POWER ELECTRONICS NOTES

2011/2012 ACADEMIC YEAR

Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO POWER ELECTRONICS ........................................................................ 1
1.1 Definition of Power Electronics ..................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Types of Converters ....................................................................................................................... 2
1.2.1 Based on Input and Output ...................................................................................................... 2
1.2.2 Based on the Commutation of the Semiconductors .................................................................. 2
1.3 Applications of Power Electronics ................................................................................................. 3
2.0 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES .................................................................................... 9
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Power Diodes ................................................................................................................................ 9
2.2.1 Basic Structure and I-V Characteristics ................................................................................. 10
2.2.2 Switching Characteristics ...................................................................................................... 13
2.2.3 Reverse Recovery ................................................................................................................. 13
2.2.4 Schottky Diodes .................................................................................................................... 14
2.2.5 Operation of Diodes in Series ................................................................................................ 15
2.2.6 Operation of Diodes in Parallel.............................................................................................. 16
2.3 Thyristors .................................................................................................................................... 18
2.3.1 Structure and Operation......................................................................................................... 19
2.3.2 I-V Characteristics ................................................................................................................ 20
2.3.3 Types of Thyristors ............................................................................................................... 21
2.4 General Characteristics of Controllable Switches ......................................................................... 22
2.4.1 Ideal Characteristics in Controllable Switches ....................................................................... 22
2.4.2 Power Dissipation in Controllable Switches .......................................................................... 22
2.4.3 Desired Characteristics in Practical Switches ......................................................................... 24
2.5 Power Bipolar Junction Transistors .............................................................................................. 25
2.5.1 Structure ............................................................................................................................... 25
2.5.2 I-V Characteristics ................................................................................................................ 26
2.6 Power MOSFETs......................................................................................................................... 27
2.6.1 Basic Structure ...................................................................................................................... 27
2.6.2 I-V Characteristics ................................................................................................................ 28
2.7 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors ............................................................................................... 30
2.7.1 Background........................................................................................................................... 30

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 2.7.2 Structure ............................................................................................................................... 30
2.7.2 I-V Characteristics ................................................................................................................ 32
2.8 Summary of Controllable Devices ................................................................................................ 33
3.0 DIODE RECTIFIERS...................................................................................................................... 35
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 35
3.2 Single-Phase Half-Wave Diode Rectifiers .................................................................................... 37
3.2.1 Performance Parameters ........................................................................................................ 37
7.3 Single-Phase Full-Wave (Bridge) Diode Rectifier ........................................................................ 40
7.3.1 Circuit Operation with Purely Resistive Load ........................................................................ 41
3.3.2 Circuit Operation with Highly Inductive Load ....................................................................... 44
3.3 Three-Phase Diode Rectifiers ....................................................................................................... 47
3.3.1 Three-Phase Half-Wave Diode Rectifier ................................................................................ 47
3.3.2 Three-Phase Full-Wave (Bridge) Diode Rectifier .................................................................. 52
3.3.3 Twelve-Pulse Rectifier .......................................................................................................... 54
4.0 CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS ........................................................................................................ 56
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 56
4.2 Single-Phase Thyristor Rectifiers ........................................................................................... 56
4.2.1 Single-Phase Half-Wave Thyristor Rectifier .......................................................................... 56
4.2.2 Single-Phase Full-Wave Thyristor Rectifiers ......................................................................... 58

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 INTRODUCTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO POWER ELECTRONICS

1.1 Definition of Power Electronics

Power electronics involves the study of circuits and devices involved in the control and processing of
electrical energy. Mostly, the conversion and processing involves the conversion of electrical energy from
one form to another form more suitable for a particular application. This comes about due to the various
forms in which electrical energy is generated and used. For example the utility supply is in form of ac, but
there are circuits which require dc for their operation, in which case there is need to convert from ac to dc.

Fig 1.1 shows a block diagram of a general power electronics system.

Fig 1.1 Power Electronics System

The source is an electrical energy source which could be the utility supply, a stand-alone generator, a
battery, a photovoltaic array etc. This gives the input electrical energy in form of voltage and current
which can be ac or dc.

The power processor also called the Power Electronics Converter is a circuit consisting of power
semiconductor devices as the main components and other components such as resistors, capacitors and
inductors which work together to convert the input electrical energy into a different form on the output.
The power processor is the “muscle” of the power electronic system.

The controller is an electronic circuit or a number of electronic circuits which generate control signals
which control the operation of the semiconductor devices in the power processor. The controller can be a
simple electronic circuit consisting of a few basic components or it can be a sophisticated microprocessor,
digital signal processor or a computer. The complexity of the controller depends on the requirements of
the power processor. Some controllers have a feedback loop and they compare the measured values to a
set of reference values to obtain a very stable output. The controller is the “brain” of the power electronic
system.

The load is any device that uses electrical energy for its operation. Examples of loads include motors,
electronic circuits, telecommunications circuits, etc. The load is fed with a voltage of the required form
and it draws a current of the required form.

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 INTRODUCTION

Power electronics is closely related to other areas of electrical engineering such as Control Systems,
Electrical Machines and Drives, Analogue and Digital Electronics, Physical Electronics, Microprocessors,
Electrical Circuits, Electrical Energy and Power Systems, and Electric Fields. A good understanding of
power electronics requires some understanding of other areas of electrical engineering.

1.2 Types of Converters

There are a number of different types of converters which can be classified in a number of different ways.
Each type of converter performs according to its specifications and applications. The main classifications
of converters are given below.

1.2.1 Based on Input and Output

Based on the form (or frequency) of the input and output voltages and/or currents there are the following
types of converters.

1. AC to DC Converters
These are also known as rectifiers and convert an AC voltage into a DC voltage. The input AC
voltage is usually from the utility supply. The output DC voltage can be controlled or uncontrolled
depending on the type of semiconductor devices used. Diode rectifiers give an uncontrolled DC
output voltage, while thyristor rectifiers and forced commutated rectifiers (which use fully
controllable switches such as transistors) give a controllable DC output voltage.

2. DC to DC Converters
These are also known as choppers and they convert a DC voltage at one voltage level into a DC
voltage at another voltage level. They use fully controllable semiconductor devices. Common types
include the Step-down (Buck) DC to DC converter, the Step-up (Boost) DC to DC converter, and the
Step-down-Step-up (Buck-boost) DC to DC Converter.

3. DC to AC Converters
These are also called inverters. They convert a DC voltage into an AC voltage. They are divided into
voltage-source inverters which use fully controllable semiconductor devices, and current-source
inverters which use thyristors. Current-source inverters are normally found in very high power
applications.

4. AC to AC converters
These convert an AC voltage at one voltage level and frequency into an AC voltage at a different
voltage level or frequency. Those which change the voltage level are called Controllers while those
which change the frequency are called Cycloconverters. They use thyristors or fully controllable
devices. Cycloconverters are normally used in very big low speed drives.

1.2.2 Based on the Commutation of the Semiconductors

Based on the way the semiconductors in the converter are controlled, we have the following types of
converters.

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 INTRODUCTION

1. Line Frequency or Naturally Commutated Converters

In these converters, the utility AC line voltage facilitates the turn-on and turn-off of the
semiconductor devices. They normally use diodes and thyristors, and operate at line frequency and
they are usually AC to DC or AC to AC converters.
2. Switching or Forced Commutated Converters
In these converters the turn-on and the turn-off of the semiconductor devices is facilitated by the
controller which sends a “HIGH” signal to turn the device on and a “LOW” signal to turn the device
off. The turn-on and turn-off is done at a very high frequency called the switching frequency
(normally greater than 20kHz). This requires a device whose turn-on and turn-off can be fully
controlled. Forced commutated converters are normally DC to DC or DC to AC converters.
3. Resonant and Quasi-Resonant Converters
These converters are similar to forced commutated converters, but differ in the instant the switching
is done. In forced commutated converters, the switching is done when there is either a voltage across
the device or a current through it. This is called “hard” switching. In resonant and quasi-resonant
converters, the switching is done at when either the voltage or the current or both are equal to zero.

1.3 Applications of Power Electronics

Power electronics is used in a wide range of applications, ranging from power ratings of a few watts to
mega watts. Some of the common applications are discussed below.

1. Linear Power Supplies

A linear power supply converts the utility AC voltage to a DC voltage at a lower voltage level to
supply electronic equipment. Fig 1.2 shows a block diagram of a linear power supply.

Fig 1.2 Linear power supply

The line-frequency (50Hz) transformer steps down the voltage to a lower level. The diode rectifier
converts the AC into unregulated DC. The transistor regulator works like a variable resistor and gives
a regulated DC output by dropping some voltage across it.

The advantages of a linear power supply are:

 Easy to design and make because it uses basic components.

 Relatively cheap.
 Produces low distortion and noise resulting in less electromagnetic interference (EMI).

The main drawbacks of the linear regulator are:

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 INTRODUCTION

 It is bulky and heavy because of the 50Hz step down transformer, and low-frequency filter
components which are bulky.
 It has a low efficiency because the transistor regulator is used in its active region where it acts as
a variable resistor and dissipates a lot of power as heat.

2. Switch-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS)

A switch-mode power supply is used to supply a low DC voltage to an electronic appliance or circuit.
It differs from a linear power supply in that it does not use a line-frequency transformer and the
transistor is used in its switch-mode. This means that the transistor is either in its “on-state”
(saturation region) or in its “off-state” (cut-off region). Fig 1.4 shows a SMPS.

Fig 1.3 Switch-mode power supply

The main advantages of a SMPS are:

 Small and light weight because it uses a high-frequency transformer and high-frequency filter
components which are small and light.
 High efficiency because the transistor in its switch-mode does not dissipate a lot of power.

Its drawbacks are:

 Relatively complex to design and make

 Relatively expensive. However, with recent developments in the manufacture of power
semiconductor devices component prices have been reducing.
 The switching produces high-frequency harmonics which can interfere with other equipment in
its vicinity (EMI).

3. Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is used to maintain power to sensitive equipment when there
is a power outage. Some UPSs also work as power conditioners. A power conditioner is a UPS which
maintains a stable voltage supply to a load when there a re fluctuations in the utility supply. Fig 1.4
shows a block diagram of a UPS.

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 INTRODUCTION

Fig 1.4 Uninterruptible power supply

When the utility supply is present, the batteries are charged through the rectifier. When the utility
supply is interrupted, the batteries supply the load through the inverter, which converts the DC from
the batteries into AC required by the load. The change-over switch automatically changes from utility
to battery supply and vice versa depending on the state of the supply.

4. Variable Speed Drives (VSD)

Some applications require that a motor is run at different speeds. For example in a pumping process
which requires variable fluid flow, the flow rate can be controlled by using a throttling valve.
However, this results in high losses because the power drawn from the supply is constant. A more
efficient solution will be to vary the speed of the motor driving the pump. By varying the motor
speed, the flow rate will be varied and the input power will be varied accordingly. Variable speed
drives can be AC or DC. Fig 1.5 shows the block diagram of an AC variable speed drive (VSD).

Fig 1.5 AC variable speed drive

In recent years there has been a shift from DC VSDs to AC VSDs due to the robustness, higher
energy density and less maintenance requirements of AC machines compared to DC machines.

5. Battery Chargers
Batteries are used to store energy in chemical form and release this stored energy as electrical energy
when required. Batteries are the most popular method of energy storage in electrical systems.
Batteries are normally charged from the utility supply and the battery charger converts the utility AC
into DC which charges the battery. Classical battery chargers are simply rectifiers with simple control

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 INTRODUCTION

circuits, while modern battery chargers use a number of switch-mode converter stages controlled by a
microprocessor.

6. High-Voltage DC Transmission
Electrical energy is generated, transmitted and distributed in form of three-phase AC voltages and
currents. However, there are some instances where it becomes necessary to transmit the energy in
form of DC voltage and current. This is usually when large quantities of energy have to be
transmitted over very long distances, where two unsynchronized power systems are to be
interconnected, or where transmission is to be done using submarine cables. Fig 1.6 shows the
arrangement of an HVDC transmission system.

Fig 1.6 HVDC transmission system

The power flow in an HVDC system is bi-directional and the converters work as both rectifiers (when
power flows from the AC side to the DC side) and inverters (when power flows from the DC side to
the AC side).

7. Renewable Energy Systems

Renewable energy sources include energy sources which are not depleted with use such as solar,
wind, geothermal, small hydro etc. The world energy outlook in the 21st century has been dominated
by a shift from traditional electrical energy generation methods such as coal-fired thermal to
renewable energy generation. The power generated has to be fed into the grid and this requires the use
of power electronics converters. Fig 1.7 shows a wind energy generation system connected to the
grid. A similar arrangement can be used for a small unsynchronized hydro power station.

Fig 1.7 Wind energy system

An induction generator is used due to the varying wind speed. The voltage from the generator is
converted to Dc and then converted back to AC synchronized to the grid.

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 INTRODUCTION

8. Solar Photovoltaic Systems

Solar energy is the most abundant energy resource on earth. The solar energy that hits the earth’s
surface in one hour is about the same as the amount consumed by all human activities in a year.
Direct conversion of sunlight into electricity in PV cells is one of the three main solar active
technologies, the two others being concentrating solar power (CSP) and solar thermal collectors for
heating and cooling (SHC). PV technology has been in use since the 1960s when it was used to power
satellites and space stations. Today, PV provides 0.1% of total global electricity generation. Fig 1.8
shows the arrangement of a solar PV system.

Photovoltaic
array

Charge
Controller DC
Loads

AC
Loads

Battery bank Inverter

Fig 1.8 Typical solar PV system

The charge controller controls the charging and discharging of the batteries. The battery acts as
energy storage so that the system continues supplying power when there is no sunlight. AC loads are
supplied through the inverter while DC loads are supplied directly from the batteries.

9. Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Electric and hybrid electric vehicles have been around for the last hundred years but have only
become popular in the last ten years due to problems with energy storage. An electric vehicle (EV) is
propelled by electrical means and usually requires a battery which supplies power to traction motors
located in the wheels. The drawback of electric vehicles is that they have a short range, i.e. the battery
has to be recharged after a certain distance. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) are powered by both
electrical means and an internal combustion engine (ICE). The main configurations of HEVs include
parallel, series and series-parallel, where the name is derived from the relative connection of the
battery and the ICE. In all types of EVs and HEVs power electronics converters are used for speed
control of the traction motors and for charging the batteries. Fig 1.9 shows a Toyota Prius, the first
commercial HEV.

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 INTRODUCTION

Source: http://www.toyota.com/prius-hybrid/photo-gallery.html
Fig 1.9 Toyota Prius, the first commercial HEV

10. Other Applications

Other applications of power electronics include the following:
 Process control and factory automation.
 Servos, machine tools (robots) etc.
 Electric locomotives
 Static VAr Compensators
 Space shuttle power supply systems
 Satellite power systems
 Aircraft power systems.
 Power systems for ships and submarines

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

2.0 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

2.1 Introduction
The main component in a power electronics circuit is a power semiconductor device. There are a number
of devices in common use and they have different operating characteristics. The important characteristics
include the controllability of the device, its power handling capability, its current and voltage blocking
capability, etc. For a device to be used in a particular converter its characteristics must be suitable for the
conditions existing in the converter.

Power semiconductor devices differ from small-signal electronics devices in the power handling
capability and the speed with which they operate. In small-signal electronics, speed is very important
while in power electronics the power handling capability is very important. Due to these differences
power semiconductor devices are more complex than small signal devices because of modifications
which are necessary for their increased power handling capability. However, the device physics and
principle of operation for the two types of devices is very similar, but care must be taken before we
extrapolate the behaviour of power semiconductor devices from that of small-signal devices.

Power semiconductor devices can be divided into three main groups based on their controllability. These
groups are

1. Power diodes
This is the most basic type of power semiconductor device. A power diode is a two terminal device
and its state (conducting or non-conducting) depends on the circuit in which it is being used.
2. Thyristors
Thyristors also known as silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR) are three terminal devices. Their
transition from off-state (non-conducting) to on-state (conducting) is determined by the application of
a control signal while their transition from on-state to off-state is controlled by the power circuit or
auxiliary circuits called commutation circuits.
3. Power Transistors
Power transistors are also known as fully-controllable switches because their turn-on and turn-off is
controlled by control signals from the controller. They are three (or sometime four) terminal devices.

The following sections look at the common devices that are classified under these three groups.

2.2 Power Diodes

A power diode is the simplest power semiconductor device. A good understanding of the structure, I-V
characteristics and switching characteristics of a power diode will help us to understand the behaviour of
other more complex devices which are all based on the structure of a power diode. Fig 2.1 shows a photo
of two power diodes.

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Source: www.softwareforeducation.com

Fig 2.1 Power diode

2.2.1 Basic Structure and I-V Characteristics

A power diode is a three-layer device as shown in fig 2.2(a). Fig 2.2(b) shows the circuit symbol of a
power diode, which is the same as that of a small-signal diode.

Anode

Anode region P+ 10 microns

Breakdown
Drift region N- voltage dependent

Cathode region N+ 250 microns

Cathode

(a) Structure of power diode

iD
Anode Cathode

+ vD -

(b) Circuit symbol of power diode

Fig 2.2 Power diode

The structure consists of a heavily doped N-type substrate (N+) cathode region on top of which is grown
a lightly doped N-type epitaxial layer (N-) of specified thickness. The PN junction is formed by diffusing
in a heavily doped P-type region (P+) that forms the anode region of the diode. Typical layer thicknesses
are as shown in fig 2.2(a). The typical doping densities for the anode and cathode regions are 10
acceptor or donor atoms, respectively, per cubic centimetre; while the typical doping density for the
epitaxial layer is 10 donor atoms per cubic centimetre.

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

The lightly doped N- layer is called the drift region and it is not found in low-power diodes. Its function is
to absorb the depletion layer of the reverse biased P+N- junction. The depletion layer can be quite wide at
large reverse voltages. The thickness of the drift region determines the reverse breakdown voltage of the
device. The drift region would appear to increase the ohmic resistance of the diode significantly and this
would lead to very large power dissipation when it is conducting. However, this is not so, as there are
mechanisms which greatly reduce this apparent problem. One of these mechanisms is called conductivity
modulation. In conductivity modulation, excess carriers are injected into the drift region from the heavily
doped regions between which it is sandwiched. This significantly reduces the power dissipation (it
becomes much lower than expected). This is illustrated in fig 2.3.

Fig 2.3 Conductivity modulation

The voltage-current ( v-i) characteristic of a power diode is shown in fig 2.4. This characteristic can be
expressed by an equation known as the Shockley diode equation which under dc steady-state operation is
given by:
⁄
= −1 (2.1)

Where ID is the current through the diode;

VD is the diode voltage with the anode positive with respect to the cathode;

IS is the leakage (or reverse saturation current), typically 10-6 to 10-15A;

n is an empirical constant known as emission coefficient or ideality factor whose value ranges
from 1 to 2. The emission coefficient for germanium diodes is 1 and for silicon diodes it is taken
as 2, though for most practical diodes it falls in the range 1.1 to 1.8.

VT is called thermal voltage and is given by:

kT
VT  (2.2)
q

Where q is the electron charge: = 1.602 × 10 ;

T is the absolute temperature;

23
k is the Boltzmann’s constant: 1.3806  10 J/K.

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

As seen in fig 2.4 the diode characteristic is divided into three regions: the forward biased region, the
reverse biased region and the breakdown region. The characteristic in each region is described below
using the Shockley diode equation.

Fig 2.4 V-I characteristic of power diode

1. Forward-biased region
In the forward-biased region, the voltage across the diode is positive (i.e. the anode is more positive
than the cathode). The diode current is very small if the diode voltage is below a specific value which
is called the threshold voltage, cut-in voltage or turn-on voltage. It is typically about 0.7V. When
> the diode conducts fully.

In this region, equation (2.1) can be written approximately as

⁄
≈ (2.3)

It can be shown that using this equation gives an error which can be neglected for higher values of VD. It
should also be noted that in this region ≫ .

2. Reverse-biased region
In the reverse biased region, the voltage across the diode is negative (i.e. the anode is more negative than
the cathode). If is negative and V D  VT , the exponential term in equation (2.1) becomes negligibly
small compared to unity and the diode current ID becomes:

I D  I S (2.4)

Equation (2.4) shows that the diode current in the reverse-biased region is constant and is equal to the
leakage current.

3. Breakdown region
In this region the reverse voltage is high. The magnitude of this reverse voltage may exceed a specified
voltage known as the breakdown voltage (VBD in fig 2.4). In the breakdown region, a small change in
reverse voltage results in a rapid increase in reverse current. The operation in the breakdown region will
not be destructive, provided that the power dissipation is within a safe limit as specified in the

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manufacturer’s data sheet. However, it is often necessary to limit the reverse current in the breakdown
region to limit the power dissipation within a permissible value.

2.2.2 Switching Characteristics

A power diode requires a finite time to switch from the blocking state (reverse bias) to the on state
(forward bias) or vice versa. The transition time between the two states and the shape of the waveforms
are affected by the intrinsic properties of the diode and also by the circuit in which the diode is embedded
or being used. The switching properties of a diode are often given on specification sheets for diode
currents with a specified time rate of change of current di/dt. This is because diodes are often used in
circuits containing inductances that control di/dt, or they are used as freewheeling diodes where the turn-
off of a solid-state device controls di/dt.

Fig 2.5 shows the switching voltage and current waveforms of a diode. Note the overshoot of the voltage
during turn-on and the sharpness of the fall of the reverse current during turn-off.

Fig 2.5 Switching voltage and current waveforms of a power diode

2.2.3 Reverse Recovery

The time interval t rr  t 4  t 5 in fig 2.4 is termed the reverse-recovery time and its characteristics are
important in almost all power electronics circuits where diodes are used. The figure also shows reverse-
recovery charge Qrr, which is determined by the number of charge carriers that were injected into the drift
region during conductivity modulation. The ratio ⁄ is known as the snappiness or the softness factor
S and it is a function of the rate of change of the reverse current diR dt . Thus

= (2.5)

The reverse recovery current, Irr is given by:

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

di R di t
I rr  t 4  R rr (2.6)
dt dt S  1

t rr
Since t 4  t rr  t 5  .
S 1

1
From fig 2.6, Qrr  I rr t rr , so that:
2

di R t rr2
Qrr  (2.7)
dt 2(S  1)

Solving eqn (2.7) for the reverse recovery time yields:

2Qrr (1  S )
t rr  (2.8)
di R dt

Using equations (2.6) and (2.8) yields:

2Qrr (di R dt )
I rr  (2.9)
S 1

2.2.4 Schottky Diodes

The diode structure described in the sections above is called a PN or PIN diode and is a minority charge
carrier (i.e. it has both holes and electrons the charge carriers). Another common structure of a power
diode is a Schottky diode which is a majority charge carrier (i.e. it has only one type of charge carriers,
either electrons or holes). It is formed by placing a thin film of metal in direct contact with a
semiconductor. The metal film is usually deposited on an N-type semiconductor as shown in fig 2.6. The
metal film is the positive electrode and the semiconductor is the cathode.

Fig 2.6 Cross-sectional view of a Schottky diode

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Such a structure has a rectifying i-v characteristic very similar to that of a PN-junction diode. Although
the fundamental physics of a Schottky diode is different from that of a PN-junction diode, the same basic
equation can be used to describe their i-v characteristic (i.e. equation 2.1) which can also be written as:


I  I S e qV kT

1 (2.10)

However, the on-state voltage is significantly lower (typically 0.3-0.4V) than that of a PN-junction diode.
In the reverse direction, it has a reverse leakage current that is larger than that of a comparable PN-
junction diode. The breakdown voltage of a Schottky diode is usually not larger than 100-200V.

A Schottky diode turns on and off faster than a comparable pn-junction diode. This is because Schottky
diodes being majority carrier devices have no stored minority carriers that must be injected into the
device during turn-on and removed during turn-off.

2.2.5 Operation of Diodes in Series

In many high-voltage applications (e.g. high-voltage direct current [HVDC] transmission), one
commercially available diode cannot meet the required voltage ratings and in such instances diodes are
connected in series to increase the reverse blocking capability.

Consider the two series connected diodes D1 and D2 in fig 2.7.

Fig 2.7 Series connected diodes

VD1 and VD2 are the reverse voltage across diodes D1 and D2 respectively and is the leakage current. In
practice, the v-i characteristics for the same type of diodes differ due to manufacturing tolerances. In the
forward-biased state, both diodes carry the same current and the forward voltage drop across each diode
would be almost equal. In the reverse-biased state, the diodes will carry the same leakage current but due
to the differences in their characteristics, the reverse blocking voltages may differ significantly.

A solution to the problem of unequal voltage sharing is to force equal voltage sharing by connecting a
resistor across each diode as shown in fig 2.8.

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Fig 2.8 Series connected diodes with steady-state voltage sharing resistors

Due to equal voltage sharing, the leakage current through each diode will now be different, as it will be
shared by a diode and a resistor. Thus:

I s  I s1  I R1  I s 2  I R 2 (2.11)

VD1 V
But, I R1  , and I R 2  D 2 , substituting into equation (2.11) we get
R1 R2

VD1 V
I s1   I s2  D2 (2.12)
R1 R2

Equation (2.12) gives the relationship between the voltage sharing resistors. Note that

VD1  VD 2  VD (2.13)

Where VD is the total reverse voltage.

2.2.6 Operation of Diodes in Parallel

In application where the current is much higher than the current rating of a single device, it becomes
necessary to connect diodes in parallel to increase their current-carrying capacity as shown in fig 2.9.

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Fig 2.9 Parallel connected diodes

The same voltage will appear across both diodes and . This is equal to the forward voltage drop
of each diode and can be obtained from the first quadrant of the v-i characteristic for a given current.
However, due to slight differences in the properties of the two diodes their characteristics could differ and
this could lead to unequal current-sharing between the diodes. This means that the currents and ,
respectively would be different.

Unequal current sharing in diodes and other minority carries devices is undesirable because they have a
negative temperature coefficient of resistance. This means that when the device temperature increases, its
ohmic resistance decreases. Thus the diode which is carrying the bigger percentage of the load current
will have a higher temperature rise, its resistance will decrease more, and this leads to it carrying more
current and the temperature increasing further, eventually leading to that diode being damaged. To
mitigate the effects of unequal current sharing, suitable resistors are connected in series with each diode
to force the two diode currents to be equal. This is illustrated in fig 2.10.

Fig 2.10 Parallel connected diodes with steady-state current sharing resistors

From fig 2.10, the load current is the sum of the diode currents. Thus,

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

+ = (2.14)

The voltages across each series combination of a diode and a resistor are equal. Thus,

+ = + (2.15)

But = and = . Substituting into equation (2.15) we get

+ = + (2.16)

With equal current sharing, the two diode currents are equal. Therefore,

= = (2.17)

Substituting into equation (2.16) and rearranging we get

− = ( − ) (2.18)

By selecting a suitable value for either or , the other resistor value can be calculated by solving
equation (2.18).

2.3 Thyristors
Thyristors are a family of three (sometimes four) terminal devices with four layers of alternating P- and
N-type materials. Thyristors have the highest power handling capability of any available device and are
used in very high power circuits with individual device ratings of up to 12kV, 1000A. However, smaller
thyristors are available for lower power circuits. The most common type of thyristor is the silicon
controlled rectifier (SCR). Fig 2.11 shows various sizes of SCRs. The SCR is usually just called a
thyristor.

Source: www.abb.com

Fig 2.11 Silicon controlled rectifiers

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

2.3.1 Structure and Operation

Fig 2.12(a) shows the structure of a thyristor and fig 2.12(b) shows its circuit symbol.

(a) Cross-section of thyristor structure

(b) Circuit symbol

Fig 2.12 Structure and circuit symbol of a thyristor

A thyristor has three PN junctions and it can be drawn in a simplified way as shown in fig 2.13.

Fig 2.13 Simplified thyristor structure

When a positive voltage is applied to the anode (with respect to a cathode), the thyristor is in its forward-
blocking state. The center junction J2 (see Fig. 2.13) is reverse-biased. In this operating mode the gate
current is held to zero (open-circuit). In practice, the gate electrode is biased to a small negative voltage

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

(with respect to the cathode) to reverse-bias the gate-cathode junction J3 and prevents charge-carriers
from being injected into the p-base. In this condition only thermally generated leakage current flows
through the device and can often be approximated as zero in value. As long as the forward applied voltage
does not exceed the value necessary to cause excessive carrier multiplication in the depletion region
around J2 (avalanche breakdown), the thyristor remains in an off-state (forward-blocking). If the applied
voltage exceeds the maximum forward blocking voltage of the thyristor, it will switch to its on-state.
However, this mode of turn-on causes non-uniformity in the current flow, is generally destructive, and
should be avoided. When a positive gate current is injected into the device J3 becomes forward-biased and
electrons are injected from the n-emitter into the p-base. Some of these electrons diffuse across the p-base
and are collected in the n-base. This collected charge causes a change in the bias condition of J1. The
change in bias of J1 causes holes to be injected from the p-emitter into the n-base. These holes diffuse
across the n-base and are collected in the p-base. The addition of these collected holes in the p-base acts
the same as gate current. The entire process is regenerative and will cause the increase in charge carriers
until J2 also becomes forward biased and the thyristor is latched in its on-state (forward-conduction). The
regenerative action will take place as long as the gate current is applied in sufficient amount and for a
sufficient length of time. This mode of turn-on is considered to be the desired one as it is controlled by the
gate signal.

This switching behavior can also be explained in terms of the two-transistor analog shown in fig 2.14.
The two transistors are regeneratively coupled so that if the sum of their forward current gains exceeds
unity, each drives the other into saturation.

Fig 2.14 Two transistor model of a thyristor

2.3.2 I-V Characteristics

The I-V characteristic of an SCR is a plot of the anode current as a function of the anode-to-cathode
voltage . This is shown in fig 2.15.

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

iA

Forward on-state

IL IG2>IG1

IBO IG2 IG1 IG=0

VRBD 0 vAK
VFBD
Forward blocking
state

Fig 2.15 I-V characteristics of an SCR

When the thyristor is reverse biased (third quadrant), its characteristic is similar to that of a reverse-biased
diode, and conducts very little current until breakdown occurs. The maximum reverse voltage of a
thyristor can be as high as 10kV. In the forward biased region (first quadrant), the thyristor has two stable
modes of operation, the forward blocking state and the forward on-state. In the forward blocking state the
thyristor conducts a very small current with a high voltage across it. In the forward on-state it conducts a
high current with a small voltage drop across it. These two states are the switch-mode states of the
thyristor with the forward blocking state being the off-state and the forward on-state being the on-state of
the thyristor switch. It should be noted that a thyristor is turned on by the application of a firing signal to
its gate but it cannot be turned off by removing the firing signal or applying a negative gate signal. It is
turned off by reversing the anode-cathode voltage or making the anode current less than the latching
current for a minimum specified time.

The current called the latching current or the holding current is the minimum current that can flow in
the thyristor and maintain it in the on-state. The current is the current that corresponds to the forward
breakdown voltage (which is sometimes termed the break-over voltage ).

2.3.3 Types of Thyristors

Apart form the SCR there are other types of semiconductor devices which fall into the family of
thyristors. These include the following:

1. Gate Turn-off Thyristor (GTO)

2. MOS Controlled Thyristor (MCT)
3. Static Induction Thyristor (SITH)
4. Bidirectional Triode Thyristor (TRIAC)
5. Integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristor (IGCT)

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

2.4 General Characteristics of Controllable Switches

Controllable switches are semiconductor devices which are fully controllable, i.e. they are turned on and
off by gate signals. Due to their controllability they are mostly used in switching applications.

2.4.1 Ideal Characteristics in Controllable Switches

A controllable switch is represented in a generic manner by the circuit symbol shown in fig 2.16 below.

iT

Anode + vT - Cathode

Fig 2.16 Generic controllable switch

Though controllable switches are three terminal devices, the generic symbol does not show the third
terminal which is called the gate and acts as the control terminal. This is because in this generic analysis
our main interest is in the power terminals; the anode and the cathode.

In its ideal form, a controllable switch should have the following characteristics:

 Block arbitrarily large forward and reverse voltages with zero current flow when off.
 Conduct arbitrarily large currents with zero voltage drop when on.
 Switch from on to off or vice versa instantaneously when triggered.
 Negligibly small power required from control source to trigger the switch.

2.4.2 Power Dissipation in Controllable Switches

Real devices do not have the ideal characteristics listed above and they always dissipate power in their
many applications. Power dissipation is not desirable because if the device dissipates too much power, it
may fail and get destroyed and in the process may damage other system components.

To understand power dissipation in a generic power semiconductor device consider the circuit of fig 2.17.
This circuit is an equivalent circuit of a step-down dc-to-dc converter and models a diode clamped
inductive load circuit which is very commonly encountered in power electronics.

D Io
(Ideal)
Vd

iT +

DUT vT
-

Fig 2.17 Diode clamped inductive load circuit

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

The switching waveforms i.e. the control voltage, the switch voltage, the switch current and the power
dissipated in the switch are shown in fig 2.18.

Fig 2.18 Linearized switching waveforms and instantaneous power loss

It should be noted that this is an equivalent circuit of a practical circuit where the dc current source
approximates the current that would flow due to the presence of an inductive load which stores energy.
The diode is assumed to be ideal in this discussion, but in practice the non-ideality of the diode affects the
stresses on the switch.

When the switch is on, the load current Io flows through the switch and the diode is reverse biased. When
the switch is turned off, the current Io flows through the diode and a voltage Vd appears across the switch.
This is shown in the voltage and current waveforms of fig 2.18 for a switching frequency of fs. The
switching frequency is the number of complete switching cycles in one second. The time it takes to
complete one switching cycle is called the periodic time or the switching period . The switching
frequency and the period are related by the equation

=1 (2.19)

During the turn-on transition, there is a short delay time td(on) followed by the current rise time tri. After
the current has risen to Io, the diode becomes reverse biased, and the switch voltage falls from Vd to Von in

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

a time tfv, the voltage fall time. The time during which both a large switch voltage and a current are
present is called the turn-on crossover interval and is given by

t c (on )  t ri  t fv (2.20)

The energy dissipated in the switch during this interval can be obtained from fig 2.18 as

1
Wc ( on )  V d I o t c ( on ) (2.21)
2

When the switch is fully, the current Io flows through it, and a small voltage Von appears across it. The
energy dissipated during the on state is given by

Won  Von I o t on (2.22)

Note that ≫ ( )

During the turn-off transition, the voltage build-up consists of a turn-off delay time td(off), followed by a
voltage rise time trv. When the voltage reaches Vd, the diode becomes forward biased, and the current in
the switch falls to zero in a current fall time tfi. The crossover interval is tc(off), where

t c ( off )  t rv  t fi (2.23)

The energy dissipated during this transition can be obtained as

1
Wc (off )  V d I o t c ( off ) (2.24)
2

These energy dissipations occurs fs times every second, and hence the average switching power loss Ps
can be obtained from equations (2.21) and (2.24) as

1
Ps  Vd I o f s (t c ( on )  t c ( off ) ) (2.25)
2

The power dissipated in the switch when it is on is given by

= = (2.26)

Where = = is the duty ratio of the switch.

2.4.3 Desired Characteristics in Practical Switches

The desirable characteristics in a practical controllable switch can be summarized as follows:

 Small leakage current in the off state.

 Small on-state voltage drop.
 Short turn-on and turn-off times to allow the device to be used at high frequencies.

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

 Large forward and reverse blocking capability to minimize the need for series connection of
devices.
 High on-state current rating to minimize the need for parallel connection of devices.
 Positive temperature coefficient of on-state resistance, to ensure equal current sharing by
paralleled devices.
 Small control power to switch the device to simplify the control circuit design.
 Capability to withstand rated current and voltage simultaneously when switching.
 Large dv dt and di dt ratings to minimize the need for external circuits needed to limit dv dt
and di dt in the device.

2.5 Power Bipolar Junction Transistors

The need for large blocking voltages in the off state and a high current-carrying capability in the on state
means that a power bipolar junction transistor (BJT) must have a substantially different structure than its
small signal counterpart.

2.5.1 Structure
Fig 2.19 (a) shows the basic structure of an NPN power BJT. It has alternating P-type and N-type doping
and three terminals labelled collector, emitter, and base respectively. In most power applications, the
collector is the output terminal, and the emitter is common between the input and output. This
configuration is called the common emitter configuration. Fig 2.19 (b) shows the circuit symbol for an
NPN BJT and fig 2.19(c) shows the symbol of a PNP BJT. Note that the structure of a PNP BJT has the
opposite doping to that shown in fig 2.19 (a).

The vertical structure is preferred for power transistors because it maximizes the cross-sectional area
through which the current in the device is flowing. This minimizes the on-state resistance and thus the
power dissipation in the transistor. Having a large cross-sectional area minimizes the thermal resistance of
the transistors, thus keeping power dissipation problems under control.

The doping levels and the thickness of the layers have a significant effect on the characteristics of the
device. The emitter layer is heavily doped (10 ) while the base layer is lightly doped 10 ).
The N- region that forms the collector half of the collector-base junction is usually termed the collector
drift region and its thickness determines the breakdown voltage of the transistor. The N+ region that
terminates the drift region has a doping level similar to that of the emitter and is the collector contact to
the outside world.

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

(a) Structure of NPN power BJT

(b) Symbol of NPN BJT (c) Symbol of PNP BJT

Fig 2.19 Structure and circuit symbol of power BJT

2.5.2 I-V Characteristics

The output characteristics (iC versus vCE) of an NPN power transistor are shown in fig 2.20. The various
curves are distinguished from each other by the value of the base current.

In power electronics applications BJTs are used in as switches operating in the saturation region (off-
state) and in the cut-off region (on-state). The BJT is a current controlled device and is turned on by the
application of a positive base current and turned off by the application of a negative base current, for an
NPN device. BJTs used to be very widely used in low to medium power applications with voltage ratings
up to 1000V, current ratings up to 1000A and switching frequencies of about 10kHz. In recent years the
BJT has been replaced by the MOSFET in low power applications and by the IGBT in higher power
applications. This is because the MOSFET and the IGBT are voltage controlled devices and their base
drive circuits are simpler, and they can be operated at higher switching frequencies than BJTs. However,
the BJT remains an important device in power electronics due to the large number of older installed
converters which use BJTs.

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Fig 2.20 Current-voltage characteristics of an NPN power BJT

2.6 Power MOSFETs

Metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs) with appreciable on-state current-carrying
capability and off-state voltage blocking capability and thus, potential for power electronics application
have been available since the early 1980s. The power MOSFET is a majority carrier device and has got a
very high switching speed, allowing it to be used at high switching frequencies. They have become as
widely used as BJTs and are replacing power BJTs in most applications, especially those where high
switching speeds are important. MOSFETs operate on different principles from those of BJTs, and a clear
understanding of these differences is essential for the effective utilization of both BJTs and MOSFETs.

2.6.1 Basic Structure

Power MOSFETs can be either N-channel or P-channel. Fig 2.21(a) shows the basic structure of an N-
channel MOSFET. Fig 2.21(b) shows the circuit symbol of an N-channel MOSFET and fig 2.21(c) shows
the circuit symbol of a P-channel MOSFET.

The power MOSFET has a vertically oriented four layer structure of alternating P-type and N-type
doping. The N+PN-N+ structure is termed an enhancement mode N-channel MOSFET. A structure with
the opposite doping is termed a P-channel MOSFET. The doping in the N+ end layers, labelled source
and drain is approximately the same and is quite high at about 10 . The P-type middle layer is
usually termed the body and it is the region in which the channel between the source and the drain and is
typically doped at 10 . The N-layer is the drain drift region and is typically doped at 10
to 10 . This drift region determines the breakdown voltage of the device.

The integral diode in the MOSFET structure can be used as an anti-parallel freewheeling diode in most
switching applications. However, it is also possible to connect an external fast recovery diode as a
freewheeling diode.

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

(a) Structure of N-channel MOSFET

(b) N-channel MOSFET (c) P-channel MOSFET

Fig 2.21 Structure and circuit symbol of power MOSFET

During the operation of the MOSFET, there can be no injection of minority carriers into the body region
via the gate terminal because the gate is isolated from the body by a layer of silicon dioxide (termed the
gate oxide) which is a very good insulator and hence there is no BJT operation. However, application of a
voltage that biases the gate positive with respect to the source will convert the silicon surface beneath the
gate oxide into an N-type layer or channel, thus connecting the source to the drain and allowing the flow
of appreciable currents. The thickness of the gate oxide, the width of the gate, and the number of gate/
source regions connected electrically in parallel are important in determining how much current will flow
for a given gate-to-source voltage.

2.6.2 I-V Characteristics

The MOSFET is a three-terminal device, and the gate, which is the input terminal, controls the flow of
current between the output terminals, the drain, and the source. The source terminal is usually common
between the input and the output. The output characteristics which is a plot of drain current, iD, as a
function of drain-to-source voltage vDS, with varying gate-to-source voltage is shown in fig 2.22 for an N-
channel MOSFET.

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

In power electronics applications the MOSFET is used as a switch to control the flow of power to the
load. In these applications the MOSFET traverses the iD-vDS characteristics from the cut-off through the
active region to the ohmic region as the device turns on and back again when it turns off. These regions
are shown in fig 2.22.The MOSFET is in cut-off when the gate-source voltage is less than the threshold
voltage VGS(th), which is typically a few volts. The MOSFET is in the ohmic region when

vGS  VGS (th )  v DS  0 (2.27)

In the active region the drain current is independent of the drain-source voltage and depends only on the
gate-source voltage. The current is sometimes said to have saturated, though usage of this term is avoided
to avoid confusion with saturation in BJTs. In this region the drain current is given by:

i D  K vGS  VGS (th ) 

2
(2.28)

Where K is a constant which depends on the device geometry. At the boundary between the ohmic region
and the active region where vGS  VGS ( th )  v DS , equation (2.28) becomes

2
i D  Kv DS (2.29)

The relationship given in equation (2.29) is followed reasonably well by logic level MOSFETs. However,
a plot of iD versus vGS (with the MOSFET in the active region) for a power MOSFET is as shown in fig
2.23 which is usually termed the transfer curve. It can be observed that the square law for the iD-vGS
relationship is not maintained at larger values of drain current.

Fig 2.22 Output characteristics of N-channel MOSFET

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Fig 2.23 Transfer characteristics of N-channel MOSFET

2.7 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors

2.7.1 Background
The IGBT is a relatively new power semi-conductor device which was developed in the early 1980s due
to a need to combine the desirable characteristics of the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and the
MOSFET. MOSFETS can be turned on and off much faster, but have large on-state losses especially at
voltages exceeding 200V while BJTs have lower conduction losses but have longer switching times.
BJTS are current controlled devices and require a complex base drive circuit while MOSFETs are voltage
controlled devices requiring simpler gate drive circuits.

This led to the development of the IGBT which is a device whose performance is a compromise between
a MOSFET and a BJT. It is faster than a BJT but slower than a MOSFET, and its on-state losses are lower
than those of a MOSFET but comparable to a BJT. It has a MOS gate input structure which has a simple
gate control circuit design and is capable of fast switching up to 100kHz. Its output has a bipolar
transistor structure which gives it a good current conduction capability.

2.7.2 Structure
Fig 2.24 shows the structure of a typical N-channel IGBT. This structure is very similar to that of a
vertically diffused MOSFET featuring a double diffusion of a P-type region and an N-type region. By
applying a suitable voltage to the gate, an inversion layer (same as in a MOSFET) will be formed under
the gate and the IGBT will be turned on. The main difference is the use of a P+ substrate layer for the
drain (collector). The effect of this is to change it into a bipolar device as this P-type region injects holes
into the N-type drift region.

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Fig 2.24 Typical IGBT Structure

The input has a MOS gate structure, and the output is a wide base PNP transistor. Besides the PNP
transistor, there is an NPN transistor, which is designed to be inactivated by shorting the base and the
emitter to the MOSFET source metal. The 4 layers of PNPN, which comprises the PNP transistor and the
NPN transistor, form a thyristor structure, which causes the possibility of a latch-up. This is the
undesirable turn-on of this parasitic thyristor; and there are several structural modifications to the basic
one shown in fig 2.24 to prevent this. Unlike the power MOSFET, it does not have an integral reverse
diode that exists parasitically, and because of this it needs to be connected with the appropriate fast
recovery diode when needed.

Fig 2.25 (a) shows the equivalent circuit of the IGBT showing the two transistors which make up the
parasitic thyristor and the resistances of its regions. Fig 2.25(b) shows its symbol. This parasitic thyristor
should never be turned on, a condition known as latchup, because then the device will not be able to turn-
off and will be damaged.

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

(a) IGBT equivalent circuit

(b) IGBT Symbol

Fig 2.25 IGBT equivalent circuit and symbol

2.7.2 I-V Characteristics

Fig 2.26(a) shows the output characteristics of an IGBT. These closely resemble those of a logic level
BJT. However unlike the BJT where the controlling parameter is the base current, here the controlling
parameter is the gate-emitter voltage (vGE).

Fig 2.26(b) shows the transfer characteristic (vGE vs. iC) for the IGBT. It is identical to that for the
MOSFET. If vGE is less than the threshold voltage VGE (th), the IGBT is in the off state, and when it is
greater than the threshold voltage then the IGBT goes into the on state. The maximum value of VGE is
usually limited by the maximum allowable value of IC.

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

(a) IGBT output characteristics

iC

0
VGE(th) vGE

(b) IGBT transfer characteristics

Fig 2.26 IGBT characteristics

2.8 Summary of Controllable Devices

Table 2.1 below summarizes the main characteristics of controllable devices.

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 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Table 2.1 Comparison of controllable devices

Device Power Capability Switching Speed

BJT/MD Medium (1000V/250A) Medium (10μs)

MOSFET Low (500V/40A) Fast (Less than 0.5μs)

GTO High (6000V/1200A) Slow (25μs)

IGBT Medium (6000V/600A) Fast (Less than 1μs)

MCT Medium (3000V/600A) Medium (10μs)

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

3.0 DIODE RECTIFIERS

7.1 Introduction
AC to DC converters, as the name suggests, convert a line-frequency ac voltage (single-phase or three-
phase) into a dc voltage. The output dc voltage can be uncontrolled, or it can be controlled. These
converters are more commonly called rectifiers, or naturally commutated converters and they find use in a
wide range of applications such as dc power supplies, dc motor drives, electrolytic refining etc.

AC to DC converters can be classified based on their controllability and the type of semiconductor
devices used. Under this type of classification we have:

1. Diode Rectifiers (uncontrolled rectifiers): they use diodes as the main devices. They are called
uncontrolled rectifiers because the output dc voltage cannot be controlled since the diodes are
uncontrollable devices whose turn-on and turn-off is determined by the input ac voltage.
2. Thyristor Rectifiers (Controlled rectifiers or phase controlled converters): they use thyristors and
they are called controlled rectifiers because the turn-on of the thyristors can be controlled (though the
turn-off is determined by the input ac voltage).
3. Half-controlled Rectifiers (Semi converters): they use a combination of diodes and thyristors
arranged symmetrically (the number of diodes should be equal to the number of thyristors). They are
called half-controlled because they combine the characteristics of controlled rectifiers (thyristors) and
uncontrolled rectifiers (diodes).
4. Pulse-width Modulated Rectifiers: they use fully controllable switches (e.g. IGBTs and GTOs) and
they employ pulse-width modulation at a high frequency. Both the turn-on and turn-off of the devices
is controlled by the gate signals and thus these rectifiers are also referred to as forced commutated
converters.

Rectifiers can also be classified depending on the number of phases of the input ac voltage. Under this
classification the common ones are single-phase rectifiers and three-phase rectifiers. Six-phase rectifiers
and twelve-phase rectifiers are less common and are only used in high-power applications.

Rectifiers can also be classified depending on the shape of the output dc voltage. These include:

1. Half-wave rectifiers: the devices conduct only during one half- cycle (usually the positive) of the
input ac voltage. They are not widely used.
2. Full-wave rectifiers: the devices conduct during both the positive half-cycle and the negative half-
cycle of the input ac voltage. Full-wave rectifiers are the most widely used type.

Another method of classifying rectifiers is based on the number of pulses in the output dc voltage per
fundamental cycle of the input ac voltage. Thus, if the output of a rectifier has two pulses per fundamental
cycle of the input ac voltage, it is referred to as a two pulse rectifier and the ripple frequency of the dc
voltage is twice that of the input ac voltage.

Table 3.1 below shows some common rectifier circuits and their classification in terms of pulse number.

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

Note that higher pulse numbers, such as 12 and 24 can be obtained by connecting two or more three-
phase rectifiers in series with an appropriate phase shift between their input phases.

In the next sections we discuss the different types of rectifiers.

Table 3.1 Common Rectifier Circuits

Circuit Pulse Number Ripple Frequency

1 f

Single-phase half-wave

2 2f

Single-phase full-wave

Vs

+
3 3f
Vd

Three-phase half-wave

6 6f

Three-phase full-wave

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

3.2 Single-Phase Half-Wave Diode Rectifiers

The simplest single-phase diode rectifier is the single-phase half-wave rectifier. A single-phase half-wave
rectifier with resistive load is shown in fig 3.1(a). The circuit consists of only one diode that can be
supplied from a transformer secondary. The input voltage to the circuit is a sinusoidal ac voltage.

During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, diode D is forward biased and it conducts. The output
voltage is equal to the input voltage and the voltage across the diode is zero (assuming an ideal diode for
simplicity). The load current can be calculated by Ohm’s law and it has a similar waveform to the output
voltage.

During the negative half-cycle, diode D is reverse biased and stops conducting. The output voltage is zero
and the voltage across the diode is equal to the input voltage. The load current is zero. The maximum
value of the voltage across the diode is called the Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) and when selecting a diode
for a rectifier, its Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage (VRRM) rating should be greater than the PIV.

Fig 3.1(b) shows the voltage and current waveforms for a single-phase half-wave diode rectifier with a
purely resistive load.

3.2.1 Performance Parameters

The performance of a rectifier can be analyzed by calculating the following parameters:

3.2.1.1Average value of output voltage

In general this is given by

= ∫ ( ) (3.1)

For a single-phase half-wave diode rectifier the average value of the output voltage is

= ∫ √2 sin( ) ( ) = 0.45 (3.2)

Where Vs is the rms value of the input voltage; is the angular frequency of the input voltage.

3.2.1.2RMS value of output voltage

The rms (or effective) value of the output voltage is given by the general equation

( )= ∫ ( ) ( ) (3.3)

For a single-phase half-wave diode rectifier the rms value of the output voltage is

( ) = ∫ √2 sin( ) ( ) = 0.707 (3.4)

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

(a) Circuit

(b)Waveforms
Fig 3.1 Circuit and waveforms for single-phase half-wave diode rectifier

3.2.1.3 Form factor

The form factor is the ratio of the rms value of the voltage to its average value and is given by the general
formula

( )
= (3.5)

For a single-phase half-wave diode rectifier, the form factor is

.
= .
= 1.57 (3.6)

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

3.2.1.4 Ripple factor

The ripple factor is a measure of the ripple in the output voltage and is given by

= (3.7)

Where Vr is the effective (rms) value of the ripple component of the output voltage and is given by

= ( ) −( ) (3.8)

Substituting equation (7.8) into equation (7.7) we get the expression for the ripple factor as

( )
= −1= ( ) −1 (3.9)

For a single-phase half-wave diode rectifier, the ripple factor is

= (1.57) − 1 = 1.21 (3.10)

3.2.1.5 Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)

The transformer utilization factor of a rectifier circuit supplied from the secondary of a transformer is
defined as the ratio of the dc output power to the volt-ampere (VA) rating of the transformer. This is
expressed mathematically as

= = (3.11)

For a single-phase half-wave diode rectifier the TUF is given by

.
. ×
= . = 0.286 (3.12)
×

3.2.1.6Total Harmonic Distortion in the voltage or current (THDv or THDi)

The Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is an index used to quantify the distortion in a voltage or a current.
It is normally given as a percentage of the fundamental frequency component of the waveform. Thus the
THD in the output voltage is given by

Vd ( dis )
%THDv   100%
Vd1

2 2
Vd ( rms )  Vd 1
  100%
Vd 1 (3.13)

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

Improvement of Single-Phase Half-Wave Diode Rectifier

From the performance parameters, it can be concluded that a single-phase half-wave diode rectifier has

1. A low average value of the output voltage (and current).

2. A low rms value of the output voltage (and current),
3. A high ripple factor in the output voltage (and current),
4. A low transformer utilization factor..

To improve the performance parameters, a low pass filter is connected across the load as shown in fig 3.2
below. The inductor in the low pass filter reduces the ripple in the current while the capacitor reduces the
ripple in the voltage.

Fig 7.2 Single-phase half-wave rectifier with low-pass filter

However, the low-pass filter will only improve the performance parameters of the rectifier to a certain
extent determined by the values of the capacitor and the inductor. A single-phase rectifier with better
performance is the single-phase full-wave diode rectifier discussed below.

7.3 Single-Phase Full-Wave (Bridge) Diode Rectifier

Ina single-phase full-wave rectifier, the diodes conduct during both the positive and the negative half-
cycle of the input ac voltage. There are two possible connections of such a rectifier; the full-wave rectifier
with a centre tapped transformer illustrated in fig 3.3(a) and the diode bridge rectifier illustrated in fig
3.3(b).

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

D1

+ R id
vs - +
vd
-

D2

(a) With centre-tapped transformer

(b) Bridge rectifier

Fig 3.3 Single-phase full-wave rectifier

The full-wave rectifier with a centre tapped transformer has the disadvantage that you need a centre-
tapped transformer and the reverse voltage across each diode (the PIV) will be twice the maximum value
of the input ac voltage. The bridge rectifier is thus a better option and will be discussed further in this
course.

7.3.1 Circuit Operation with Purely Resistive Load

During the positive half-cycle(0 ≤ ≥ ), diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and they conduct.
Assuming the diodes are ideal D1 and D2 can be represented by short-circuits. Diodes D3 and D4 are
reverse biased and do not conduct, can thus be represented by open circuits. The equivalent circuit during
this interval is as shown in fig 3.4 below.

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

Fig 3.4 Single-phase diode bridge rectifier equivalent circuit during positive half-cycle

The circuit of fig 3.4 is described by the following equations (which can be obtained by using Kirchhoff’s
laws):

= = √2 sin (3.14)

= = = √2 sin (3.15)

= =− = −√2 sin (3.16)

During the negative half-cycle ( ≤ ≤ 2 ) diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased and they conduct.
Diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased and do not conduct. This is illustrated in the equivalent circuit of fig
3.5 below.

Fig 3.5 Single-phase diode bridge rectifier equivalent circuit during positive half-cycle

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

The circuit of fig 3.5 is described by the following equations:

=− = −√2 sin (3.17)

=− = = −√2 sin (3.18)

= = = √2 sin (3.19)

The waveforms of fig 3.6 describe the operation of the circuit completely.

vs

√2Vs

0 π ωt
2π 3π

-√2Vs
Vd, id, is
√2Vs
√2Vs/R
0
ωt
vD

0 ωt

-√2Vs
D3,D4 D1,D2 D3,D4

Fig 3.6 Waveforms of single-phase diode bridge rectifier with a purely resistive load

The average value of the output voltage is given by

= ∫ ( ) = 0.9 (3.20)

The rms value of the output voltage is given by

( ) = ∫ ( ) ( )= (3.21)

The form factor is given by

( )
= = = 1.11 (3.22)
.

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

The ripple factor is given by

= ( ) −1= (1.11) − 1 = 0.4818 (3.23)

The transformer utilization factor is given by

.
. ×
= = = 0.81 (3.24)
×

Equations (3.20) to (3.24) show that the performance of a full-wave rectifier is much better than that of a
half-wave rectifier.

3.3.2 Circuit Operation with Highly Inductive Load

When the rectifier supplies a highly inductive load, the ripple in the output current is reduced and if the
inductor is assumed to be very big, the output current can be assumed to be constant. Using the
substitution theorem, the load can be represented by a constant current source Io as shown in fig 3.7
below.

Fig 3.7 Single-phase diode bridge rectifier supplying highly inductive load

The operation of the circuit is the same as when the load is purely resistive. The waveforms are as shown
in fig 3.8 below.

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

vs

√2Vs

0 π ωt
2π 3π

-√2Vs
Vd, id, is
√2Vs
Io
0
ωt
Is,is1
is1
Io
0
ωt
-Io

Fig 3.8 Waveforms for the circuit of fig 3.7

The input current is not sinusoidal and can be written as


i s  is1   ish (3.25)
h 1

Where is1 is the fundamental frequency component of the input current and ish represents the harmonics in
the input current.

The rms value of the fundamental frequency component of the input current is calculated using the
equation

= ∫ sin ( ) (3.26)
√

But = in the range 0 ≤ ≤ . Substituting into equation (3.26) and simplifying we get

= 0.9 (3.27)

The total harmonic distortion in the input current is given by

( ) ( . )
= × 100% = 48.52% (3.28)
.

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

The power factor of the circuit is given by

= (3.29)

Where P is the active power and is given by = cos ; and S is the apparent power and is given by
= . Substituting into equation (3.29) we get

= cos = 0.9 cos (3.30)

The quantity cos is called the displacement power factor (DPF) and is defined as the cosine of the
displacement angle between the input voltage and the fundamental frequency component of the input
current. In a diode rectifier = 1 and equation (3.30) becomes

= 0.9 (3.31)

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

3.3 Three-Phase Diode Rectifiers

Single-phase diode rectifiers are suitable for low to medium power applications. This is due to the high
VA rating of the transformer required for a particular dc power output (meaning they have a relatively
low TUF). Thus, for high power applications, exceeding about 15kW three-phase rectifiers are normally
used. In industrial applications, three-phase rectifiers are used due to the available three-phase supply. In
the following sections, three-phase half-wave (or star) rectifiers and three-phase full-wave (or bridge)
rectifiers are discussed.

3.3.1 Three-Phase Half-Wave Diode Rectifier

3.3.1.1 Three-phase Star Rectifier

Fig 3.9 shows a three-phase half-wave rectifier supplying a purely resistive load. It is also called a three-
phase star rectifier (because it is supplied from the star-connected secondary of a transformer) or a three-
pulse ac to dc converter. It basically consists of three-single-phase half-wave rectifiers combined together.

Fig 3.9 Three-phase star rectifier

During a particular interval the diode in the phase whose voltage is higher than the other two phases will
conduct. Thus each diode will conduct for a third of a complete cycle (i.e. 2 ⁄3 or 120°). Fig 3.10
shows the main waveforms of this circuit.

From the waveforms we can obtain expressions for the average value of the output voltage, the rms value
of the output voltage and other performance parameters.

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

Fig 3.10 Waveforms for three-phase half-wave rectifier

The average output voltage is given by

= ∫ ( )= ∫ √2 sin . ( ) = 1.17 (3.32)

Where is the rms value of the phase voltage.

In terms of the line voltage, the average output voltage is given by

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

= 0.675 (3.33)

The rms value of the output voltage is given by

( ) = ∫ ( ) = ∫ √2 sin ( )

This gives

( ) = 1.189 (3.34)

The form factor is given by

( )
= = 1.016 (3.35)

The ripple factor is given by

= ( ) − 1 = 0.181 (3.36)

The average output current is given by

.
= = (3.37)

The average input current in each phase is given by

.
( ) = ∫ ( )= (3.38)

The rms value of the input current in each phase is given by

.
( ) = ∫ ( ) ( )= (3.39)

One of the drawbacks of the three-phase star rectifier is that it has direct currents in the secondary
windings that can cause a transformer core saturation problem. In addition, the currents in the primary do
not sum to zero. Therefore, it is preferable not to have star-connected primary windings. This problem can
be avoided by using one of the connections discussed below.

3.3.1.2 Three-Phase Inter-Star Rectifier Circuit

The transformer core saturation problem in the three-phase star rectifier can be avoided by a special
arrangement in its secondary windings, known as zig-zag connection. The modified circuit is called the
three-phase inter-star or zig-zag rectifier circuit, as shown in fig 3.11. Each secondary phase voltage is
obtained from two equal-voltage secondary windings (with a phase displacement of ⁄3 ) connected
in series so that the dc magnetizing forces due to the two secondary windings on any limb are equal and
opposite. At the expense of extra secondary windings, this circuit connection eliminates the effects of
core saturation and reduces the transformer primary rating factor to the minimum. Apart from transformer
ratings, all the design parameters of this circuit are the same as those of a three-phase star rectifier.

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

Furthermore, a star-connected primary winding with no neutral connection is equally permissible because
the sum of all primary phase currents is zero at all times.

Fig 3.11 Three-phase inter-star Rectifier

3.3.1.3 Three-Phase Double-Star Rectifier with Interphase Transformer

This circuit consists essentially of two three-phase star rectifiers with their neutral points interconnected
through an interphase transformer or reactor. The polarities of the corresponding secondary windings in
the two interconnected systems are reversed with respect to each other, so that the rectifier output voltage
of one three-phase unit is at a minimum when the rectifier output voltage of the other unit is at a
maximum. The circuit is shown in fig 3.12.

The interphase transformer causes the output voltage to be the average of the rectified voltages and
as shown in fig 3.13. In addition, the ripple frequency of the output voltage is now six times that of
the mains and, therefore, the component size of the filter (if there is any) becomes smaller. This also
means that the circuit can be referred to as a six-pulse rectifier. In a balanced circuit, the output currents
of two three-phase units flowing in opposite directions in the interphase transformer winding will produce
no dc magnetization current. Similarly, the dc magnetization currents in the secondary windings of two
three-phase units cancel each other out. By virtue of the symmetry of the secondary circuits, the three
primary currents add up to zero at all times. Therefore, a star primary winding with no neutral connection
would be equally permissible.

50
 DIODE RECTIFIERS

Fig 3.12 Three-phase double-star rectifier with interphase transformer

Fig 3.13 Output voltage waveforms for three-phase double-star with interphase transformer

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

3.3.2 Three-Phase Full-Wave (Bridge) Diode Rectifier

Three-phase bridge rectifiers are used for high power applications because they have a higher transformer
utilization factor than other three-phase rectifier circuits. A three-phase diode bridge rectifier (also called
a six-pulse rectifier)is shown in fig 3.14.

- Van + ia D1 D3 D5 id
a
+
- Vbn + ib
n b vd LOAD

- Vcn + ic
-
c
D4 D6 D2

Fig 3.14 Three-phase diode bridge rectifier

During a particular interval two diodes will be forward biased, one from the upper group (D1, D3 or D5)
and one from the lower group (D2, D4 or D6). The two diodes will be in the most positive and the most
negative phases respectively. The numbering of the diodes corresponds to the order in which they
conduct. The conducting sequence is therefore D1D2, D2D3, D3D4, D4D5, D5D6, and D6D1.

The voltage and current waveforms for this rectifier are shown in fig 3.15. For simplicity the load will be
assumed to be highly inductive, and thus the dc side current will be assumed to be constant.

From the waveforms, the average output voltage is given by

= ∫ ( )= ∫ √2 sin ωt + ( ) = 1.35 (3.40)

The rms value of the output voltage is given by

( ) = ∫ ( ) ( ) = 1.35 (3.41)

The form factor is given by

( )
= =1 (3.42)

And the ripple factor is given by

= ( ) −1= 0 (3.43)

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

Fig 3.15 Waveforms for three-phase diode bridge rectifier

The rms value of the input current in each phase is given by

= ∫ ( ) ( ) = 0.816 (3.44)

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

The rms value of the fundamental-frequency component of the input current is given by

= ∫ sin . ( ) = 0.78 (3.45)

√

The power factor of the circuit is given by

√
= = cos = cos = 0.955 (3.46)
√

The total harmonic distortion in the input current is given by

= × 100% = 30.73% (3.47)

The transformer utilization factor is given by

= = 0.955 (3.48)
√

Equations (3.40) to (3.48) show that a three-phase bridge rectifier has very high performance parameters
compared to other rectifier circuits, making it suitable for high power applications.

However, in some applications such as HVDC, higher pulse rectifiers such as the twelve pulse rectifier
are used. The section below looks at a twelve pulse rectifier circuit.

3.3.3 Twelve-Pulse Rectifier

Fig 3.16 shows the circuit of a twelve-pulse rectifier.

The two transformers are connected in parallel on the primary, and in series on the secondary. The
connection of the two transformers gives a phase shift of ⁄6 rad (30º) in the voltages, resulting in six
phases on the secondary. The resulting dc voltage is similar to the one in fig 3.13, and has a ripple that is
at a frequency of 12 times the fundamental frequency (hence the term twelve-pulse rectifier) and it has
very low ripple content, therefore, it does not require filtering in most cases.

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 DIODE RECTIFIERS

a a1

b1 vd1

c1
c
+
- L
b
vd O
A
+ D
-

a2

vd2
b2

c2

Fig 3.16 Twelve-pulse rectifier

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 CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

4.0 CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

4.1 Introduction
Controlled rectifiers are a class of AC to DC converters which traditionally use thyristors (SCRs). These
are called line-frequency phase-controlled rectifiers or thyristor rectifiers (or converters since the same
circuits can also be used as inverters). Modern controlled rectifiers use forced-commutated devices and
are called forced-commutated rectifiers or Pulse-Width-Modulated (PWM) rectifiers.

As discussed in chapter 2, a thyristor conducts when it is forward biased and a triggering signal is applied
to its gate. By delaying the moment of application of the triggering signal, the conduction interval of the
thyristor can be varied, hence varying the output voltage. If there is no delay in applying the triggering
signal (i.e. applying the triggering signal at the zero-crossing of the input voltage) there is no difference
between a thyristor rectifier and the diode rectifiers discussed in chapter 3.

The devices in a forced-commutated rectifier are controlled by pulse-width modulation, a technique

which will be discussed further in chapter 5. These rectifiers will be discussed briefly in this chapter and
in chapter 6.

4.2 Single-Phase Thyristor Rectifiers

4.2.1 Single-Phase Half-Wave Thyristor Rectifier
Fig 4.1shows a single-phase half-wave thyristor rectifier, supplying a purely resistive load. The input
voltage is sinusoidal and is given by

= sin (4.1)

The thyristor conducts during the positive half-cycle when it is triggered at = , where is called the
firing angle up to = . The resulting waveforms are as shown in fig 4.2.

Fig 4.1 Single-phase half-wave thyristor rectifier

56
 CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Fig 4.2 Waveforms for single-phase half-wave thyristor rectifier

The average output voltage is given by

= ∫ ( )= ∫ √2 sin . ( )=0.225 (1 + cos ) (4.2)

The rms value of the output voltage is given by

( ) = ∫ ( ) = 1− + (4.3)
√

Single-phase thyristor rectifiers are rarely used in practice because of their low average output voltage,
low rms value of the output voltage, and the big low-pass filter required to obtain an acceptable output
voltage and current.

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 CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

4.2.2 Single-Phase Full-Wave Thyristor Rectifiers

Fig 4.3 shows a single-phase full-wave thyristor rectifier also known as a single-phase thyristor bridge
rectifier supplying a purely resistive load.

Thyristors and and triggered during the positive half-cycle of the input voltage at angle = .
The two thyristors conduct until = , when the input voltage changes polarity and they become
reverse biased. Thyristors and are triggered during the negative half-cycle of the input voltage and
they conduct from = + to 2 . The resulting waveforms are shown in fig 4.4.

Fig 4.3

From the waveforms the average output voltage is given by

= ∫ ( ) = 0.45 (1 + cos ) (4.4)

The rms value of the output voltage is given by

( ) = ∫ ( ) ( )= 1− + (4.5)

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CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Fig 4.4

59
CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Fig 4.5

60