90 99 99 1.00 92 93 1.01

France 9 97 y 9 75 72 92 98 99 1.01 96 98 1.02

French Guiana – – 84 x – – – – – – – – –

French Polynesia – – 41 – – – – – – – – –

Gabon 240 89 x 115 34 21 57 – – – – – –

Gambia 430 57 88 11 9 27 71 76 1.07 – – –

Georgia 41 100 40 51 36 75 98 99 1.01 84 80 0.95

Germany 7 98 y 8 67 62 86 99 100 1.01 – – –

Ghana 380 67 70 22 20 38 87 88 1.00 53 50 0.95

Greece 5 – 10 69 46 87 99 100 1.01 99 99 1.00

Grenada 23 100 x 53 64 60 82 96 99 1.04 77 77 1.01

Guadeloupe – – 21 58 51 78 – – – – – –

Guam – – 60 54 45 76 – – – – – –

Guatemala 140 51 92 56 47 76 96 95 0.99 48 45 0.92

Guinea 650 45 x 154 7 4 22 81 70 0.86 37 23 0.63

Guinea-Bissau 560 43 137 16 12 42 73 69 0.95 11 6 0.56

Guyana 250 87 97 44 43 62 70 80 1.14 86 100 1.16

Haiti 380 37 65 37 33 52 – – – – – –

Honduras 120 83 99 73 64 87 93 95 1.02 – – –

Hungary 14 99 x 18 75 68 90 96 97 1.00 92 92 0.99

Iceland 4 – 11 – – – 98 99 1.01 88 89 1.01

T HE STAT E OF WORL D POPU L AT ION 2 0 1 4 105

Monitoring
Monitoring ICPD
ICPD Goals
goals: –selected
Selectedindicators
Indicators

Sexual and Reproductive

Maternal and Newborn Health Education
Health
Maternal Births Adolescent Contraceptive Contraceptive Proportion Adjusted primary Gender Secondary school Gender
mortality ratio attended by birth rate per prevalence prevalence of demand school enrolment, net parity index, enrolment, net parity index,
(deaths per skilled health 1,000 women rate, women rate, women satisfied, per cent of primary primary per cent of secondary secondary
100,000 live personnel, aged 15-19, aged 15-49, aged 15-49, women aged school-age children, education, school-age children, education,
Country, territory births)a, per centb, 1999-2012 any method†, modern 15-49†, 2014 1999-2013 1999-2013 2000-2013 2000-2013
or other area 2013 2006-2013 2014 method†, 2014 male female male female
India 190 67 y 39 59 52 82 92 89 0.97 – – –

Indonesia 190 83 x 47 62 59 84 95 96 1.01 75 77 1.04

Iran (Islamic Republic of) 23 – 23 77 59 92 98 96 0.98 84 79 0.95

Iraq 67 91 68 54 37 78 97 86 0.89 49 40 0.81

Ireland 9 100 y 14 67 63 86 100 100 1.00 99 100 1.01

Israel 2 – 13 x 71 53 89 97 97 1.01 97 100 1.03

Italy 4 100 y 7 66 49 85 99 99 0.99 91 92 1.01

Jamaica 80 96 x 72 72 68 88 92 91 1.00 72 76 1.05

Japan 6 100 y 5x 56 50 78 – – – 99 100 1.01

Jordan 50 100 27 62 42 84 98 96 0.98 86 89 1.03

Kazakhstan 26 100 31 56 52 78 98 100 1.02 87 86 0.99

Kenya 400 44 106 51 45 70 82 83 1.01 52 48 0.94

Kiribati 130 98 x 49 27 22 50 – – – 66 73 1.11

Korea, Democratic People’s

Republic of 87 100 1 70 63 87 – – – – – –

Korea, Republic of 27 100 y 2 79 69 93 100 99 0.99 96 96 0.99

Kuwait 14 99 y 9 57 45 78 99 98 0.99 86 88 1.03

Kyrgyzstan 75 99 41 40 37 70 99 98 0.99 81 80 0.99

Lao People’s Democratic Republic 220 40 94 53 45 74 97 95 0.98 43 40 0.92

Latvia 13 99 y 19 68 59 85 98 99 1.01 83 84 1.02

Lebanon 16 – 18 63 40 83 99 93 0.94 67 68 1.00

Lesotho 490 62 92 52 51 71 80 84 1.04 26 41 1.57

Liberia 640 61 149 20 19 37 42 40 0.95 – – –

Libya 15 100 y 4 48 28 70 – – – – – –

Lithuania 11 – 15 63 52 83 98 98 1.00 97 96 0.99

Luxembourg 11 100 y 7 – – – 94 96 1.02 85 88 1.04

Madagascar 440 44 147 45 35 70 77 78 1.00 31 31 1.01

Malawi 510 71 157 50 47 68 90 97 1.07 30 29 0.95

Malaysia 29 99 x 13 57 41 78 98 95 0.96 67 66 0.98

Maldives 31 99 16 41 33 61 95 94 0.99 46 53 1.14

Mali 550 58 172 12 11 29 78 68 0.88 40 28 0.71

Malta 9 100 y 17 x 81 60 94 95 95 1.00 80 84 1.05

Martinique – – 20 x 60 53 80 – – – – – –

Mauritania 320 57 88 14 12 32 68 73 1.07 15 14 0.88

Mauritius 73 100 y 31 76 52 92 98 98 1.00 80 81 1.01

Mexico 49 95 x 85 73 67 87 97 99 1.02 66 69 1.04

Micronesia (Federated States of) 96 100 x 33 – – – – – – – – –

Moldova, Republic of 21 99 x 26 67 49 86 91 90 1.00 78 78 1.01

Mongolia 68 99 x 19 58 52 80 98 97 0.99 81 85 1.05

Montenegro 7 – 14 52 27 74 98 99 1.01 – – –

Morocco 120 74 x 32 68 58 87 99 99 1.00 – – –

Mozambique 480 19 166 16 15 37 89 84 0.95 18 17 0.95

Myanmar 200 71 x 17 51 48 75 – – – 46 48 1.05

106106 I NDII NDI CATORS

CATORS
 Monitoring
MonitoringICPD Goals
ICPD – Selected
goals: selected Indicators
indicators
Sexual and Reproductive
Maternal and Newborn Health Education
Health
Maternal Births Adolescent Contraceptive Contraceptive Proportion Adjusted primary Gender Secondary school Gender
mortality ratio attended by birth rate per prevalence prevalence of demand school enrolment, net parity index, enrolment, net parity index,
(deaths per skilled health 1,000 women rate, women rate, women satisfied, per cent of primary primary per cent of secondary secondary
100,000 live personnel, aged 15-19, aged 15-49, aged 15-49, women aged school-age children, education, school-age children, education,
Country, territory births)a, per centb, 1999-2012 any method†, modern 15-49†, 2014 1999-2013 1999-2013 2000-2013 2000-2013
or other area 2013 2006-2013 2014 method†, 2014 male female male female
Namibia 130 81 74 58 57 77 87 90 1.04 45 57 1.27

Nepal 190 36 87 53 47 69 98 97 0.99 59 61 1.05

Netherlands 6 – 5 68 65 87 99 99 1.00 90 91 1.01

New Caledonia – – 23 – – – – – – – – –

New Zealand 8 96 y 25 72 68 89 98 99 1.01 97 97 1.00

Nicaragua 100 88 x 92 79 75 92 93 94 1.01 42 49 1.14

Niger 630 29 206 15 9 46 69 58 0.84 15 10 0.66

Nigeria 560 38 x 122 15 10 41 71 60 0.84 – – –

Norway 4 99 y 7x 79 72 93 99 100 1.00 94 96 1.01

Oman 11 99 x 12 37 24 56 97 98 1.01 90 86 0.96

Pakistan 170 52 x 48 37 27 64 77 67 0.87 41 31 0.74

Palestine1 47 - 67 56 43 78 93 92 0.99 77 84 1.09

Panama 85 94 81 56 52 75 92 92 0.99 74 79 1.08

Papua New Guinea 220 43 y 65 37 29 60 90 83 0.92 – – –

Paraguay 110 95 y 63 77 68 92 83 82 1.00 60 65 1.08

Peru 89 87 67 74 53 90 96 96 1.00 77 77 1.01

Philippines 120 72 53 52 38 71 88 89 1.02 56 67 1.19

Poland 3 100 y 14 70 47 87 97 97 1.00 90 91 1.01

Portugal 8 – 13 77 70 92 98 99 1.01 78 86 1.10

Puerto Rico 20 – 55 79 69 93 82 87 1.06 – – –

Qatar 6 100 x 20 48 38 75 99 95 0.96 91 100 1.10

Reunion – – 43 x 72 69 89 – – – – – –

Romania 33 99 x 35 69 53 88 94 93 1.00 79 81 1.02

Russian Federation 24 100 x 26 69 56 88 97 98 1.01 – – –

Rwanda 320 69 41 53 46 72 87 90 1.03 – – –

Saint Kitts and Nevis – 100 x 75 60 55 79 82 85 1.04 84 88 1.05

Saint Lucia 34 99 x 50 60 58 80 83 83 0.99 81 84 1.03

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 45 99 x 70 65 62 83 97 97 1.00 84 87 1.03

Samoa 58 81 x 39 32 31 42 95 97 1.03 75 84 1.12

San Marino – – 1 – – – 93 93 1.00 91 92 1.01

São Tomé and Príncipe 210 81 110 40 36 54 98 100 1.01 30 34 1.14

Saudi Arabia 16 – 7x 38 31 61 95 98 1.03 – – –

Senegal 320 51 80 17 16 37 77 82 1.08 24 18 0.76

Serbia 16 100 19 x 58 28 81 93 93 1.00 90 91 1.02

Seychelles – 99 x 70 – – – 92 95 1.04 91 100 1.09

Sierra Leone 1100 61 x 125 16 14 35 – – – – – –

Singapore 6 100 y 3 66 58 85 – – – – – –

Slovakia 7 100 x 23 71 59 88 – – – – – –

Slovenia 7 100 y 5 75 64 90 97 98 1.01 93 94 1.01

Solomon Islands 130 70 62 38 31 64 82 79 0.97 33 29 0.88

Somalia 850 9 123 22 5 43 – – – – – –

South Africa 140 – 54 65 64 84 90 91 1.00 58 65 1.11

South Sudan 730 17 38 6 2 17 48 34 0.71 – – –

TSTAT E OFE WOR

HE STAT L D POPU
OF WORL L ATLION
D POPU 20 1220 1 4
AT ION 107
107
Monitoring ICPD goals: selected indicators
Sexual and Reproductive
Maternal and Newborn Health Education
Health
Maternal Births Adolescent Contraceptive Contraceptive Proportion Adjusted primary Gender Secondary school Gender
mortality ratio attended by birth rate per prevalence prevalence of demand school enrolment, net parity index, enrolment, net parity index,
(deaths per skilled health 1,000 women rate, women rate, women satisfied, per cent of primary primary per cent of secondary secondary
100,000 live personnel, aged 15-19, aged 15-49, aged 15-49, women aged school-age children, education, school-age children, education,
Country, territory births)a, per centb, 1999-2012 any method†, modern 15-49†, 2014 1999-2013 1999-2013 2000-2013 2000-2013
or other area 2013 2006-2013 2014 method†, 2014 male female male female
Spain 4 – 10 67 63 84 100 100 1.00 95 96 1.02

Sri Lanka 29 99 24 71 55 90 94 94 1.00 83 87 1.05

Sudan 360 20 102 x 15 13 35 54 49 0.89 33 30 0.93

Suriname 130 90 66 52 51 72 92 93 1.01 52 63 1.22

Swaziland 310 82 89 64 61 80 84 86 1.02 32 38 1.17

Sweden 4 – 6 71 62 88 100 99 1.00 93 93 1.00

Switzerland 6 – 3 76 71 92 99 100 1.01 82 80 0.97

Syrian Arab Republic 49 96 x 75 57 41 78 100 98 0.99 69 69 1.00

Tajikistan 44 87 47 32 29 59 100 97 0.97 88 79 0.90

Tanzania, United Republic of 410 49 128 39 32 62 98 98 1.00 30 26 0.86

Thailand 26 99 60 79 77 93 96 95 0.99 77 82 1.06

The former Yugoslav Republic

of Macedonia 7 89 18 48 16 72 92 92 1.00 79 77 0.97

Timor-Leste, Democratic
Republic of 270 29 54 29 26 52 92 91 0.98 36 40 1.11

Togo 450 44 88 21 17 37 98 87 0.89 32 15 0.48

Tonga 120 99 x 30 – – – 89 91 1.03 73 80 1.10

Trinidad and Tobago 84 100 x 36 50 44 72 99 98 0.99 70 75 1.07

Tunisia 46 74 7 64 53 85 100 100 1.00 – – –

Turkey 20 91 32 73 48 89 96 95 0.99 84 80 0.96

Turkmenistan 61 100 x 21 57 51 79 – – – – – –

Turks and Caicos Islands – – 29 – – – 77 84 1.08 72 69 0.96

Tuvalu – 93 42 34 27 55 – – – – – –

Uganda 360 58 146 34 30 52 90 92 1.03 16 15 0.89

Ukraine 23 99 28 66 50 86 98 99 1.02 85 86 1.00

United Arab Emirates 8 100 x 34 48 39 71 99 97 0.98 73 79 1.09

United Kingdom 8 – 22 82 80 94 100 100 1.00 95 95 1.00

United States of America 28 99 34 75 69 92 93 93 1.00 86 88 1.02

United States Virgin Islands – – 59 70 63 87 – – – – – –

Uruguay 14 100 60 77 74 91 100 99 0.99 68 76 1.12

Uzbekistan 36 100 26 67 61 88 93 90 0.97 – – –

Vanuatu 86 74 66 42 39 65 98 97 0.99 51 53 1.04

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) 110 96 x 101 70 64 85 96 93 0.98 71 78 1.09

Viet Nam 49 92 38 78 67 93 – – – – – –

Western Sahara – – – – – – – – – – – –

Yemen 270 34 80 42 28 61 95 79 0.84 51 34 0.66

Zambia 280 47 151 47 35 67 98 98 1.00 – – –

Zimbabwe 470 66 112 61 60 82 83 84 1.02 37 34 0.93

108108 I NDII NDI CATORS

CATORS
 Monitoring
MonitoringICPD Goals
ICPD – Selected
goals: selected Indicators
indicators
Indicators of Mortality Indicators of Education Reproductive Health Indicators
Sexual and Reproductive
MaternalLife
Infant and Newborn Health
expectancy Maternal Primary enrolment Proportion Education
Secondary % Illiterate Births per Contraceptive HIV
Health
mortality M/F mortality (gross) M/F reaching grade 5 enrolment (>15 years) 1,000 Prevalence prevalence
Total per
Maternal Births ratio
Adolescent M/F
Contraceptive Contraceptive Proportion (gross) M/F primary
Adjusted M/F Gender womenSecondary school rate (%)
Gender
1,000 liveratio attended by Any
aged enrolment, net Modern (15-49)
World and
mortality birth rate per prevalence prevalence of demand school enrolment, net parity index, parity index,
births per method methods
(deaths skilled health 1,000 women rate, women rate, women satisfied, per cent of primary primary 15-19 per cent of secondary secondaryM/F
100,000 live personnel, aged 15-19, aged 15-49, aged 15-49, women aged school-age children, education, school-age children, education,
regional data births)a, per centb, 1999-2012 any method†, modern 15-49†, 2014 1999-2013 1999-2013 2000-2013 2000-2013
2013 2006-2013 2014 method†, 2014 male female male female
Arab States 170 75 55 53 44 76 88 83 0.94 66 60 0.92

Asia and the Pacific 140 74 34 c 68 63 87 95 95 1.00 67 63 0.94

Eastern Europe and Central Asia 27 96 30 65 47 85 95 94 0.99 86 85 0.98

Latin American and Caribbean 85 92 76 d 73 67 87 93 94 1.00 71 75 1.07

East and Southern Africa 410 48 112 37 31 60 87 84 0.96 34 31 0.91

West and Central Africa 590 47 128 17 12 41 76 68 0.89 36 29 0.81

More developed regions 16 – 21 70 61 88 96 97 1.00 – – 0.99 *

Less developed regions 230 68 54 63 57 84 91 90 0.98 – – 0.96 *

Least developed regions 440 – 113 39 32 63 84 79 0.94 – – 0.87 *

World 210 69 50 64 57 84 92 90 0.98 – – 0.97 *

NOTES
– Data not available.
* Using gross enrolment ratios.
† Women currently married/in union
x Data differs from the standard definition, refers to only part of a country or adjusted.
y Data refers to institutional birth.
a The MMR has been rounded according to the following scheme: <100, no rounding; 100-999, rounded to nearest 10; and >1000, rounded to nearest 100.
b Figures include surveys conducted between 2006-2013 only. Live births for 2010 is used as this is the mid-year of the included surveys.
c Figures exclude Cook Islands, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Tokelau, and Tuvalu due to data availability.
d Figures exclude Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and Turks and
Caicos Islands due to data availability.
1 On 29 November 2012, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 67/19, which accorded Palestine “non-member observer State status in the
United Nations…”

TSTAT E OFE WOR

HE STAT L D POPU
OF WORL L ATLION
D POPU 20 1220 1 4
AT ION 109
109
Demographic indicators
Monitoring ICPD Goals – Selected Indicators

Population Life expectancy Fertility

Country, territory Total population in Population aged 10-24, Population aged 10-24 in Average annual rate Life expectancy at birth (years), Total fertility rate,
millions, per cent, millions, of population change, 2010-2015
or other area
per woman,
2014 2014 2014 per cent, 2010-2015 male female 2010-2015

Afghanistan 31.3 36 11.2 2.4 59 62 5.0

Albania 3.2 26 0.8 0.3 75 81 1.8

Algeria 39.9 25 9.9 1.8 69 73 2.8

Angola 22.1 33 7.2 3.1 50 53 5.9

Antigua and Barbuda 0.1 26 0.0 1.0 73 78 2.1

Argentina 41.8 24 10.0 0.9 73 80 2.2

Armenia 3.0 22 0.6 0.2 71 78 1.7

Aruba 0.1 21 0.0 0.4 73 78 1.7

Australia1 23.6 19 4.6 1.3 80 85 1.9

Austria 8.5 17 1.4 0.4 78 84 1.5

Azerbaijan2 9.5 25 2.3 1.1 68 74 1.9

Bahamas 0.4 24 0.1 1.4 72 78 1.9

Bahrain 1.3 21 0.3 1.7 76 77 2.1

Bangladesh 158.5 30 47.6 1.2 70 71 2.2

Barbados 0.3 20 0.1 0.5 73 78 1.9

Belarus 9.3 17 1.6 -0.5 64 76 1.5

Belgium 11.1 17 1.9 0.4 78 83 1.9

Belize 0.3 31 0.1 2.4 71 77 2.7

Benin 10.6 32 3.4 2.7 58 61 4.9

Bhutan 0.8 29 0.2 1.6 68 68 2.3

Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 10.8 31 3.4 1.6 65 69 3.3

Bosnia and Herzegovina 3.8 21 0.8 -0.1 74 79 1.3

Botswana 2.0 33 0.7 0.9 48 47 2.6

Brazil 202.0 25 50.9 0.8 70 77 1.8

Brunei Darussalam 0.4 25 0.1 1.4 77 80 2.0

Bulgaria 7.2 15 1.0 -0.8 70 77 1.5

Burkina Faso 17.4 33 5.7 2.8 55 57 5.7

Burundi 10.5 31 3.3 3.2 52 56 6.1

Cambodia 15.4 29 4.5 1.7 69 74 2.9

Cameroon, Republic of 22.8 33 7.5 2.5 54 56 4.8

Canada 35.5 18 6.4 1.0 79 84 1.7

Cape Verde 0.5 32 0.2 0.8 71 79 2.3

Central African Republic 4.7 33 1.5 2.0 48 52 4.4

Chad 13.2 33 4.4 3.0 50 52 6.3

Chile 17.8 23 4.1 0.9 77 83 1.8

China3 1393.8 20 278.6 0.6 74 77 1.7

China, Hong Kong SAR 4

7.3 15 1.1 0.7 80 86 1.1

China, Macao SAR5 0.6 17 0.1 1.8 78 83 1.1

Colombia 48.9 27 13.1 1.3 70 78 2.3

Comoros 0.8 30 0.2 2.4 59 62 4.7

Congo, Democratic Republic of the 69.4 33 22.6 2.7 48 52 6.0

Congo, Republic of the 4.6 31 1.4 2.6 57 60 5.0

Costa Rica 4.9 26 1.3 1.4 78 82 1.8

110 I NDI CATORS

110 I NDI CATORS

 Demographic indicators

Population Life expectancy Fertility

Total population in Population aged 10-24, Population aged 10-24 in Average annual rate Life expectancy at birth (years), Total fertility rate,
Country, territory millions, per cent, millions, of population change, 2010-2015 per woman,
or other area 2014 2014 2014 per cent, 2010-2015 male female 2010-2015

Côte d'Ivoire 20.8 32 6.7 2.3 50 51 4.9

Croatia 4.3 16 0.7 -0.4 74 80 1.5

Cuba 11.3 19 2.2 -0.1 77 81 1.5

Curaçao 0.2 20 0.0 2.2 74 80 1.9

Cyprus6 1.2 21 0.2 1.1 78 82 1.5

Czech Republic 10.7 15 1.6 0.4 75 81 1.6

Denmark 5.6 19 1.1 0.4 77 81 1.9

Djibouti 0.9 30 0.3 1.5 60 63 3.4

Dominica – – – 0.4 – – –

Dominican Republic 10.5 28 3.0 1.2 70 77 2.5

Ecuador 16.0 28 4.4 1.6 74 79 2.6

Egypt 83.4 28 22.9 1.6 69 73 2.8

El Salvador 6.4 32 2.0 0.7 68 77 2.2

Equatorial Guinea 0.8 30 0.2 2.8 51 54 4.9

Eritrea 6.5 31 2.0 3.2 60 65 4.7

Estonia 1.3 16 0.2 -0.3 69 80 1.6

Ethiopia 96.5 35 33.4 2.6 62 65 4.6

Fiji 0.9 26 0.2 0.7 67 73 2.6

Finland7 5.4 17 0.9 0.3 77 84 1.9

France 64.6 18 11.8 0.5 78 85 2.0

French Guiana 0.3 28 0.1 2.5 74 81 3.1

French Polynesia 0.3 26 0.1 1.1 74 79 2.1

Gabon 1.7 31 0.5 2.4 62 64 4.1

Gambia 1.9 32 0.6 3.2 57 60 5.8

Georgia8 4.3 18 0.8 -0.4 70 78 1.8

Germany 82.7 15 12.4 -0.1 78 83 1.4

Ghana 26.4 31 8.3 2.1 60 62 3.9

Greece 11.1 15 1.6 0.0 78 83 1.5

Grenada 0.1 28 0.0 0.4 70 75 2.2

Guadeloupe9 0.5 21 0.1 0.5 77 84 2.1

Guam 0.2 26 0.0 1.3 76 81 2.4

Guatemala 15.9 33 5.2 2.5 68 75 3.8

Guinea 12.0 32 3.9 2.5 55 57 5.0

Guinea-Bissau 1.7 32 0.6 2.4 53 56 5.0

Guyana 0.8 31 0.3 0.5 64 69 2.6

Haiti 10.5 31 3.3 1.4 61 65 3.2

Honduras 8.3 32 2.6 2.0 71 76 3.0

Hungary 9.9 16 1.6 -0.2 70 79 1.4

Iceland 0.3 21 0.1 1.1 80 84 2.1

India 1267.4 28 355.3 1.2 65 68 2.5

Indonesia 252.8 26 66.1 1.2 69 73 2.4

Iran (Islamic Republic of) 78.5 24 18.7 1.3 72 76 1.9

Iraq 34.8 32 11.1 2.9 66 73 4.1

T HE STAT E OF WORL D POPU L AT ION 2 0 1 4 111

Monitoring ICPD
Demographic indicators
Goals – Selected Indicators

Population Life expectancy Fertility

Total population in Population aged 10-24, Population aged 10-24 in Average annual rate Life expectancy at birth (years), Total fertility rate,
Country, territory millions, per cent, millions, of population change, 2010-2015 per woman,
or other area 2014 2014 2014 per cent, 2010-2015 male female 2010-2015

Ireland 4.7 19 0.9 1.1 78 83 2.0

Israel 7.8 23 1.8 1.3 80 83 2.9

Italy 61.1 15 8.9 0.2 80 85 1.5

Jamaica 2.8 28 0.8 0.5 71 76 2.3

Japan 127.0 14 17.9 -0.1 80 87 1.4

Jordan 7.5 28 2.1 3.5 72 76 3.3

Kazakhstan 16.6 23 3.8 1.0 61 72 2.4

Kenya 45.5 32 14.4 2.7 60 63 4.4

Kiribati 0.1 32 0.0 1.5 66 72 3.0

Korea, Democratic People's Republic of 25.0 23 5.9 0.5 66 73 2.0

Korea, Republic of 49.5 19 9.3 0.5 78 85 1.3

Kuwait 3.5 22 0.8 3.6 73 75 2.6

Kyrgyzstan 5.6 28 1.6 1.4 63 72 3.1

Lao People's Democratic Republic 6.9 33 2.3 1.9 67 69 3.1

Latvia 2.0 16 0.3 -0.6 67 77 1.6

Lebanon 5.0 27 1.3 3.0 78 82 1.5

Lesotho 2.1 35 0.7 1.1 49 50 3.1

Liberia 4.4 32 1.4 2.6 59 61 4.8

Libya 6.3 26 1.6 0.9 73 77 2.4

Lithuania 3.0 18 0.5 -0.5 66 78 1.5

Luxembourg 0.5 19 0.1 1.3 78 83 1.7

Madagascar 23.6 33 7.8 2.8 63 66 4.5

Malawi 16.8 33 5.6 2.8 55 55 5.4

Malaysia10 30.2 28 8.4 1.6 73 77 2.0

Maldives 0.4 29 0.1 1.9 77 79 2.3

Mali 15.8 32 5.0 3.0 55 55 6.9

Malta 0.4 18 0.1 0.3 77 82 1.4

Martinique 0.4 20 0.1 0.2 78 84 1.8

Mauritania 4.0 31 1.2 2.5 60 63 4.7

Mauritius11 1.2 23 0.3 0.4 70 77 1.5

Mexico 123.8 28 34.5 1.2 75 80 2.2

Micronesia (Federated States of) 0.1 36 0.0 0.2 68 70 3.3

Moldova, Republic of12 3.5 19 0.7 -0.8 65 73 1.5

Mongolia 2.9 25 0.7 1.5 64 71 2.4

Montenegro 0.6 20 0.1 0.0 72 77 1.7

Morocco 33.5 27 9.0 1.4 69 73 2.8

Mozambique 26.5 33 8.7 2.5 49 51 5.2

Myanmar 53.7 26 13.9 0.8 63 67 2.0

Namibia 2.3 33 0.8 1.9 62 67 3.1

Nepal 28.1 33 9.2 1.2 67 69 2.3

Netherlands 16.8 18 3.0 0.3 79 83 1.8

New Caledonia 0.3 24 0.1 1.3 74 79 2.1

New Zealand 4.6 20 0.9 1.0 79 83 2.1

112 I NDI CATORS

112112 I NDII NDI CATORS

CATORS
 Demographic indicators

Population Life expectancy Fertility

Total population in Population aged 10-24, Population aged 10-24 in Average annual rate Life expectancy at birth (years), Total fertility rate,
Country, territory millions, per cent, millions, of population change, 2010-2015 per woman,
or other area 2014 2014 2014 per cent, 2010-2015 male female 2010-2015

Nicaragua 6.2 31 1.9 1.4 72 78 2.5

Niger 18.5 31 5.7 3.9 58 58 7.6

Nigeria 178.5 31 55.5 2.8 52 53 6.0

Norway13 5.1 19 1.0 1.0 79 84 1.9

Oman 3.9 28 1.1 7.9 75 79 2.9

Pakistan 185.1 32 58.6 1.7 66 67 3.2

Palestine14 4.4 35 1.5 2.5 71 75 4.1

Panama 3.9 26 1.0 1.6 75 80 2.5

Papua New Guinea 7.5 31 2.3 2.1 60 64 3.8

Paraguay 6.9 30 2.1 1.7 70 75 2.9

Peru 30.8 28 8.6 1.3 72 77 2.4

Philippines 100.1 31 30.8 1.7 65 72 3.1

Poland 38.2 17 6.4 0.0 72 80 1.4

Portugal 10.6 16 1.7 0.0 77 83 1.3

Puerto Rico 3.7 22 0.8 -0.2 75 82 1.6

Qatar 2.3 18 0.4 5.9 78 79 2.1

Reunion 0.9 24 0.2 1.2 76 83 2.2

Romania 21.6 16 3.5 -0.3 70 77 1.4

Russian Federation 142.5 16 23.3 -0.2 62 74 1.5

Rwanda 12.1 33 3.9 2.7 62 65 4.6

Saint Kitts and Nevis – – – 1.1 – – –

Saint Lucia 0.2 26 0.0 0.8 72 77 1.9

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 0.1 26 0.0 0.0 70 75 2.0

Samoa 0.2 31 0.1 0.8 70 76 4.2

San Marino – – – 0.6 – – –

São Tomé and Príncipe 0.2 31 0.1 2.6 64 68 4.1

Saudi Arabia 29.4 24 7.2 1.8 74 77 2.7

Senegal 14.5 32 4.7 2.9 62 65 5.0

Serbia15 9.5 19 1.8 -0.5 71 77 1.4

Seychelles 0.1 22 0.0 0.6 69 78 2.2

Sierra Leone 6.2 32 2.0 1.9 45 46 4.8

Singapore 5.5 20 1.1 2.0 80 85 1.3

Slovakia 5.5 17 0.9 0.1 71 79 1.4

Slovenia 2.1 14 0.3 0.2 76 83 1.5

Solomon Islands 0.6 32 0.2 2.1 66 69 4.1

Somalia 10.8 33 3.5 2.9 53 57 6.6

South Africa 53.1 27 14.6 0.8 55 59 2.4

South Sudan 11.7 33 3.9 4.0 54 56 5.0

Spain16 47.1 14 6.7 0.4 79 85 1.5

Sri Lanka 21.4 23 4.9 0.8 71 77 2.4

Sudan 38.8 32 12.5 2.1 60 64 4.5

Suriname 0.5 26 0.1 0.9 68 74 2.3

Swaziland 1.3 35 0.4 1.5 50 49 3.4

TSTAT E OFE WOR

HE STAT L D POPU
OF WORL L ATLION
D POPU 20 1220 1 4
AT ION 113
113
Monitoring ICPD
Demographic indicators
Goals – Selected Indicators

Population Life expectancy Fertility

Total population in Population aged 10-24, Population aged 10-24 in Average annual rate Life expectancy at birth (years), Total fertility rate,
Country, territory millions, per cent, millions, of population change, 2010-2015 per woman,
or other area 2014 2014 2014 per cent, 2010-2015 male female 2010-2015

Sweden 9.6 18 1.7 0.7 80 84 1.9

Switzerland 8.2 17 1.4 1.0 80 85 1.5

Syrian Arab Republic 22.0 31 6.8 0.7 72 78 3.0

Tajikistan 8.4 30 2.5 2.4 64 71 3.9

Tanzania, United Republic of17 50.8 32 16.1 3.0 60 63 5.2

Thailand 67.2 20 13.5 0.3 71 78 1.4

The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 2.1 20 0.4 0.1 73 77 1.4

Timor-Leste, Democratic Republic of 1.2 38 0.4 1.7 66 69 5.9

Togo 7.0 32 2.2 2.6 56 57 4.7

Tonga 0.1 31 0.0 0.4 70 76 3.8

Trinidad and Tobago 1.3 20 0.3 0.3 66 74 1.8

Tunisia 11.1 23 2.6 1.1 74 78 2.0

Turkey 75.8 25 19.2 1.2 72 79 2.1

Turkmenistan 5.3 29 1.5 1.3 61 70 2.3

Turks and Caicos Islands – – – 2.1 – – –

Tuvalu – – – 0.2 – – –

Uganda 38.8 34 13.1 3.3 58 60 5.9

Ukraine 44.9 16 7.0 -0.6 63 74 1.5

United Arab Emirates 9.4 17 1.6 2.5 76 78 1.8

United Kingdom 63.5 18 11.2 0.6 78 82 1.9

United States of America 322.6 20 65.4 0.8 76 81 2.0

United States Virgin Islands 0.1 20 0.0 0.1 77 83 2.5

Uruguay 3.4 23 0.8 0.3 74 80 2.1

Uzbekistan 29.3 29 8.6 1.4 65 72 2.3

Vanuatu 0.3 30 0.1 2.2 70 74 3.4

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) 30.9 27 8.3 1.5 72 78 2.4

Viet Nam 92.5 25 23.0 1.0 71 80 1.8

Western Sahara 0.6 25 0.1 3.2 66 70 2.4

Yemen 25.0 35 8.9 2.3 62 64 4.2

Zambia 15.0 33 4.9 3.2 56 59 5.7

Zimbabwe 14.6 34 5.0 2.8 59 61 3.5

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 Monitoring ICPD Goals – Selected Indicators

Population Life expectancy Fertility

World and Total population in Population aged 10-24, Population aged 10-24 in Average annual rate Life expectancy at birth (years), Total fertility rate,
regional data millions,
2014
per cent,
2014
millions,
2014
of population change,
per cent, 2010-2015
2010-2015
male female
per woman,
2010-2015

Arab States 327 29 95 2.0 67 71 3.3

Asia and the Pacific 3823 a 25 a 957 a 1.0 69 72 2.2

Eastern Europe and Central Asia 263 22 59 0.5 66 75 2.0

Latin American and Caribbean 618 b 27 b 165 b 1.1 71 78 2.2

East and Southern Africa 523 32 170 2.6 56 59 4.8

West and Central Africa 388 32 123 2.7 53 55 5.6

More developed regions 1256 17 217 0.3 74 81 1.7

Less developed regions 5988 26 1580 1.3 67 70 2.6

Least developed regions 919 32 294 2.3 59 62 4.2

World 7244 25 1797 1.1 68 72 2.5

NOTES
– Data not available.
a Figures exclude Cook Islands, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Tokelau, and Tuvalu due to data availability.
b Figures exclude Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and
Turks and Caicos Islands due to data availability.
1 Figures include Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands and Norfolk Island.
2 Figures include Nagorno-Karabakh.
3 For statistical purposes, the data for China do not include Hong Kong and Macao, Special Administrative Regions (SAR) of China, and Taiwan
Province of China.
4 As of 1 July 1997, Hong Kong became a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China.
5 As of 20 December 1999, Macao became a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China.
6 Figures include Northern Cyprus.
7 Figures include Aland Islands.
8 Figures include Abkhazia and South Ossetia.
9 Figures include Saint-Barthélemy and Saint-Martin (French part).
10 Figures include Sabah and Sarawak.
11 Figures include Agalega, Rodrigues and Saint Brandon.
12 Figures include Transnistria.
13 Figures include Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands.
14 Figures include East Jerusalem. On 29 November 2012, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 67/19, which accorded Palestine
“non-member observer State status in the United Nations…”
15 Figures include Kosovo.
16 Figures include Canary Islands, Ceuta and Melilla.
17 Figures include Zanzibar.
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115
Monitoring ICPD Goals – Selected Indicators
Indicators of Mortality Indicators of Education Reproductive Health Indicators
Technical notes Infant
mortality
Life expectancy
M/F
Maternal
mortality
Primary enrolment
(gross) M/F
Proportion
reaching grade 5
Secondary
enrolment
% Illiterate
(>15 years)
Births per Contraceptive
1,000 Prevalence
HIV
prevalence
Data sources and definitions
Total per
1,000 live
ratio M/F (gross) M/F M/F women
aged Any Modern
rate (%)
(15-49)
births 15-19 method methods M/F

The statistical tables in The State of World Population 2014 include Births attended by skilled health personnel, per cent, 2006/2013.
indicators that track progress toward the goals of the Programme of Source: World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations
Action of the International Conference on Population and Development Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Millennium Development Goals
(ICPD) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in the areas of Indicators. Country level data are taken from WHO global database
maternal health, access to education, reproductive and sexual health. In on maternal health indicators, 2014 update. Percentage of births
addition, these tables include a variety of demographic indicators. The attended by skilled health personnel (doctors, nurses or midwives)
statistical tables support UNFPA’s focus on progress and results towards is the percentage of deliveries attended by health personnel trained
delivering a world where every pregnancy is wanted, every birth is safe, in providing life-saving obstetric care, including giving the necessary
and every young person’s potential is fulfilled. supervision, care and advice to women during pregnancy, labour and
the post-partum period; conducting deliveries on their own; and caring
Different national authorities and international organizations may for newborns. Traditional birth attendants, even if they receive a short
employ different methodologies in gathering, extrapolating or analyzing training course, are not included.
data. To facilitate the international comparability of data, UNFPA relies
on the standard methodologies employed by the main sources of data. Adolescent birth rate, per 1,000 women aged 15-19, 1999/2012.
In some instances, therefore, the data in these tables differ from those Source: United Nations Population Division and United Nations Inter-
generated by national authorities. Data presented in the tables are not Agency and Expert Group on Millennium Development Goals Indicators.
comparable to the data in previous issues of The State of World Population UNFPA regional aggregates calculated by UNFPA based on data from
due to regional classifications updates, methodological updates, and United Nations Population Division. The adolescent birth rate repre-
revisions of time series data. sents the risk of childbearing among adolescent women 15 to 19 years
of age 1,000 women in that age group. For civil registration, rates are
The statistical tables draw on nationally representative household subject to limitations which depend on the completeness of birth regis-
surveys such as Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) and Multiple tration, the treatment of infants born alive but dead before registration
Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), United Nations organizations or within the first 24 hours of life, the quality of the reported information
estimates, and inter-agency estimates. They also include the latest relating to age of the mother, and the inclusion of births from previous
population estimates and projections from World Population Prospects: periods. The population estimates may suffer from limitations connected
The 2012 revision and Model-based Estimates and Projections of to age misreporting and coverage. For survey and census data, both the
Family Planning Indicators 2014 (United Nations Department of numerator and denominator come from the same population. The main
Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division). Data are accom- limitations concern age misreporting, birth omissions, misreporting the
panied by definitions, sources, and notes. The statistical tables in The date of birth of the child, and sampling variability in the case of surveys.
State of World Population 2014 generally reflect information available as
of August 2014. Sexual and reproductive health
In 2014, the United Nations Population Division released a systematic

Monitoring ICPD Goals and comprehensive set of annual, model-based estimates and projec-
tions is provided for a range of family planning indicators for a 60-year
Maternal and newborn health time period. Indicators include contraceptive prevalence, unmet need
Maternal mortality ratio, per 100,000 live births, 2013. Source:
for family planning, total demand for family planning and the percent-
Estimates are for the year 2013 and published in 2014 by the Maternal
age of demand for family planning that is satisfied among married or
Mortality Estimation Inter-agency Group (MMEIG), composed of World
in-union women for the period from 1970 to 2030. A Bayesian hier-
Health Organization (WHO), UNICEF, UNFPA, the World Bank, the
archical model combined with country-specific time trends was used
United Nations Population Division, together with independent technical
to generate the estimates, projections and uncertainty assessments.
experts. This indicator presents the number of deaths of women from
The model advances prior work and accounts for differences by data
pregnancy-related causes per 100,000 live births during the same time
source, sample population, and contraceptive methods included in
period. Several of the estimates differ from official government figures.
measures of prevalence. More information on family planning model-
The estimates are based on reported figures wherever possible, using
based estimates, methodology and updates can be found at <http://
approaches that improve the comparability of information from different
[Link]/en/development/desa/population>. The estimates are
sources. Estimates and methodologies are reviewed regularly by MMEIG
based on the country-specific data compiled in World Contraceptive
and other agencies and academic institutions and are revised where
Use 2014.
necessary, as part of the ongoing process of improving maternal mortal-
ity data. Estimates should not be compared with previous inter-agency
Contraceptive prevalence rate, women currently married/in union
estimates. Maternal mortality estimates reported here are based on the
aged 15-49, any method and any modern method, 2014. Source:
global database on maternal mortality, which is updated every 5 years.
United Nations Population Division. Model-based estimates are

116116 I NDICAL
TECHNI CATORS
NOTE S
based on data that are derived from sample survey reports. Survey Gender parity index, secondary education, 2000/2013. Source:
data estimate the proportion of married women (including women in UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) and United Nations Inter-Agency
consensual unions), aged 15-49, who are currently using, respectively, and Expert Group on Millennium Development Goals Indicators. The
any method or modern methods of contraception. Modern or clinic gender parity index (GPI) refers to the ratio of female to male values of
and supply methods include male and female sterilization, IUD, the pill, secondary school net enrolment ratio.
injectables, hormonal implants, condoms and female barrier methods.
Demographic indicators
Proportion of demand satisfied, women currently married/in union Total Population, in millions, 2014. Source: United Nations Population
aged 15-49, 2014. Source: United Nations Population Division. Division. Regional aggregates calculated by UNFPA based on data from
United Nations Population Division. These indicators present the esti-
Proportion of demand satisfied (PDS) = Contraceptive prevalence mated size of national populations at mid-year.
(CPR) divided by total demand for family planning (TD).
Where total demand = Contraceptive prevalence rate plus Population aged 10-24 in millions, 2014. Source: United Nations
unmet need for contraception rate (UNR), that is Population Division. Regional aggregates calculated by UNFPA based on
TD = CPR + UNR and data from United Nations Population Division. These indicators present
PDS = CPR /(CPR+UNR) the estimated size of national population between age 10 and age 24 at
mid-year.
Unmet need for family planning. Women with unmet need for spacing
births are those who are fecund and sexually active but are not using Population aged 10-24, per cent, 2014. Source: UNFPA. These indicators
any method of contraception, and report wanting to delay the next present the proportion of the population between age 10 and age 24.
child. This is a subcategory of total unmet need for family planning,
which also includes unmet need for limiting births. The concept of Average annual rate of population change, per cent, 2010/2015.
unmet need points to the gap between women's reproductive inten- United Nations Population Division. Regional aggregates calculated by
tions and their contraceptive behaviour. For Millennium Development UNFPA based on data from United Nations Population Division. These
Goals monitoring, unmet need is expressed as a percentage based on indicators present the average exponential rate of growth of the popula-
women who are married or in a consensual union. tion over a given period, based on a medium variant projection.

Unmet need for modern methods. UNFPA uses this concept to identify Male and female life expectancy at birth (years), 2010/2015. United
women with unmet need for contraception who are not using modern Nations Population Division. Regional aggregates calculated by UNFPA
contraception, including women using traditional methods. based on data from United Nations Population Division. These indica-
tors present the number of years newborn children would live if subject
Education to the mortality risks prevailing for the cross section of population at the
Male and female adjusted primary school enrolment, net per cent of time of their birth.
primary school-age children, 1999/2013. Source: UNESCO Institute for
Statistics (UIS) and United Nations Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Total fertility rate, 2010/2015. United Nations Population Division.
Millennium Development Goals Indicators. The adjusted primary school Regional aggregates calculated by UNFPA based on data from United
net enrolment ratio indicates the percentage of children of the official Nations Population Division. These indicators present the number of
primary age group who are enrolled in primary or secondary education. children who would be born per woman if she lived to the end of her
childbearing years and bore children at each age in accordance with
Male and female secondary school enrolment, net per cent of sec- prevailing age-specific fertility rates.
ondary school-age children, 2000/2013. Source: UNESCO Institute
for Statistics (UIS). The secondary school net enrolment ratio indicates
the percentage of children of the official secondary age group who are
enrolled in secondary education.

Gender parity index, primary education, 1999/2013. Source: UNESCO

Institute for Statistics (UIS). Regional aggregates calculated by UNFPA
based on data from United Nations Inter-Agency and Expert Group on
Millennium Development Goals Indicators. The gender parity index
(GPI) refers to the ratio of female to male values of adjusted primary
school net enrolment ratio.

T HE STAT E OF WORL D POPU L AT ION 2 0 1 4 117

Monitoring ICPD Goals – Selected Indicators
Regional Classification
Indicators of Mortality Indicators of Education
UNFPA averages presented at the end of the
Infant Life statistical
expectancy tables are calculated
Maternal using data
Primary enrolment from countries
Proportion and areas%as
Secondary classified below. The
Illiterate regional clas-HIV
Births per Contraceptive
mortalitywhereM/F
sifications include only the countries UNFPA [Link] (gross) M/F reaching grade 5 enrolment (>15 years) 1,000 Prevalence prevalence
Total per ratio M/F (gross) M/F M/F women rate (%)
1,000 live aged Any Modern (15-49)
births 15-19 method methods M/F
Arab States Region More developed regions comprise Europe, Northern America,
Algeria; Djibouti; Egypt; Iraq; Jordan; Lebanon; Libya; Morocco; Oman; Australia/New Zealand and Japan.
Palestine; Somalia; Sudan; Syrian Arab Republic; Tunisia; Yemen
Less developed regions comprise all regions of Africa, Asia (except
Asia and Pacific Region Japan), Latin America and the Caribbean plus Melanesia, Micronesia
Afghanistan; Bangladesh; Bhutan; Cambodia; China; Cook Islands; Fiji; and Polynesia.
India; Indonesia; Iran (Islamic Republic of); Kiribati; Korea, Democratic
People's Republic of; Lao People's Democratic Republic; Malaysia; The least developed countries, as defined by the United Nations
Maldives; Marshall Islands; Micronesia (Federated States of); Mongolia; General Assembly in its resolutions (59/209, 59/210, 60/33, 62/97,
Myanmar; Nauru; Nepal; Niue; Pakistan; Palau; Papua New Guinea; 64/L.55, 67/L.43) included 49 countries in June 2013: 34 in Africa, 9
Philippines; Samoa; Solomon Islands; Sri Lanka; Thailand; Timor-Leste, in Asia, 5 in Oceania and one in Latin America and the Caribbean. The
Democratic Republic of; Tokelau; Tonga; Tuvalu; Vanuatu; Viet Nam group includes 49 countries - Afghanistan, Angola, Bangladesh, Benin,
Bhutan, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Central African Republic,
Eastern Europe and Central Asia Region Chad, Comoros, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial
Albania; Armenia; Azerbaijan; Belarus; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Kiribati,
Bulgaria; Georgia; Kazakhstan; Kyrgyzstan; Moldova, Republic of; Lao People's Democratic Republic, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar,
Romania; Serbia; Tajikistan; The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia; Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Niger,
Turkey; Turkmenistan; Ukraine. Rwanda, Samoa, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Solomon
Islands, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Timor-Leste, Togo, Tuvalu,
East and Southern Africa Region Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Vanuatu, Yemen and Zambia.
Angola; Botswana; Burundi; Comoros; Congo, Democratic Republic of These countries are also included in the less developed regions.
the; Eritrea; Ethiopia; Kenya; Lesotho; Madagascar; Malawi; Mauritius;
Mozambique; Namibia; Rwanda; Seychelles; South Africa; South Sudan;
Swaziland; Tanzania, United Republic of Uganda; Zambia; Zimbabwe

Latin American and the Caribbean Region

Anguilla; Antigua and Barbuda; Argentina; Aruba; Bahamas; Barbados;
Belize; Bermuda; Bolivia (Plurinational State of); Brazil; British Virgin
Islands; Cayman Islands; Chile; Colombia; Costa Rica; Cuba; Dominica;
Dominican Republic; Ecuador; El Salvador; Grenada; Guatemala; Guyana;
Haiti; Honduras; Jamaica; Mexico; Montserrat; Netherlands Antilles;
Nicaragua; Panama; Paraguay; Peru; Saint Kitts and Nevis; Saint Lucia;
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; Suriname; Trinidad and Tobago; Turks
and Caicos Islands; Uruguay; Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

West and Central Africa Region

Benin; Burkina Faso; Cameroon, Republic of; Cape Verde; Central
African Republic; Chad; Congo, Republic of the; Côte d'Ivoire; Equatorial
Guinea; Gabon; Gambia; Ghana; Guinea; Guinea-Bissau; Liberia; Mali;
Mauritania; Niger; Nigeria; São Tomé and Príncipe; Senegal;
Sierra Leone; Togo

118118 I NDICAL
TECHNI CATORS
NOTE S
 Monitoring ICPD Goals – Selected Indicators
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