United States of America The legislative branch of the United States,

also known as Congress, is like a big

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT meeting where decisions are made about
laws for the country. It's divided into two
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC parts: the House of Representatives and
the Senate.
The Constitution establishes a federal
democratic republic form of government The judicial branch in the US acts as a
with an indivisible union of 50 sovereign referee, ensuring fair play and rule
States. adherence. It includes courts like the
Supreme Court, where judges interpret
REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY laws and assess their alignment with the
In this form of government, citizens choose Constitution.
representatives to make decisions on their
behalf. It enables citizen involvement in Citizenship
decision-making through voting and ensures
safeguards for individual rights and In the United States, citizenship entails legal
freedoms via the Constitution and the Bill of membership with rights and responsibilities.
Rights. Citizenship can be acquired through birth or
naturalization, requiring residency, passing
FEDERALISM tests, and good moral character. It enables
full participation in society and benefits of
The word “federalism” means that the state Belonging.
governments are under a central
government. With federalism, these Suffrage
governments share powers.
The voting process in the United States is
In the tenth amendment in the U.S. In The how citizens choose their leaders and make
Constitution, there are guidelines for decisions about important issues. Eligible
federalism. Article IV addresses the roles voters, usually U.S. citizens who are 18
and relationships between the states and years or older, register to vote in their state
the federal government. before an election. Over time, the United
States has expanded suffrage to include
Before the United States became a unified more people, such as women and
country,it was first formed into colonies, minorities, who were previously excluded
which later became states. A federal from voting. Today, voting is considered a
government was formed along with a central fundamental duty of citizenship, allowing
Constitution. individuals to have a say in shaping their
government and society.
Branches of Government
ELECTORAL COLLEGE
The executive branch of the United States is
the President, who acts as the leader and The system for electing the US President
head of state. The President's main job is to and Vice President was created by the
enforce laws passed by Congress, make framers of the US Constitution to ensure a
important decisions for the country, and practical and republican method of election.
represent the United States to the rest of
the world. On Election Day, voters choose electors
who then cast their votes for the President.
The executive branch includes the Vice The candidate who wins the most votes in a
President, the President's cabinet, and state receives all of that state‘ s electors.
advisors who help in decision-making on Winning 270 out of 538 total electoral votes
issues like the economy, foreign policy, and is needed to become President.
national security.
CHINA
LEGISLATIVE BRANCH
Xi Jinping is the most powerful figure in the
Main Powers
Chinese political system. National People's Congress - NPC

He is the president of China, but his real Wields the highest power of the government
influence comes from his position as the and appoints the state council, president,
general secretary of the Chinese and judges.
Communist Party.
It mediates policy differences of the party
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT and government, amends constitution, and
supervises enforcement of constitution.
Communist Party-Led State - The Dominant
political party in China, and its leadership Election Process
holds all key positions in the government. The national people's congress has about
The National People's Congress (NPC) is 3000 members who are indirectly elected by
the highest organ of state power, and it is regional legislatures.
responsible for electing the President of the
People's Republic of China, who serves as Election Cycle
the head of state. 5 years
No term limit
Unitary State- China is a unitary state,
which means that the central government EXECUTIVE BRANCH
has the ultimate authority over all regional
and local governments. The country is Main Powers
divided into 23 provinces, five autonomous
regions, four municipalities, and two special The presidency is the ceremonial office and
administrative regions (SARs). serves as head of state. It represents China
in foreign relations and receives foreign
Socialist Republic- China's political system diplomats.
is based on socialist principles, and the
government controls many aspects of the The state council is the chief authority
economy. The state-owned enterprises overseeing subordinate people's
(SOEs) are a major component of the governments. Responsible for economic,
economy, and the government also social and administrative affairs.
regulates and controls the private sector.
Election Process
Single-Party System- The CCP is the only
legal political party in China, and it controls The president and the state council are
all levels of government. Other political elected by the national people's congress.
parties and groups are not allowed to
operate independently. Election Cycle
5 years
Authoritarian Government- The Chinese No term limit
government has been criticized for its
restrictions on political freedoms, including JUDICIAL BRANCH
freedom of speech, association, and
assembly. The government also tightly Main Powers
controls the media and the internet, and The Supreme People's Court is the highest
censors information that it deems to be court of the land and supervises lower
sensitive or harmful to national security. courts in local municipalities. SPC interprets
the law,ensures uniformity in the application
BRANCHES OF GOVERNMENT
of law, and provides adjudication in legal
disputes. Key points of the electoral system include:

The Supreme People's Procuratorate is the UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

highest supervisory and investigative organ All Chinese citizens aged 18 and above,
of the state. SPP focuses on oversight, regardless of background, have the right to
investigation, and prosecution in criminal vote and stand for election, except those
cases. deprived of political rights by law. Key points
of the electoral system include:
Election Process
ONE PERSON, ONE VOTE
The chief justice is appointed by the Each voter has one vote in every election
national people's congress

Other justices and judges are nominated by

the chief justice and appointed by the DIRECT AND INDIRECT ELECTIONS
standing committee of the national people's Deputies in lower-level congresses are
congress. directly elected by their constituents, while
deputies in higher-level congresses are
Election Cycle elected by congresses at the next lower
CHIEF JUSTICE level.
5 years
CANDIDATE SELECTION
(no more than 2 Political parties, mass organizations, and
consecutive terms) voters can recommend candidates. A
minimum number of recommendations is
OTHER JUSTICES required.
AND JUDGES:
No Term Limit COMPETITIVE ELECTIONS
The number of candidates exceeds the
CITIZENSHIP seats available, ensuring competition. In
direct elections, candidates
Nationality Law of the People's Republic of should exceed the seats by 33% to 100%,
China while in indirect elections, by 20% to 50%.

(Adopted at the Third Session of the Fifth VOTING OPTIONS

National People's Congress, promulgated Voters can vote for a candidate, against a
by Order No.8 of the Chairman of the candidate, for someone else, or abstain.
Standing
VALIDITY OF ELECTIONS
Committee of the National People's In direct elections, more than half of eligible
Congress on and effective as of September voters must participate for the election to be
10, 1980) valid, with winning candidates decided by a
majority vote. In indirect elections, winning
SUFFRAGE candidates are those who receive the
majority of votes from participating deputies.
China's electoral system comprises five
levels of people's congresses: ELECTION FUNDING
Election costs are covered by the state
The National People's Congress treasury.
Provincial
Municipal
County
Township
BRIEF HISTORY STRUCTURE OF THE FRENCH
PARLIAMENT
FRANCE'S POLITICAL HISTORY IS
MARKED BY A SERIES OF SIGNIFICANT • NATIONAL ASSEMBLY: THE LOWER
TRANSFORMATIONS, BEGINNING WITH HOUSE, WITH MEMBERS ELECTED
ITS ROOTS AS A PART OF THE ROMAN DIRECTLY BY THE PEOPLE.
EMPIRE. POST- ROMAN GAUL SAW THE
RISE OF THE FRANKISH KINGDOMS, • SENATE: THE UPPER HOUSE, WITH
WHICH EVENTUALLY UNIFIED UNDER MEMBERS ELECTED INDIRECTLY BY AN
THE MEROVINGIAN AND THEN THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE, WHICH
CAROLINGIAN DYNASTIES. THE INCLUDES LOCAL ELECTED OFFICIALS.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CAPETIAN
DYNASTY IN 987 MARKED THE BRANCHES OF THE GOVERNMENT
BEGINNING OF MODERN FRANCE.
EXECUTIVE BRANCH.
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1799)
DRAMATICALLY ALTERED THE THE PRESIDENT IS ELECTED FOR A
COUNTRY'S POLITICAL LANDSCAPE, FIVE-YEAR TERM AND HOLDS
OVERTHROWING THE MONARCHY, SIGNIFICANT POWERS, INCLUDING
ESTABLISHING A REPUBLIC, AND COMMAND OF THE ARMED FORCES,
PROFOUNDLY INFLUENCING THE RISE THE ABILITY TO DISSOLVE THE
OF DEMOCRACY AND SECULARISM. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, AND AUTHORITY
THE 19TH AND EARLY 20TH CENTURIES TO CALL REFERENDA. THE PRESIDENT
SAW FRANCE OSCILLATE BETWEEN APPOINTS THE PRIME MINISTER, WHO,
VARIOUS FORMS OF REPUBLIC, ALONG WITH THE COUNCIL OF
EMPIRE, AND MONARCHY. MINISTERS, FORMS THE GOVERNMENT
RESPONSIBLE FOR POLICY
THE CURRENT FIFTH REPUBLIC WAS IMPLEMENTATION AND
ESTABLISHED IN 1958 UNDER THE ADMINISTRATION.
LEADERSHIP OF CHARLES DE GAULLE,
BRINGING A NEW CONSTITUTION BRANCHES OF THE GOVERNMENT
DESIGNED TO PROVIDE GREATER
STABILITY THROUGH A LEGISLATIVE BRANCH.
STRENGTHENED EXECUTIVE BRANCH.
THE FRENCH PARLIAMENT IS
BICAMERAL, CONSISTING OF THE
IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE THE POLITICAL NATIONAL ASSEMBLY AND THE
STABILITY THAT WAS LACKING IN THE SENATE. THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY HAS
THIRD AND THE FOURTH REPUBLIC, 577 DEPUTIES ELECTED BY DIRECT
THE CONSTITUTION OF 1958 ADOPTED UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE FOR FIVE-YEAR
A MIXED (SEMIPRESIDENTIAL) FORM OF TERMS. THE SENATE HAS 348
GOVERNMENT, COMBINING ELEMENTS SENATORS, ELECTED INDIRECTLY BY
OF BOTH PARLIAMENTARY AND AN ELECTORAL COLLEGE FOR
PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEMS. SIX-YEAR TERMS, WITH HALF THE
SEATS UP FOR ELECTION EVERY
PARLIAMENTARY THREE YEARS. THE PARLIAMENT
PASSES LAWS, CONTROLS
"PARLIAMENTARY" REFERS TO GOVERNMENT ACTION, AND
ELEMENTS RELATED TO THE REPRESENTS THE ELECTORATE.
LEGISLATIVE BRANCH OF
GOVERNMENT, WHICH IS KNOWN AS BRANCHES OF THE GOVERNMENT
THE PARLIAMENT.
JUDICIAL BRANCH.
FRANCE'S JUDICIAL SYSTEM IS POWER BETWEEN THE PRESIDENT
INDEPENDENT OF THE EXECUTIVE AND AND THE PARLIAMEN. WITH UNIVERSAL
LEGISLATIVE BRANCHES. THE HIGHEST SUFFRAGE AND A ROBUST LEGAL
COURTS INCLUDE THE COURT OF FRAMEWORK SUPPORTING CITIZEN
CASSATION FOR CIVIL AND CRIMINAL RIGHTS, FRANCE CONTINUES TO BE A
CASES, THE COUNCIL OF STATE FOR LEADING EXAMPLE OF DEMOCRATIC
ADMINISTRATIVE CASES, AND THE GOVERNANCE. THE HISTORICAL
CONSTITUTIONAL COUNCIL, WHICH TRANSITIONS, FROM MONARCHY TO
OVERSEES THE CONSTITUTIONALITY MULTIPLE REPUBLICS AND FINALLY TO
OF LAWS. THE STABLE FIFTH REPUBLIC,
UNDERSCORE THE DYNAMIC AND
CITIZENSHIP ADAPTIVE NATURE OF FRENCH
POLITICAL LIFE.
FRENCH CITIZENSHIP IS PRIMARILY
ACQUIRED THROUGH BIRTH, DESCENT,
OR NATURALIZATION. A CHILD BORN TO UK
AT LEAST ONE FRENCH PARENT IS
AUTOMATICALLY A CITIZEN, The United Kingdom is located in Western
REGARDLESS OF BIRTHPLACE. Europe to the northwest of France and
CHILDREN BORN IN FRANCE TO between the North Atlantic Ocean and the
FOREIGN PARENTS MAY ALSO ACQUIRE North Sea. Its capital and largest city is
CITIZENSHIP UNDER CERTAIN London, but other large cities are Glasgow,
CONDITIONS, SUCH AS REACHING Birmingham, Liverpool, and Edinburgh.
ADULTHOOD AND HAVING RESIDED IN
FRANCE FOR A SPECIFIED PERIOD. The politics of the United Kingdom functions
NATURALIZATION REQUIRES within a constitutional monarchy where
RESIDENCY IN FRANCE, INTEGRATION executive power is delegated by legislation
INTO FRENCH SOCIETY, AND and social conventions to a unitary
ADHERENCE TO FRENCH VALUES. parliamentary democracy.

SUFFRAGE A Hereditary Monarch,

King Charles III
SUFFRAGE IN FRANCE IS UNIVERSAL, Serves as head of state
DIRECT, AND SECRET. ALL CITIZENS
AGED 18 AND OVER HAVE THE RIGHT Prime Minister
TO VOTE IN NATIONAL AND LOCAL Rishi Sunak
ELECTIONS. THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM Serves as the elected head of government
VARIES: THE PRESIDENT IS ELECTED
BY A TWO-ROUND SYSTEM, WHILE Constitutional Monarchy
DEPUTIES OF THE NATIONAL All political decisions are taken by the
ASSEMBLY ARE ELECTED BY A SIMILAR government and Parliament. Monarchy is
METHOD. LOCAL ELECTIONS AND the oldest form of government in the UK,
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT ELECTIONS with a king or queen as Head of State and
USE PROPORTIONAL an elected Parliament as Head of State.
REPRESENTATION.
MONARCH
CONCLUSION The current monarch is King Charles III. As
the ceremonial head of state, he performs
FRANCE'S POLITICAL AND duties such as the State Opening of
GOVERNMENTAL STRUCTURE IS A Parliament, granting royal assent to bills,
COMPLEX BLEND OF HISTORICAL and representing the UK at home and
EVOLUTION AND MODERN abroad
DEMOCRATIC PRINCIPLES. THE SEMI-
PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEM BALANCES PRIME MINISTER
The current Prime Minister is Rishi Sunak. The judiciary is independent from the other
He leads the government, sets policies, and two branches. It interprets laws, resolves
makes major decisions. The Prime Minister disputes, and ensures individual rights are
represents the UK internationally and is the protected through various courts, including
head of the Conservative Party. the High Court, Court of Appeal, and
Supreme Court.
PARLIAMENT ( HOUSE O F L O R D S,
HOUSE O F COMMONS) There are three types of British citizenship:
The supreme legislative body. The House of British citizen
Commons is made up of elected Members British Overseas Territories citizen
of Parliament (MPs) who debate and pass British National (Overseas)
laws. The House of Lords, made up of
appointed and hereditary members, reviews A person can acquire British citizenship
legislation proposed by the Commons and through birth, descent, naturalization, or
can suggest amendments. registration. Those who hold any form of
The British political system is a two-party British citizenship have the right to live and
system. Since the 1920s, the two dominant work in the UK without restrictions.
parties have been the Conservative Party
and the Labour Party. ELECTORATE
The UK citizens aged 18 and over who are
CONSERVATIVE PARTY LABOUR PARTY eligible to vote in general elections. They
The British political system is a two-party elect MPs to represent their constituencies
system. Since the 1920s, the two dominant in the House of Commons. The electorate
parties have been the Conservative Party influences government policies through their
and the Labour Party. voting choices.

The party has generally had liberal The first-past-the-post electoral system
economic policies that favor free market maintains the dominance of the two main
economics parties in Parliament, with a third party such
as the Liberal Democrats providing a
LABOUR PARTY working majority. The United Kingdom has
A Democratic Socialist Party which has five types of elections: general, devolved,
historically promoted Social Justice and local, mayoral, and Police and Crime
Equality through economic and social Commissioner. Elections are held on
policies. Election Day and can be held at the
discretion of the prime minister during any
LEGISLATURE - PARLIAMENT five-year period.
Parliament is bicameral, consisting of the
House of Commons (elected by the people) UAE
and the House of Lords (appointed). It
makes laws, approves taxes, and The United Arab Emirates is a country in the
scrutinizes the work of the government. eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula
located on the Southeastern coast of the
King Charles III Persian Gulf and Northwestern coast of the
EXECUTIVE Gulf of Oman.
The monarch serves as head of state while
the Prime Minister leads the government. Forms of Government
The Cabinet, composed of senior ministers,
assists the Prime Minister in governing the Politics of the United Arab Emirates take
country. place in a framework of a federal
presidential elective constitutional monarchy
Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (a federation of absolute monarchies)
T H E JUDICIARY - COURTS
Here are the key elements of the UAE's federal laws and overseeing the federal
form of government: administration.

1. Federal System: The UAE is a Overall, the UAE's government combines

federation of seven emirates, each traditional monarchic elements with a
with a significant degree of federal structure, allowing for both
autonomy. The federal government centralized decision-making and local
has authority over matters such as autonomy within the emirates.
foreign policy, defense, and
immigration, while individual The executive branch is responsible for
emirates retain control over other carrying out the day-to- day functions of the
local matters. government. It is headed by the President of
the UAE, who is elected by the Federal
2. Absolute Monarchy: Each emirate is ruled Supreme Council (a body composed of the
by its own monarch. These monarchs hold rulers of each of the seven emirates.) The
considerable power within their respective
emirates. The President appoints a Vice President
and a Cabinet, which consists of ministers
Here are the key elements of the UAE's responsible for various governmental
form of government: departments.

3. Federal Supreme Council: This is the Election Cycle: President is hereditary.

highest legislative and executive body in the Prime Minister: 5 years
UAE. It consists of the rulers of the seven
emirates. The council elects the President The legislative branch is responsible for
and Vice President of the UAE from among making laws and overseeing the executive
its members. The President of the UAE is branch. The Federal National Council (FNC)
traditionally the ruler of Abu Dhabi, and the serves as the legislative body in the UAE.
Vice President is typically the ruler of Dubai. The FNC is composed of 40 members, half
of whom are elected by Emirati citizens, and
4. President and Vice President: The the other half are appointed by the rulers of
President and Vice President of the UAE the emirates.
are elected by the Federal Supreme
Council. The President acts as the head of Election Cycle: Until dismissal by executive
state, while the Vice President also serves branch
as the Prime Minister, heading the federal
government. The judicial branch is responsible for
interpreting and enforcing the laws passed
5. Federal National Council (FNC): The by the legislative branch. The UAE's court
FNC is a consultative body with advisory system is divided into several levels,
and legislative roles. It has 40 members, including local courts, specialized courts,
half of whom are elected by an electoral and the Federal Supreme Court. The
college, and the other half appointed by the judicial branch is independent of the other
rulers of the emirates. The FNC can review, branches of government, and judges are
propose, and amend federal laws, but it appointed by the President of the UAE.
does not have the power to create or veto
legislation. Election Cycle: 4 years

6. Council of Ministers: This is the federal Emirati nationality law governs citizenship
cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister, and eligibility in the United Arab Emirates(UAE).
includes ministers responsible for various
federal departments and policies. The Foreigners may be naturalized and granted
cabinet is responsible for implementing citizenship, but the process is limited due to
the declining share of the Emirati population quite different from many other countries
and fears of national identity loss due to its unique political system.

Nationality Law The UAE does not have universal suffrage.

The UAE's nationality law is strict, making it Instead, a limited electoral process is in
difficult for foreigners to obtain citizenship. place for selecting members of the Federal
The law primarily aims to preserve the National Council (FNC), which is a
demographic balance and cultural identity of consultative body rather tha a legislative
the native Emirati population. one.

Citizenship by Birth The FNC is composed of 40 members. Half

Citizenship is generally not automatically of these members (20) are appointed by the
granted by birth. A child born to an Emirati rulers of the seven emirates, and the other
father or to an Emirati mother (in specific half (20) are elected by a selected group of
circumstances) is eligible for citizenship. citizens.

Naturalization is rare and subject to The FNC serves in an advisory capacity,

stringent conditions. Applicants typically providing recommendations and feedback
must have resided in the UAE for a long on federal laws and policies, but it does not
period, demonstrate proficiency in Arabic, have legislative power.
and have a clean criminal record.
Additionally, the applicant must be willing to Electoral Colleges
renounce their previous nationality.
Citizens do not vote directly in a national
Foreign women married to Emirati men can election. Instead, each emirate forms an
apply for citizenship after a certain period, electoral college, which is a group of
usually around 7 years, provided they have citizens chosen by the emirate’s ruler.
children from the marriage. The process is
not automatic and requires approval from The size of each electoral college has been
authorities. increasing over the years, but the selection
process remains opaque and at the
The UAE does not generally recognize dual discretion of the rulers.
citizenship. Emiratis acquiring another
nationality may be required to relinquish ARTICLE VIII
their UAE citizenship. However, recent JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT
changes have allowed some flexibility,
particularly for investors and skilled Section 1. The judicial power shall be
professionals. vested in one Supreme Court and in such
lower courts as may be established by law.
Emirati citizens enjoy numerous benefits,
including free education, healthcare, and Section 2. The Congress shall have the
subsidized housing. They also have power to define, prescribe, and apportion
preferential treatment in employment, the jurisdiction of the various courts but may
particularly in the public sector. not deprive the Supreme Court of its
jurisdiction over cases enumerated in
:The UAE has a population of stateless Section 5 hereof.
individuals known as Bidoon, who lack
citizenship and face significant challenges in No law shall be passed reorganizing the
accessing services and rights. The Judiciary when it undermines the security of
government has taken steps to address tenure of its Members.
their status, but many remain stateless.
Section 4. (1) The Supreme Court shall be
In the United Arab Emirates (UAE), the composed of a Chief Justice and fourteen
concept of suffrage, or the right to vote, is Associate Justices. It may sit en banc or in
its discretion, in division of three, five, or Section 1. The Constitutional Commissions,
seven Members. Any vacancy shall be filled which shall be independent, are the Civil
within ninety days from the occurrence Service Commission, the Commission
thereof. on Elections, and the Commission on
Audit.
Section 7. (1) No person shall be appointed
Member of the Supreme Court or any lower B. THE CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION
collegiate court unless he is a natural-born
citizen of the Philippines. A Member of the Section 1. (1) The civil service shall be
Supreme Court must be at least forty administered by the Civil Service
years of age, and must have been for Commission composed of a Chairman and
fifteen years or more, a judge of a lower two Commissioners who shall be
court or engaged in the practice of law in natural-born citizens of the Philippines and,
the Philippines. at the time of their appointment, at least
thirty-five years of age, with proven capacity
(3) A Member of the Judiciary must be a for public administration, and must not have
person of proven competence, integrity, been candidates for any elective position in
probity, and independence. the elections immediately preceding their
appointment.
Section 8. (1) A Judicial and Bar Council is
hereby created under the supervision of the (2) The Chairman and the Commissioners
Supreme Court composed of the Chief shall be appointed by the President with the
Justice as ex officio Chairman, the consent of the Commission on
Secretary of Justice, and a representative of Appointments for a term of seven years
the Congress as ex officio Members, a without reappointment. Of those first
representative of the Integrated Bar, a appointed, the Chairman shall hold office for
professor of law, a retired Member of the seven years, a Commissioner for five years,
Supreme Court, and a representative of the and another Commissioner for three years,
private sector. without reappointment.

Section 9. The Members of the Supreme Section 3. The Civil Service Commission, as
Court and judges of the lower courts shall the central personnel agency of the
be appointed by the President from a list of Government, shall establish a career
at least three nominees prepared by the service and adopt measures to promote
Judicial and Bar Council for every vacancy. morale, efficiency, integrity, responsiveness,
Such appointments need no confirmation. progressiveness, and courtesy in the civil
service. It shall strengthen the merit and
Section 11. The Members of the Supreme rewards system, integrate all human
Court and judges of lower courts shall hold resources development programs for all
office during good behavior until they reach levels and ranks, and institutionalize a
the age of seventy years or become management climate conducive to public
incapacitated to discharge the duties of their accountability. It shall submit to the
office. The Supreme Court en banc shall President and the Congress an annual
have the power to discipline judges of lower report on its personnel programs.
courts, or order their dismissal by a vote of
a majority of the Members who actually took C. THE COMMISSION ON ELECTIONS
part in the deliberations on the issues in the
case and voted thereon. Section 1. (1) There shall be a Commission
on Elections composed of a Chairman and
ARTICLE IX six Commissioners who shall be
Constitutional Commissions natural-born citizens of the Philippines and,
at the time of their appointment, at least
A. COMMON PROVISIONS thirty-five years of age, holders of a college
degree, and must not have been candidates
for any elective positions in the immediately
preceding elections. However, a majority Section 3. No law shall be passed
thereof, including the Chairman, shall be exempting any entity of the Government or
members of the Philippine Bar who have its subsidiaries in any guise whatsoever, or
been engaged in the practice of law for at any investment of public funds, from the
least ten years. jurisdiction of the Commission on Audit.

(2) The Chairman and the Commissioners Section 4. The Commission shall submit to
shall be appointed by the President with the the President and the Congress, within the
consent of the Commission on time fixed by law, an annual report covering
Appointments for a term of seven years the financial condition and operation of the
without reappointment. Of those first Government, its subdivisions, agencies, and
appointed, three Members shall hold office instrumentalities, including
for seven years, two Members for five government-owned or controlled
years, and the last Members for three years, corporations, and non-governmental entities
without reappointment. subject to its audit, and recommend
measures necessary to improve their
Section 3. The Commission on Elections effectiveness and efficiency.
may sit en banc or in two divisions, and
shall promulgate its rules of procedure in ARTICLE X LOCAL GOVERNMENT
order to expedite disposition of election
cases, including pre-proclamation Section 1. The territorial and political
controversies. All such election cases shall subdivisions of the Republic of the
be heard and decided in division, provided Philippines are the provinces, cities,
that motions for reconsideration of decisions municipalities, and barangays. There shall
shall be decided by the Commission en be autonomous regions in Muslim Mindanao
banc. and the Cordilleras as hereinafter provided.

D. THE COMMISSION ON AUDIT Section 2. The territorial and political

Section 1. (1) There shall be a Commission subdivisions shall enjoy local autonomy.
on Audit composed of a Chairman and two
Commissioners, who shall be natural-born Section 3. The Congress shall enact a local
citizens of the Philippines and, at the time of government code which shall provide for a
their appointment, at least thirty-five years more responsive and accountable local
of age, Certified Public Accountants with not government structure instituted through a
less than ten years of auditing experience, system of decentralization with effective
or members of the Philippine Bar who have mechanisms of recall, initiative, and
been engaged in the practice of law for at referendum, allocate among the different
least ten years, and must not have been local government units their powers,
candidates for any elective position in the responsibilities, and resources, and provide
elections immediately preceding their for the qualifications, election, appointment
appointment. At no time shall all Members and removal, term, salaries, powers and
of the Commission belong to the same functions and duties of local officials, and all
profession. other matters relating to the organization
and operation of the local units.
(2) The Chairman and the Commissioners
shall be appointed by the President with the Section 4. The President of the Philippines
consent of the Commission on shall exercise general supervision over local
Appointments for a term of seven years governments. Provinces with respect to
without reappointment. Of those first component cities and municipalities, and
appointed, the Chairman shall hold office for cities and municipalities with respect to
seven years, one Commissioner for five component barangays, shall ensure that the
years, and the other Commissioner for three acts of their component units are within the
years, without reappointment.
scope of their prescribed powers and Section 2. The President, the
functions. Vice-President, the Members of the
Supreme Court, the Members of the
Section 5. Each local government unit shall Constitutional Commissions, and the
have the power to create its own sources of Ombudsman may be removed from office
revenues and to levy taxes, fees and on impeachment for, and conviction of,
charges subject to such guidelines and culpable violation of the Constitution,
limitations as the Congress may provide, treason, bribery, graft and corruption, other
consistent with the basic policy of local high crimes, or betrayal of public trust. All
autonomy. other public officers and employees may be
removed from office as provided by law, but
Section 6. Local government units shall not by impeachment.
have a just share, as determined by law, in
the national taxes which shall be Section 3. (1) The House of
automatically released to them. Representatives shall have the exclusive
power to initiate all cases of impeachment.
Section 7. Local governments shall be
entitled to an equitable share in the (2) A verified complaint for impeachment
proceeds of the utilization and development may be filed by any Member of the House of
of the national wealth within their respective Representatives or by any citizen upon a
areas, in the manner provided by law, resolution or endorsement by any Member
including sharing the same with the thereof, which shall be included in the Order
inhabitants by way of direct benefits. of Business within ten session days, and
referred to the proper Committee within
Section 8. The term of office of elective local three session days thereafter. The
officials, except barangay officials, which Committee, after hearing, and by a majority
shall be determined by law, shall be three vote of all its Members, shall submit its
years and no such official shall serve for report to the House within sixty session
more than three consecutive terms. days from such referral, together with the
corresponding resolution. The resolution
AUTONOMOUS REGIONS shall be calendared for consideration by the
House within ten session days from receipt
Section 15. There shall be created thereof.
autonomous regions in Muslim Mindanao
and in the Cordilleras consisting of (3) A vote of at least one-third of all the
provinces, cities, municipalities, and Members of the House shall be necessary
geographical areas sharing common and either to affirm a favorable resolution with
distinctive historical and cultural heritage, the Articles of Impeachment of the
economic and social structures, and other Committee, or override its contrary
relevant characteristics within the resolution. The vote of each Member shall
framework of this Constitution and the be recorded.
national sovereignty as well as territorial
integrity of the Republic of the Philippines. Section 7. The existing Tanodbayan shall
hereafter be known as the Office of the
ARTICLE XI Special Prosecutor. It shall continue to
ACCOUNTABILITY OF PUBLIC OFFICERS function and exercise its powers as now or
hereafter may be provided by law, except
Section 1. Public office is a public trust. those conferred on the Office of the
Public officers and employees must, at all Ombudsman created under this
times, be accountable to the people, serve Constitution.
them with utmost responsibility, integrity,
loyalty, and efficiency; act with patriotism Section 8. The Ombudsman and his
and justice, and lead modest lives. Deputies shall be natural-born citizens of
the Philippines, and at the time of their
appointment, at least forty years old, of Reputation: Must be of proven competence,
recognized probity and independence, and integrity, probity, and independence.
members of the Philippine Bar, and must Lower Court Judges (Regional Trial Court,
not have been candidates for any elective Metropolitan Trial Court, etc.):
office in the immediately preceding election.
The Ombudsman must have, for ten years Citizenship: Must be a citizen of the
or more, been a judge or engaged in the Philippines.
practice of law in the Philippines. Age: Must meet specific age requirements
as determined by the Judicial and Bar
Impeachable officers: The House of Council (usually not younger than 30 years
Representatives, one of the houses of old).
the bicameral Congress, has the Experience: Must have been engaged in the
exclusive power to initiate all cases of practice of law for at least 10 years for
impeachment against the president, vice Regional Trial Courts, or fewer years for
president, members of the Supreme lower courts as prescribed by law.
Court, members of the Constitutional Reputation: Must be of good moral
Commissions and the ombudsman. character and integrity.
These qualifications ensure that members
USA: Presidential - The President is the of the judiciary in the Philippines are
head of state and government, separate experienced, knowledgeable, and uphold
from the legislative branch. high ethical standards.

UK: Parliamentary - The Prime Minister is In the Philippines, the Constitution specifies
the head of government, while the monarch the officers who can be impeached. These
is the ceremonial head of state. The are:
government is formed by the party with the
most seats in Parliament. The President
The Vice President
FRANCE: Semi-presidential - France has The Members of the Supreme Court
both a President and a Prime Minister. The (Justices)
President is the head of state and has The Members of the Constitutional
significant powers, while the Prime Minister Commissions (such as the Commission on
is the head of government. Elections, the Civil Service Commission,
and the Commission on Audit)
CHINA: Single-party state - China has a The Ombudsman
parliamentary system, but it is controlled by These officials can be impeached for
one party, the Communist Party. The serious offenses such as treason, bribery,
President is the head of state, and the graft and corruption, other high crimes,
Premier is the head of government. betrayal of public trust, or culpable violation
of the Constitution.
UAE: Federal absolute monarchy - The
UAE does not fit strictly into presidential or
parliamentary categories. It is a federation
of monarchies, and the President is elected
by the rulers of the emirates.

Supreme Court Justice:

Citizenship: Must be a natural-born citizen

of the Philippines.
Age: Must be at least 40 years old.
Experience: Must have been a judge of a
lower court or engaged in the practice of law
in the Philippines for at least 15 years.