POWER AMPLIFIERS

Dr. Chandrima Mondal

Assistant Professor
Jadavpur University

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 Classification Of Amplifiers

1. According to frequency capabilities.

Amplifiers are classified as audio amplifiers , radio frequency amplifiers
• AF Amplifier are used to amplify the signals lying in the audio
range ( i.e. 20 Hz to 20 kHz )
• RF amplifiers are used to amplify signals having very high
frequency.

2. According to coupling methods.

• R-C coupled amplifiers,
• Transformer coupled amplifiers
• Direct Coupled

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 Classification Of Amplifiers

3. According to use.
a. Voltage amplifiers

• Amplify the input voltage, if possible with minimal current at the output.
• The power gain of the voltage amplifier is low.
• The main application is to strengthen the signal to make it less affected by noise
and attenuation.
• Ideal voltage amp. have infinite input impedance & zero output impedance.

b. Power amplifiers

• Amplify the input power, if possible with minimal change in the output voltage
• Power amp. are used in devices which require a large power across the loads.
• In multi stage amplifiers, power amplification is made in the final stages

Audio amplifiers and RF amplifiers use it to deliver sufficient power the load.

Servo motor controllers use power it to drive the motors.

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 Classification Of Amplifiers

Parameters Voltage amplifiers Power amplifiers

current gain low high

Voltage gain high low
Heat dissipation low high
cooling mechanism not required required
Transistor Size Small Large to dissipate heat
Base Width small Wide to handle higher current
Coupling usually R − C coupling transformer coupling
Input voltage low (a few mV) High ( 2 − 4 V)
Collector current low (≅1 mA) High ( > 100 mA)

Output impedance High (≅12 kΩ) low (≅16 Ω)

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 Power Amplifier Characteristics
• Deliver a large current to a small load resistance e.g. audio speaker;
or to deliver a large voltage to a large load resistance e.g. switching
power supply;

• Delivers large current levels.

• Requires large voltage swings.

• Draws a large amount of power from supply.

• Deliver power to the load efficiently

• Dissipates a large amount of power,

5 therefore gets “hot”.
 When designing a power amplifier we normally require
a low output resistance so that the circuit can deliver a
high output current

 we often use an emitter-follower/ Source Follower

this does not produce voltage gain but has a low

output resistance

 in many cases the load applied to a power amplifier is

not simply resistive but also has an inductive or
capacitive element

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POWER TRANSISTORS - BJT

Transistor limitations

1 maximum rated current,

2 maximum rated voltage,
3 maximum rated power, and
4 maximum allowed temperature.

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 Figure of Merits
 Amplifier efficiency
an important consideration in the design of power amplifiers is
efficiency
power dissipated in the load

. Efficiency =
power absorbed from the supply

efficiency determines the power dissipated in the amplifier itself

 power dissipation is important because it determines the

amount of waste heat produced

excess heat may require heat sinks, cooling fans, etc.

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 Classes of Amplifiers
They are grouped together based on their Q-points on the DC
load line.

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 Class A Amplifier

In class-A; the transistor conducts during the

whole cycle of sinusoidal input signal

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 Class B Amplifier

In class-B; the transistor conducts during

one-half cycle of input signal

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 Class AB Amplifier

In class-AB; the transistor conducts for slightly

more than half a cycle of input signal

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 Class C Amplifier

In class-C; the transistor conducts for less

than half a cycle of input signal

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Cass–A operation
For maximum swing ( +ve and –ve), transistor is biased such
that the Q point is at centre of the load line.

The transistor conducts for a full cycle of the input signal

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Instantaneous power dissipation in transistor is;

pQ = vCE iC

For sinusoidal input signal;

iC = I CQ + I p sin ωt

And;
vCE = VCEQ − V p sin ωt

For maximum possible swing;

VCC VCC
I p = I CQ VCEQ = and V p =
2 2 15
Therefore;

VCC I CQ (See graphical

pQ =
2
(1 − sin 2
ωt ) representation)

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When the input signal = 0, the transistor must be capable of
handling a continuous power of;

VCC I CQ
2
Efficiency;

PL
η=
PS

PL = average ac power to the load

PS = average power supplied by the source (VCC)

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For maximum possible swing;

1 1  VCC  VCC I CQ
PL = V p I p =   I CQ =
2 2 2  4

Power supplied by the source;

PS = VCC I CQ Maximum theoretical

efficiency of class A
amplifier is therefore
The efficiency;
25%
VCC I CQ 1
η= = 0.25
4 VCC I CQ
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Transformer Coupled Class A Power Amplifier

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20
Advantages
 No loss of signal power in the base or collector resistors.
 Excellent impedance matching is achieved.
 Gain is high.
 DC isolation is provided.

Disadvantages
 Low frequency signals are less amplified comparatively.
 Hum noise is introduced by transformers.
 Transformers are bulky and costly.
 Poor frequency response.

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 Class B Amplifier

In class-B; the transistor conducts during

one-half cycle of input signal

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 Class B Amplifier
 The class B amplifier is biased at the cutoff point so that

VCEQ = VCE ( cut −0 ff ) = VCC and I CQ = 0

 It is brought out of cutoff and operates in its linear region when the input signal
drives the transistor into conduction.

 The Circuit only conducts for the

positive half of the cycle.

 Can not amplify the entire cycle

emitter-follower circuit

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  To amplify the entire cycle, it is necessary to add a second class B amplifier
that operates on the negative half of the cycle.
 The combination of two class B amplifiers working together is called push-pull
operation
 There are two common approaches for using push-pull amplifiers to
reproduce the entire waveform.

1. Transformer Coupling

The input transformer thus

converts the input signal to two
out-of-phase signals for the two
npn transistors.

The output transformer combines the signals by permitting current in both

directions, even though one transistor is always cut off.

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2. Complementary Symmetry Transistors

The figure shows one of the most popular types of push-pull class B amplifiers
using two emitter-followers and both positive and negative power supplies.

This is a complementary amplifier because one emitter-follower uses an npn
transistor and the other a pnp, which conduct on opposite alternations of the
input cycle.

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Complementary push-pull circuit

Assuming ideal An approximate class-B

transistor; circuit comprising
when vI = 0; complementary BJT pair
working in push-pull
both Qn & Qp are off; configuration.

when vI > 0;
Qn conducts & Qp is off;

when vI < 0;
Qp conducts & Qn is off

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Assuming cut-in voltage of transistor is 0.6 V, vO = 0 for a
range 0.6 V < vI <- 0.6 V.
The transfer characteristic becomes non-linear (See
Figure)
The range where both transistors are simultaneously off
known as the dead band
The output will be distorted – crossover distortion (See
Figure)
Crossover distortion can be eliminated by biasing the
transistor with small quiescent current – class-AB

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Dead band

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 Crossover Distortion

When the dc base voltage is zero, both transistors are off and the input signal
voltage must exceed VBE before a transistor conducts.

Because of this, there is a time interval between the positive and negative
alternations of the input when neither transistor is conducting, as shown in
Figure.

The resulting distortion in the output waveform is called crossover
distortion.

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Theoretical maximum efficiency of class-B amplifiers

vCEn = VCC − V p sin ωt

vO = V p sin ωt
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i Cn

i Cp

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 vO = V p sin ωt i Cn

0 π
Maximum possible value of Vp
is VCC.

vCEn = VCC − V p sin ωt

Vp
iCn = sin ωt for 0 < ωt < π
RL
π 2π
and i Cp

iCn = 0 for π < ωt < 2π

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The instantaneous power in Qn is;
pQn = vCEn iCn
 Vp 
= (VCC − V p sin ωt ) sin ωt  for 0 < ωt < π
 RL 
and
pQn = 0 for π < ωt < 2π

PQn = PQp (symmetry)

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The total power supplied by the
two sources is;

 Vp 
PS = 2VCC I S = 2VCC  
 πRL 

The power delivered to the load is;

PL =
V 2
O ( rms )
=
(
V p / 2 )
2

=
V p2
RL RL 2 RL

PL πV p
The efficiency is; η= =
PS 4VCC
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Maximum efficiency occures when V p = VCC
Under this condition;

π
η= = 0.785
4

Maximum theoretical efficiency

of class B amplifier is therefore
78.5%

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 Class AB
• Class AB is probably the most common amplifier class
currently used in home stereo and similar amplifiers.

• Class AB amps combine the good points of class A and

B amps.

• They have the improved efficiency and less harmonic

distortion of class B amplifiers and no cross-over
distortion a lot closer to that of a class A amplifier.
 Biasing the Push-Pull Amplifier for Class AB Operation

To overcome crossover distortion, the biasing is adjusted to just overcome the VBE of the transistors

In class AB operation, the push-pull stages are biased into slight conduction, even when no input
signal is present.

This can be done with a voltage-divider and diode arrangement, as shown

 Using equal values of R1 and R2 the positive and

negative supply voltages forces the voltage at
point A to equal 0 V and eliminates the need for
an input coupling capacitor.

 When the diode characteristics of D1 and D2 are

closely matched to the characteristics of the
transistor BE junctions, the current in the diodes
and the current in the transistors are the same;
((current mirror.))

The diode current will be the same as ICQ

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 Biasing the Push-Pull Amplifier for Class AB Operation 41

AC Operation
 The Q-point is slightly above cutoff.
 The ac cutoff voltage is at VCC
 The ac saturation current is:

V CEQ
I csat =
R Lac

In class A , the Q-point is near the middle and there is significant current in the
transistors even with no signal.

In class A B , when there is no signal, the transistors have only a very small
current and therefore dissipate very little power.

Thus, the efficiency of a class AB amplifier can be much higher than a class A
amplifier.
42
 VCEQ=20V Vp(out)=VCEQ=20V
ICQ= (20-0.7)/470=41 mA Ip(out)= 20/16 A=1.260 A
 Single-ended push-pull amplifier.

 The circuit operation is the same as that described previously,

except the bias is set to force the output emitter voltage to be

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Eliminating crossover distortion in a transformer-coupled push-pull amplifier. The diode compensates for the base-emitter drop
of the transistors and produces class AB operation.
Load lines for a complementary symmetry push-pull amplifier. Only the load lines for the npn transistor are shown.
A Darlington class AB push-pull amplifier.
 Class C
• Class C amps are never used for audio circuits.

• They are commonly used in RF circuits.

• Class C amplifiers operate the output transistor in a

state that results in tremendous distortion (it would
be totally unsuitable for audio signal reproduction).
Basic class C amplifier operation (non inverting).
Basic class C operation.
Class C waveforms.
 Class C amplifiers
 Class C amplifiers are biased so that conduction occurs for much less than 180o
 Class C amplifiers are more efficient than either class A , B, or AB

 The output amplitude is a nonlinear function of the input, so class C amplifiers

are not used for linear amplification.
 They are generally used in radio frequency (RF) applications, including
resonance circuits

Basic Class C Operation

 A class C amplifier is normally operated with a

resonant circuit load, so the resistive load is used
only for the purpose of illustrating the concept.
 The ac source voltage has a peak value that
exceeds the barrier potential of the base-emitter
junction for a short time near the positive peak of 54
each cycle,
 Class C amplifiers
Basic Class C Operation
 During this short interval, the transistor is turned
on.
 The power dissipation of the transistor in a class
C amplifier is low because it is on for only a
small percentage of the input cycle
 The power dissipation during the on time is

 The power dissipation averaged over the entire cycle is

Check EXAMPLE 7–7 (Floyde) 55

 Tuned Class C Operation
 Because the collector voltage (output) is not a replica of the input, the resistively
loaded class C amplifier alone is of no value in linear applications.
 It is therefore necessary to use a class C amplifier with a parallel resonant circuit
(tank), as shown

 The short pulse of collector current on each cycle of the input initiates and
sustains the oscillation of the tank circuit so that an output sinusoidal voltage is
produced

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 Cass–C operation

Transistor conducts
for less than half a
cycle of input signal

• Tuned circuit is required.

• Used for RF amplifier.
• Efficiency > 78.5%
B – E junction is reverse-biased to
obtain Q-point beyond cut-off.
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 Heat Sink
As power transistors handle large currents, they always heat up during operation.
Since transistor is a temperature dependent device, the heat generated must be
dissipated to the surroundings in order to keep the temperature within permissible
limits. Generally, the transistor is fixed on a metal sheet (usually aluminium) so that
additional heat is transferred to the Al sheet. The metal sheet that serves to
dissipate the additional heat from the power transistor is known as heat sink.
Most of the heat within the transistor is produced at the **collector base junction.
The heat sink increases the surface area and allows heat to escape from the
collector junction easily. The result is that temperature of the transistor is sufficiently
lowered. Thus heat sink is a direct practical means of combating the undesirable
thermal effects e.g. thermal runaway.
It may be noted that the ability of any heat sink to transfer heat to the surroundings
depends upon its material, volume, area, shape, contact between case and sink
and movement of air around the sink. Finned aluminium heat sinks yield the best
heat transfer per unit cost. It should be realised that the use of heat sink alone may
not be sufficient to prevent thermal runaway under all conditions. In designing a
transistor circuit, consideration should also be given to the choice of (i) operating
point (ii) ambient temperatures which are likely to be encountered and (iii) the type
of transistor e.g. metal case transistors are more readily cooled by conduction than
plastic ones. Circuits may also be designed to compensate automatically for
temperature changes and thus stabilise the operation of the transistor components. 62
The permissible power dissipation of the transistor is very important item for
power transistors. The permissible power rating of a transistor is calculated
from the following relation :

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