FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF GEOMATICS
STUDY NOTES
GEOGRAPHY (GEG115X)
NQF: 5
NQF Credits: 6
Qualification: Bachelor of Geomatics
SAQA ID: 112138
Compiled by:
MR NK NELUEMBENI

Date of last revision:

January 2023
Page 2 Page 2
 GEOGRAPHY NOTES
Dr James Magidi

© COPYRIGHT: Tshwane University of Technology (2020)

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© COPYRIGHT: TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY (2020)

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1
 Latitudes and Longitudes
Dr. James Magidi

Learning Outcome
To define latitude and longitude
To illustrate latitude, longitude, equator,
prime meridian, poles
To understand the rotation of the Earth
Differentiate winter and summer solstices

2
 Latitude
Latitude: the angular distance of a place/point
north or south of the equator
It is usually expressed in degrees, minutes and
seconds.
Latitudes are referred to as parallels
Parallels do not converge anywhere on the
globe. They are called parallels because they
are always an equal distance apart.
The first parallel (reference) is the equator or
zero degree latitude or latitude 0°.
Latitude measures distance north and south
from the Equator. Parallels are lines that circle
the globe.
Parallels ranges from -90° to +90° (90°S to
90°N)
Tropic of Cancer is 23,5°N and Tropic of
Capricorn 23,5°S

Longitudes
Longitude (shown as a vertical line) is the
angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and
seconds, of a point east or west of the Prime
(Greenwich) Meridian.
longitudes are also referred to as meridians
Meridians are runs from the North Pole to
the South Pole.
Meridians are not parallel.
They converge at the Poles.
The meridians ranges from 0° to 180° east
and west of the prime meridian
It ranges between -180 and +180 degrees
Prime meridian is the zero degree
longitude (0°)

3
4
 Rotation of the Earth
Earth's rotation is the rotation of the planet on
its own axis. It rotates from the west towards
east (counter-clockwise).
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (true
noon to true noon) is its true solar day or
apparent solar day. It depends on the Earth's
orbital motion and is thus affected by changes
in the eccentricity and inclination of Earth's
orbit
The Earth rotates, or spins, on its axis once
every 24 hours.
The sun is the Earth's only source of light.
The rotation produces the pattern of day and
night as different parts of the Earth are
exposed to sunlight.
The sun is always shining on one-half of the
Earth. This is called daytime. The part of the
Earth not facing the sun is in darkness, or
nighttime

5
 Revolution of the earth
• The earth revolves around the sun. The Earth revolves around the Sun in what is
called an orbit (circle).
• One complete revolution takes approximately 365.25 days, which is equivalent to
a year.
• The extra 0.25 day is accounted for in the extra day of the leap year
• As the Earth moves around the Sun, it is inclined, or tilted, 23 from the
perpendicular. The Earth's revolution and inclination are what cause the changing
seasons.
• The earth's axis is tilted meaning some parts of the planet are more closer to the
sun and part of it is farther away at any given time.
• The earth tilts towards the Southern Hemisphere in January, it means that the
Southern Hemisphere gets slightly more solar energy as compared to the Northern
Hemisphere
• The Earth's rotation around the sun and its tilt also produce the seasonal variations
in the weather.
• As the Northern Hemisphere tilts towards the sun, it experiences the warmer
temperatures (summer). At the same time, the Southern Hemisphere is tilted away
from the sun and experiences winter.

6
 Revolution of the earth

Summer &Winter Solstices

7
 What is DMS?
DMS is the abbreviation for Degrees Minutes Seconds.
Degrees minutes seconds (DMS) are special type of units used
for measuring angles, as an alternative to decimal way to stating
the size of an angle.
It is a known fact that there are 360 degrees in a whole circle,
with 1/60th of those being 1 minute, and 1/60th of one minute
being 1 second.
DMS includes degrees (°), minutes ('), seconds (''), with the
corresponding symbols, and a size of any angle can be stated
like, for example, 30 degrees, 10 minutes, 50 seconds.
The numerical values for latitude and longitude in decimal
number format are: ° for degrees, ' for minutes and '' for seconds.
The common abbreviations of the directions:
S: South
W: West
E: East
N: North

Degrees/Minutes/Seconds (DMS) vs
Decimal Degrees (DD)
For positioning, we can find any location on
Earth using latitude and longitude coordinates.
And we measure those coordinates using
decimal degrees or degrees/minutes/seconds or
degrees/minutes only.
While latitude lines range between -90 and +90
degrees, longitude coordinates are between -
180 and +180 degrees.
Do you notice how we use degrees for latitude
and longitude coordinates? Let’s start with some
key examples how come we use angular units.

8
To convert from degrees and decimal
minutes to decimal degrees
Divide the number of minutes by 60 and add that value to the number of degrees –
do not change the number of whole degrees
Example
To convert 40º 05.3’ N to decimal degrees do the following
We are converting the minutes to a decimal part of a degree
Divide the minutes (5.3) by the number of minutes in a degree (60) this will
give the decimal part of a degree that 5.3 minutes represents
• 5.3/60 = 0.08833
Add the decimal degrees to the degrees and discard the minutes
• 40 + 0.08833 = 40.08833
So the answer is 40.08833º
NOTE: To convert from degrees minutes seconds to decimal degrees do the task in
two steps as shown above, first go to degrees and decimal minutes, then convert to
decimal degrees

To convert from decimal degrees to

degrees and decimal minutes
Multiply the decimal part (the numbers to the right of the decimal
point) times 60, that will give the number of minutes and add that
value to the whole degrees – do not change the number of whole
degrees
Example
To convert from 40.08833º N to degrees and decimal minutes do
the following
We are converting from decimal degrees to minutes
Multiply the decimal part (0.08833) times the number of minutes
in a degree (60) and replace the decimal degrees with the
minutes
– 0.08833 x 60 = 5.3
So the answer is 40º 05.3’ N

9
To convert from degrees and decimal minutes
to degrees minutes seconds
• Multiply the decimal part of the minutes( the number to the right of the
decimal) times 60, that will give the number of seconds and add that value
to the whole minutes
– Example
– To convert from 40º 05.3’ N to degrees minutes seconds do the following
– We are converting the decimal minutes to seconds
– Multiply the decimal part (0.3) times the number of seconds in a minute
(60) and replace the decimal minutes with seconds
– 0.3 x 60 = 18
– So the answer is 40º 05’ 18” N
• NOTE: To convert from decimal degrees to degrees minutes seconds do the
task in two steps as shown above, first go to degrees and decimal minutes,
then convert to degrees minutes seconds

10
 River Systems
Dr James Magidi

Useful vocabulary
Condensation: The cooling of a gas so that it changes into a liquid, for instance as water
vapour cools, it condenses to become water droplets, which, when heavy enough, fall as
rain.
Confluence: Where two rivers meet and join to form one larger river.
Delta: A build-up of sediment at the point where a river meets a sea or lake, due to the
water velocity slowing and the river having less energy to carry the sediment.
Drainage Basin: The area of land drained by a river and its tributaries.
Estuary: The point at which a river begins to meet the sea. The river will be tidal,
meaning that it will have both salt water and fresh water in it.
Evaporation: Water that is warmed, usually by the sun, so that it changes into a gas
(water vapour).
Evapo-transpiration: The combination of evaporation and transpiration.
Fluvial: relating to a river, from the Latin for water.
Hydrology: The study of water

11
Infiltration: The downward movement of water that seeps into the soil or a porous rock.
Mouth: The end of the river, where it meets the sea, or a lake.
Overland Flow: When water flows over the surface of the ground. This occurs for a
number of reasons: the soil may be saturated and therefore be unable to absorb any
more water; the underlying rock may be impermeable or the ground may be frozen.
Percolation: The movement of water through the soil or underlying porous rock. This
water collects as groundwater.
Precipitation: Water falling to Earth in any form: e.g. rain, sleet, hail, snow, and dew, all
are encompassed by the term precipitation.
Surface Run-off: see Overland Flow
Through flow: the movement of water with in the soil sideways, towards the river.
Transpiration: The water loss from vegetation into the atmosphere.
Tributaries: rivers running into the main one, that form part of the same drainage basin
system.
Velocity: The speed of the flow of the river.
Watershed: The imaginary dividing line between neighbouring drainage basins.

The
drainage
basin
system (as
part of the
water cycle)

12
The drainage basin of a river forms an integral part of the entire hydrological
cycle (also known as the water cycle), which is shown in the diagram below.
The drainage basin acts as an open system, with a number of inputs, outputs,
stores and transfers.
INPUT into the system is mainly precipitation, mainly as rainfall, snow, sleet
and hail.
• Storage:
• Interception – is when the precipitation lands on buildings, vegetation
before it reaches the surface
• Vegetation storage – the water taken up by vegetation
• Surface storage – water stored in lakes, dams, ponds etc.
• Ground Water Storage – storage of water underground in permeable rock
strata
• Channel Storage - the water held in a river or stream channel
•

13
Flows and Process - the movement of water from one place to another
• Baseflow - the water that reaches the channel through slow throughflow and from
permeable rock below the water table
• Channel Flow - the movement of water within river channels (also known as RIVER
DISCHARGE)
• Ground water flow
• Infiltration –the downward movement of water into the soil surface
• Interflow- the water flowing downhill through permeable rock above the water table
• Percolation – the flow of water downward within the soil or rock as a result of gravity
• Stemflow - water running down the stem or truck of a tree
• Surface Runoff - the movement of water over the surface of the land, usually when the
ground is oversaturated or frozen or when precipitation is too intense for infiltration to take
place
• Through flow - the movement of water downslope within the soil layer.
OUTPUT
• Evaporation
• Evapo-transpiration
• Transpiration
• River Dischange

Drainage patterns
Centripetal
The rivers flow inwards towards a point.
Occurs due to the underlying rock forming a basin.
Examples include the Sea of Galilee

Dendritic
The rivers form a tree shape, with the primary river forming the trunk.
Occurs in areas where the rock type is uniform (it is all the same)
Examples can be found commonly throughout the world, and include
Limpopo River.

Parallel

The rivers run parallel to each other downhill.

The underlying rock is uniform and the surface is flat

14
 Drainage patterns
Radial
The rivers flow outwards from a central point.
The underlying rock has been uplifted to become a dome, or
may be a cone of a volcano.

Trellis
The river and its tributaries run parallel to each other, before turning at
right-angles to meet up.
The underlying rock is an alternating structure of resistant and less
resistant rock.
The main river, which flows in the direction that the underlying rock
dips, is called the Consequent River. The tributaries flowing into it are
called Subsequent Rivers.

Types of Rivers
Permanent Rivers
Seasonal River
Exotic

15
 Long profiles

• Over the long profile of the river, it is steeper near the source, where
there is a lot more material for the river to cut through to reach its base
level. As you go further down the river it has cut further down towards
base level and is beginning to cut laterally (sideways) as well. The
slope angle of the river decreases. By the time you reach the lower
stages of the river it almost flows over a flat surface, as it meanders its
way towards the sea.

Cross profiles
The cross profile of the river channel changes throughout the
course of the river. In the upper section the channel tends to
be quite narrow, and comparatively deep. The bottom and
sides are littered with many boulders and rocks, causing a
great deal of friction for the water flowing past them. This
slows the water down and means that this is where the river is
flowing the slowest.
In the mid course of the river has a wider channel, which is
deeper than the one in the upper reaches, and the water flows
faster, as it has less material to slow it down. The river may
begin to meander in this section.
The lower course sees the river flowing at its fastest until it
slows down when it meets the sea. The channel is very wide,
deep in places where the water is flowing quickest, and
smooth sided.

16
 River profiles overview
Upper Course Mid-Course Lower Course
Steeply sloping
Shallow slopes towards Almost at sea level, very gently
Long Profile towards the lower
the mouth of the river. sloping towards its mouth.
sections of the river.
V-shaped valley
remains with a wider
Steep sided v-shaped valley floor and the Wide, shallow valley, with large
valley. Thin river river begins to flood plains and meanders. The
Cross Profile
channel, deep in meander across it. The river channel is wide, deep and
places. river channel begins to smooth sided.
widen and become
deeper.

Fluvial erosion
The main processes of fluvial erosion occur throughout the course
of the river. These are outlined below.
The river itself, however, will try to erode in different directions,
depending on how far down the course you are. Very basically, rivers
are trying to erode down to their base level. In most cases this
is sea level, but it can also be the level of a lake that the river might
be flowing into.
At the top of the river, near its source, the river has a huge amount
of material to get through to reach base level, so it primarily cuts
downwards, creating a steep-sided v-shaped valley.
In the mid-course of the river it continues to cut downwards but is
also starting to cut sideways or laterally.
Once it has reached the lower course, and is nearing the sea, the
river has almost reached its base level, so most of its erosive energy
is concentrated on cutting laterally, creating features such as
meanders.

17
• The main processes of fluvial erosion are:
• Abrasion: The erosion of the river bottom and the riverbank by material being carried by the
river itself.
• Attrition: The rocks and pebbles being carried by the river crash against each other, wearing
them down to become smaller, rounded pebbles.
• Corrasion: see Attrition.
• Corrosion: The chemical erosion of the rocks of the riverbank by the slightly acidic water.
This occurs in streams running through rocks such as chalk and limestone.
• Hydraulic Action: The water forces air to be trapped and pressured into cracks in the rocks
on the bank of the river. This constant pressure eventually causes the rocks to crack and
break apart.

Fluvial transportation
Once it has been eroded, material in the river is transported down the river. Whilst this is
happening, erosion processes such as attrition and abrasion continue to occur. There
are four main processes of fluvial transportation, depending on the size of the
material being moved:
Traction: The largest rocks in the river are slowly rolled along the bottom of the river by
the force of the water. This primarily occurs in the upper reaches of the river.
Saltation: Smaller rocks are bounced alongthe river bed. This occurs in the upper and
middle sections of the river in general.
Suspension: The water carries smaller particles of material. This process occurs
throughout the course of the river, but increases the closes you are to the mouth of the
river.
Solution: Materialis dissolved within the water and carried along by it. Primarily this
occurs in the middle and lower reaches of the river.

18
 Fluvial deposition
• Fluvial deposition occurs where the river losses energy and therefore
cannot continue to carry the material it is transporting. This could happen in
an estuary when the river meets the sea and slows down, depositing its
load, which may eventually lead to the formation of salt marshes or a delta.
Material is also deposited further up the course of the river. For instance the
slower moving water on the inside of a bend of a river will have less energy
and therefore drop its load, helping to create a meander.
• A major depositional feature of a river is the flood plain, in its lower reaches.
This is made up of deposited sand and silt, which is known
as alluvium. This is often very fertile and is the reason why many areas
near rivers have large amounts of agricultural activity.

Fluvial processes overview

Upper Course Mid-Course Lower Course

Primarily cuts laterally as

Continues to cut vertically,
it has almost reached
Primarily vertical erosion, but it also begins to cut
base level. The erosive
through attrition, abrasion laterally as it gets closer to
Erosion & energy of the river is
and hydraulic action. base level. Deposition
Deposition almost totally
Large boulders deposited occurs in the slower
concentrated on cutting
and eroded in situ. moving insides of
sideways. Much
meanders.
deposition occurs.
Transportatio Saltation, suspension and Mainly suspension and
Traction and saltation.
n solution. solution.

19
 Erosional features

Gorge
Interlocking Spurs - As the river
cuts its deep V-shaped valley in its
upper course. Thus it tends to wind
its way along, leaving the more
resistant areas of rock as interlocking
spurs.

Potholes

Erosional features
Meanders - Meanders occur in the mid course and lower course of the river,
where it is beginning to cut laterally as it gets closer to base level. Meanders
are basically bends in the river, where the faster water on the outside of the
bend has cut into the bank, eroding it and creating a river cliff. At the same
time the slow moving water on the inside of the bend deposits its load,
building up a shallow slip-off slope. Meanders migrate downstream as they
cut through the valley sides. This creates a line of parallel cliffs along the
sides of the valley.

Ox-Bow Lakes - In the lower course of the river meanders

can become so pronounced that they can form ox-bow
lakes. In the lower course the rapid lateral erosion cuts into
the neck of the meander, narrowing it considerably.
Eventually the force of the river breaks through the neck,
and as this is the easiest way for the water to go, the old
meander is left without any significant amount of water
flowing through it. Quickly the river deposits material along
the side of its new course, which completely block off the
old meander, creating an ox-bow lake.

20
 Erosional features
V-shaped valleys - In the upper course of the river, it
cuts rapidly downwards, as the river puts almost all of
its energy towards cutting down to base level. This
causes the most distinctive river feature, the V-shaped
valley. Rocks and other material are washed into the
river from the steep valley sides during times of heavy
rainfall, adding to the material being carried by the river.

Waterfalls - Waterfalls are perhaps the most spectacular erosional

feature of a river. They primarily occur in the upper course of the river.
Often a waterfall will form where a band of harder rock lies over a softer
one. As the river flows over the edge of the harder, more resistant rock,
into its plunge pool, it erodes away the softer rock below, creating an
overhang. Once the overhang is big enough the whole thing collapses
due to gravity and its own weight. The whole process then occurs
again. This means that over time waterfalls will move backwards up the
valley, leaving a steep sided gorge in front of them.

Depositional features
Deltas - Deltas occur where a river that carries a large amount of
sediment meets a lake or the sea. This meeting causes the river
to lose energy and drop the sediment it is carrying. Deltas form
two types, called arcuate and birds foot. An arcuate delta is
one, which builds out into the sea, extending the coastline, as the
Nile Delta does in Egypt. A bird's foot delta is an extension of this
as "fingers “of material form further off the edge of the delta.

Flood Plain - The Flood Plain is the area of alluvial deposits found beside the river
in its lower course. As meanders move slowly down the course of the river they
erode away the valley to create a wide valley floor, and they deposit layers of
alluvial material on the slip off slopes. Over time this builds up into a large flood
plain.

Levee's - Levees are naturally formed banks along the

sides of a river channel in its lower course, as it flows
through the flood plain. They are formed by the river
depositing material when it floods. During a flood the
river deposits its heaviest, coarsest material closest to its
normal course. Over years this deposition has built up
the natural embankments, built of coarse material.
Beyond them the flood plain has been built up of the finer
material that was deposited further away from the normal
course of the river.

21
 Features overview
Upper Course Mid Course Lower Course

Interlocking spurs, Deltas, flood plains,

Meanders, Slip-off slopes,
Features waterfalls, V-shaped levees, meanders, ox-
ox-bow lakes.
valley, gorges. bow lakes.

Relatively slow moving.

The fastest section of
Despite areas of fast The water has increased in
the river, as the
flowing water, the large speed as the channel widens
channel is widest, with
Velocity amount of material on the and becomes smoother.
very smooth sides,
river channel bed means Some boulders cause friction
and the greatest
that friction will slow the to slow it down a little.
volume of water.
water down.

The uses of river basins

Rivers provide a source of fresh drinking
water, a source of food (fishing) and

Settlements.
Religious Benefits

Transport route

22
 Flood plains provide areas of rich, fertile alluvial soil.

Rivers can act as a very effective power source. Initially waterwheels

were used to power factories during the Industrial revolution. Latterly
the development of hydroelectric power has meant a great increase
in the building of dams to trap the water of a river and its drainage
basin.

Rivers have always been seen as a convenient way of waste removal.

This has led to many rivers becoming very polluted and in some
cases, dangerous.

Estuaries commonly have been used for industry, which has been able to
build its factories on the flat flood plain land. This location is ideal for many
industries, such as oil refineries, as they then have easy access to the sea
for transporting their goods. The land is flat, cheap and easy to reclaim.
Usually a local labour source is not too far away

The management of river basins

• As humans have increasingly used and abused river basins so
management and planning of them has become increasingly important.
• Flooding is the most common thing to have to plan around. In many cities
the flood plain has not really been built on..
• To prevent the impact of flooding schemes have been introduced in many of
these places. These methods can be very successful, or can cause greater
problems further downstream.
• Building dams across rivers can also cause problems. Obviously there are
the advantages of creating a large reservoir, which can be used for drinking
water or as the source of water for a hydroelectric power scheme. The
reservoir are used for recreational purposes. However, the building of a
large dam can also cause problems by affecting the flow of water further
down the river, by flooding areas of farmland and even towns or villages,
and by affecting entire ecosystems.
• Rivers are used for the dumping of waste, such as sewage, agricultural
waste, chemicals and oil. All will greatly harm the wildlife of the river as well
as causing potential problems for humans when they drink the water.
Schemes and by-laws have been introduced to try to prevent the pollution of
our rivers.

23
 River Regimes
A river regime is the annual variations in the discharge of the river .The information
can shown on a graph called a hydrograph.
There are many types of rivers regimes which are:
Singe mode regime – when the hydrograph has one peak discharge through the
year
Bi modal regime - when the hydrograph has two discharge peaks throughout the
year
Tri-modal regime - when the hydrograph has three discharge peaks throughout
the year
The discharge of a river is shown on a graph called a flood or storm hydrograph. It
shows the rainfall amount and then the discharge of the river. Most of the rain falls
onto the land rather than directly into the river. The water then will make its way into
the river and you can use a hydrograph to see how quickly this occurs. By looking at
the peak rainfall and comparing it with the peak discharge you can work out the lag-
time (the time between the two peaks).
Different catchment areas will have different flood hydrographs. Some, with steep
slopes and little vegetation, will rise very quickly, and can be described as a "flashy
river". These are the most likely to flood.

Characteristics of a Hydrograph
Peak discharge – show the
maximum amount of flow in the
river
Peak rainfall – shows the
maximum amount of rainfall
Lag time – the time difference
between the peak rainfall and
peak discharge
Rising limp – shows the rise in
discharge
Falling limp – shows the fall in
discharge

24
 Flood hydrographs

• Flooding occurs due to a sudden increase in

the amount of runoff and streamflow, and can
occur for a number of reasons:
• A rapid snow melt
• A prolonged period of heavy rain
• A sudden and intense fall of rain
• Human interventions, such as deforestation,
which cause the water to run-off faster than
previously.
• Those drainage basins with shallower
slopes, and greater vegetation cover will
infiltrate the water more, and release it at a
slower rate into the river. This means there is
less chance of flooding occurring.
• Flood hydrographs are very important in
predicting how a certain river will behave in a
time of intense rainfall. The information could
then also be used to plan the most
appropriate form of flood prevention scheme
for that particular river.

Factors affecting river regimes

Season
River passing through different climatic
zones will have more than one peak
period as the have another surge in
discharge during winter period when the
other region is experiencing rain
Snow thawing
Human activities

25
Atmospheric Process
Dr. James Magidi

26
 Weather and Climate
Meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena it
includes the study of weather and climate
Weather is state of the atmosphere at a local level,
usually on a short timescale of minutes to months
It gives an emphasis on the aspects of the atmosphere
that affect human activities eg wind rainfall, clouds,
humidity, precipitation, and temperature
Climate is the long term behaviour of the atmosphere
in specific area
Climatic characteristics are represented by data on rainfall,
temperature, pressure, humidity etc. which are used to
compute the daily, monthly and yearly averages

Structure and composition of the

atmosphere
The atmosphere is an envelop of transparent, odourless gases held to the earth by gravitational
attraction
Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing height, temperature change is a bit more complex.
Change in temperature mean that the atmosphere is divided into different layers which are:
Troposphere
– temperature decreases by 6,4°C within every 1000m increase in altitude. This is mainly because the earth is
warmed by incoming solar radiation which heats the air by conduction, convection and radiation
– Pressure falls as the effect of gravity decreases, although wind speed decreases with increasing altitude
– Above the troposphere is a tropopause which is an isothermal layer where temperature remain constant
Stratosphere
– There is increase of temperature caused by the concentation of ozone (o3)
– Ozone absorbs incoming ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
– Winds are light at the lower parts but increases in height pressure continues to fall
– The stratosphere act as a protective shield against meteorites which burn out as they enter the earth gravitational
field.
– The stratopause – another isothermal layer where temperature does not change
3. Mesophere
– Temperature falls rapidly because there is no water vapour, cloud, dust or ozone to absorb radiation
– The layer experience the atmosphere’s lowest temp
Thermosphere

27
 Insolation
Insolation can be described as the incoming solar energy that
reaches the Earth’s atmosphere and surface.

Long term factors affecting insolation

Altitude of the sun
Land and sea
Height above sea level
Prevailing winds
Ocean currents
• Short term factors
Seasonal changes
Length of the day
• Local Influences on insolation
Aspect
Cloud cover
Urbanisation

28
 Humidity
Is the measure of water vapour content in
the atmosphere
Absolute humidity
Specific humidity
Relative humidity

Condensation
Radiation (contact) cooling
Advection Cooling
Orographic
Convective

29
 Lapse Rate
Environmental lapse rate (ELR) is the decrease in
temperature usually expected with an increase in height in the
troposphere. ELR is approximately 6.5°C per 1000m
Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR): describe the decrease in
temperature of a parcel of air as it rises. There are three types
of ALR
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) – this when the upward
movement of air parcel does not lead to condensation
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) – when the upward
movement is sufficiently prolonged to enable air to cool to its
dew point temperature. SALR is lower than 4°C per 1000m and
as high as 9°C per 1000m
Freezing Adiabatic Lapse Rate (FALR) – When the parcel of
rising air falls below freexing point the air will cool at the freezing
adiabatic lapse rate.

Atmospheric Stability
Stability is when the
rising parcel of
unsaturated air cool
faster than the air
surrounding it. ELR
lies on right of DALR
Stability is often
linked with lack of
rainfall or anti-cyclone

30
 Instability
Instability is when the rising
parcel of saturated air cool
slower than the air
surrounding it. ELR lies on
left of SALR
The rising air remains war mer
and lighter than the
surrounding. It leads to
clouds, rainfall and
thunderstorms.

Conditional Stability
This occurs when ELR is
lower than the DALR but
higher than the SALR.
The rising air is stable in the
lower layers and being cooler
than the surroundings air.
However if the mechanism
which triggered the uplift
remains then the air air will be
will be cooled to due point.
Beyond this point cooling
takes place at a slower SALR
and the parcel become
warmer than the surrounding
air.

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 Conditional Stability

Clouds
Three types of clouds
• High-level clouds (5-13 km): cirrocumulus,
cirrus, and cirrostratus. Frozen Water
Droplets or ice crystals
• Mid-level clouds (2-7 km): altocumulus,
altostratus, and nimbostratus.) Ice crystals
and/or water droplets
• Low-level clouds (0-2 km): stratus, cumulus,
cumulonimbus, and stratocumulus. Water
Droplets (ice crystals in winter

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Relief Rainfall
Relief Rainfall occurs when:
• The prevailing winds pick up moisture from the
sea as they travel across it, making the air
moist.
• The moist air reaches the coast and is forced
to rise over mountains and hills.
• This forces the air to cool and condense,
forming clouds.
• The air continues to be forced over the
mountains and so it drops its moisture as relief
rain.
• Once over the top of the mountain the air will
usually drop down the other side, warming as it
does so. This means it has a greater ability to
carry water moisture and so there is little rain
on the far side of the mountain. This area is
called the rain shadow or leeward side

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 Convectional rainfall
• Very common in areas where the ground is
heated by the hot sun, such as the Tropics.
This is why those areas experience heavy
rainfalls most afternoons..

• Convectional rainfall occurs when:

• The surface of the earth is heated by the sun.

• The warm surface heats the air above it. Hot
air always rises so this newly heated air does
so.
• As it rises the air-cools and begins to
condensate.
• Further rising and cooling causes a large
amount of condensation to occur and rain is
formed.
• Convection tends to produce towering
cumulo-nimbus clouds, which produce heavy
rain and possible thunder and lightning.

Frontal/cyclonic rainfall
Also called cyclonic rainfall occurs due to the
cyclonic activity that occurs at the fronts of the
cyclone. It is formed when two masses of air with
different humidity, density and temperature
collides. These air will not mix with each other but
forms fronts.
Frontal rainfall occurs when:
Two air masses meet, one a warm air mass and
one a cold air mass.
The lighter, less dense, warm air is forced to rise
over the denser, cold air.
This causes the warm air to cool and begin to
condense.
As the warm air is forced to rise further
condensation occurs and rain is formed.
Frontal rain produces a variety of clouds, which
bring moderate to heavy rainfall.

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 Cold front
• cold front is defined as the
transition zone where a cold air
mass is replacing a warmer air
mass. Cold fronts generally move
from northwest to southeast. The
air behind a cold front is
noticeably colder and drier than
the air ahead of it.
• Cold fronts form when a cooler
air mass moves into an area of
warmer air in the wake of a
developing extratropical cyclone.
The warmer air interacts with the
cooler air mass along the
boundary, and usually produces
precipitation. Cold fronts often
follow a warm front or squall line.

Warm front
• A warm front brings gentle rain or light
snow, followed by warmer,
milder weather. Stationary front Forms
when warm and cold air meet and
neither air mass has the force to move
the other. They remain stationary, or
“standing still.” Where the warm and cold
air meet, clouds and fog form, and it may
rain or snow.
• when a warm front passes through an
area the air will get warmer and more
humid. ... After the warm front
passes conditions completely reverse.
The atmospheric pressure rises slightly
before falling. The temperatures
are warmer then they level off

35
 Acid Rain
Rainfall made so acidic by atmospheric pollution that it
causes environmental harm, chiefly to forests and
lakes.
The main cause is the industrial burning of coal and
other fossil fuels, the waste gases from which contain
sulphur and nitrogen oxides which combine with
atmospheric water to form acids.
Acid rain has been shown to have
adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils,
killing insect and aquatic life-forms, causing paint to
peel, corrosion of steel structures such as bridges, and
weathering of stone buildings and statues as well as
having impacts on human health.

36
 Cyclone and Anticyclone
• cyclone is a large-scale air mass that rotates around a strong center of low
atmospheric pressure. Cyclones are characterized by inward spiraling winds that
rotate about a zone of low pressure
• Anticyclones are the opposite of depressions - they are an area of high
atmospheric pressure where the air is sinking. As the air is sinking, not rising, no
clouds or rain are formed. This is because as the air sinks it warms, meaning it
can hold more water. ... In summer, anticyclones bring dry, hot weather.

Land and Sea Breeze

A land breeze is a breeze blowing from land out toward a body of water.
A sea breeze is a wind blowing from the water onto the land.
Land breezes and sea breezes arise because of differential heating
between land and water surfaces.
In the day, when the sun is up, the land heats up very quickly and the air
above it warms up a lot more than the air over the water. The warm air over
the land is less dense and begins to rise. Low pressure is created. The air
pressure over the water is higher with cold dense air, which moves to
occupy the space created over the land. The cool air that comes along is
called a sea breeze.
n the night, the reverse happens. The land quickly loses its’ heat whiles the
water retains its’ warmth. This means the air over the water is warmer, less
dense and begins to rise. Low pressure is created over the water. Cold and
dense air over the land begins to move to the water surface to replace the
warmer rising air. The cool breeze from the land is called a land breeze.

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 Microclimates
Microclimatology is the study of climate over a small
area. It includes changes as a result of the
establishment of urban areas as well as difference
between land surfaces eg forest and dam
Urban Climate
Temperature
Sunlight
Wind
Relative humidity
Cloud
Precipitation
Atmosperics composition
Forest and lake microclimates

38
 Weathering
Dr James Magidi

Weathering
Any of the chemical or mechanical
processes by which rocks exposed to the
weather undergo chemical decomposition
and physical disintegration

39
 Different Types of Weathering
Chemical:
Is the breaking down or decomposition as a result of various
chemical process and reaction altering the chemical content of the
rock
Some rocks decomposes when are in contact with water, carbon
dioxide, etc
Mechanical
is the disintegration of a rock into smaller particles by mechanical
processes and without any changes in the chemical composition of
the rock
It is more likely to occur in arid climates as deserts, arctic regions
and areas that have little to no vegetation
Physical weathering typical produce sand soils
Physical weathering process including exfoliation, frost shattering,
pressure release and thermal shattering

Types Chemical Weathering

Oxidation
This occurs when rocks are exposed to oxygen in air or in water.
The most prevalent of these is when rocks containing iron compounds reacts with
oxygen to form oxidation called rusting as the rock is transformed from the is known as
a ferrous state to ferric state
Hydration
some types of rocks e.g. those which contain salt minerals have the capacity to absorb
water into their structure causing them to swell and become susceptible to future
breakdown
hydration is actual physical-chemical weathering process since the rock swell and exert
pressure in addition to changing chemical structure
Hydrolysis
Hydrogen ions in water react with minerals ions in the rock and this give rise to different
compounds and is common in granite areas
The feldspar in granite/igneous rock react with hydrogen in water to form clay
Solution
Some minerals such rock salts are soluble in water and simply dissolve is situ

40
 Types Chemical Weathering contd

Types of Mechanical Weathering

• Thermal shattering
– Rocks expand when heated and contract when cooled, the outer of the rock expand
faster than the inner layers leading to stresses within the rock causing outer layers of
the rock to peel off like the ring of an onion. Hence it’s called “onion weathering”
– This results in granular disintegration with the rock
– This is also known as thermal expansion or insolation weathering
• Frost shattering
– It occurs win rocks with crevices and joints
– During the day when its warmer water enters the crevices/joints and when the
temperature falls (at night), the water freezes leading to breakdown
– Ices occupies more spaces that water and cause the rock to crack
– With each freeze and thaw cycle the joints expands until the rocks shatter and fall off
the main rock. The process is called frost wedding
• Salt Crystallisation
– If water entering the pore spaces in rocks is slightly saline then as it evaporates, salt
crystals are likely to form. As the crystals become larger they exert stress upon the
rock causing it to integrate. This mainly occurs in the desert where capillary action
draws water to the surface and where the rock is sandstone
– Individual grain of sands are broken of by granular disintegration
•

41
 Types of Mechanical Weathering - contd

Pressure release
Intrusive granite landforms such as batholiths are formed deep
below the surface and under pressure due to weight of the
overlying overburden
If the overburden is removed by denudation process is a
substantial reduction in pressure
The reduction in pressure cause fractures to develop especially
on the top of the rock
These cracks develop parallel to the surface in the process
called sheeting
Biological weathering
Tree roots may grow along bedding planes or extend into joints,
widening them until blocks of rock become detached.
It is claimed that burrowing creatures such as worms and rabbits
plays a pivotal role in excavation of partially weathered rocks

Factors Affecting Weathering

• Climate
Weathering types is determined by the prevailing climate
Temperature and rainfall has the greatest influence on weathering
Free-thaw is climate dependant
Heating and cooling which lead to exfoliation is also climate dependant.
• Relief
Steep slope are not favourable for weathering as they drain quickly
Moisture accumulates on mountain base thereby facilitating chemical weathering
• Vegetation
Tree cause biological weathering
Decayed vegetation produces humic acid
• Rock Type
Some rock types e.g. limestone are porous and soft and are easily affected by carbonation
Different type of rocks are affected by different type of weathering
• Exposure
Exposure of the rock leads to the speed of weathering
Exposed rocks weather faster than covered ones
Removal of the topsoil can also lead to pressure release.

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James Magidi

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Deflation Hollow

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 What is desertification?

What causes desertification?

50
 Agriculture
Dr James Magidi

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 Types of Agriculture
• Nomadic Herding
• Arable farming – crop farming
• Pastoral farming
• Mixed farming – when a farmer combines crop farming and
animal farming
• Subsistence farming – this farming for personal consumption
• Shifting cultivation
• Commercial farming
• Intensive subsistence agriculture
• Intensive commercial farming
• Irrigation farming Can you please research on this farming
• Plantation farming types and you be able to describe them

Arable Farming
• Arable farming involves growing of crops only
in favorable climates.
• It is commonly practiced on gently sloping or
flat land with deep, fertile soil.
• It is important that the land is neither too wet
nor dry.
• Land ideal for growing crops should be fairly
sheltered and suitable for use of machinery

52
 Subsistence Farming
• Subsistence farming is the practice of growing crops and rearing animals for
personal use.
• It is done on a small-scale with the focus of feeding the farmer’s family.
• It can be labor-intensive in terms of manpower in use, but little to no machinery
or technology is used.
• Subsistence farmers are determined to be self-sufficient.

Commercial Farming
Commercial farming is practiced for the purpose of making a profit.
This involves the rearing of animals and or growing of crops on a
large scale to increase production and profits.
Technology and machinery are used with a few workers to operate
them.

53
 Mixed Farming
Mixed farming involves crop farming and animal rearing on the same
piece of land.
These types of farming, pastoral and arable, support each other and
increase farm yield.
This type of farming decreases the risk of making losses due to poor
weather conditions. For instance, if the crop farming is not yielding
favourable results, animals on the farm will still be the main source
of food and income.
Furthermore, animals will further provide manure that is need in crop
farming in order to improve soil fertility thereby increasing yield.
Animals will be used for ploughing the field.

Nomadic Agriculture
Nomadic farming involves farmers moving with their animals from
one place to another in search of pasture and water.
It is similar to pastoral farming and often practiced in arid and semi-
arid areas e.g. the Masai in Kenya.
Different regions across the world rear different animals under this
type of farming.
They include camels, sheep, cattle, donkeys, goats and horses.
Nomadic farming is a type of subsistence farming and it provide the
farmer’s family with food.

54
 Pastoral Farming
Pastoral farming (livestock farming or grazing) is a type of
agriculture that aimed at producing livestock, rather than
growing crops e.g. dairy farming, raising beef cattle, and
raising sheep for wool.

Shifting Cultivation
In this type of farming an area is cleared of
vegetation and cultivated for a short period of
time.
The cleared land is then abandoned after some
few years for a new area until the fertility of the
land has been naturally restored.
The period of cultivation is quite shorter as
compared to the period over which the land is
left to regenerate by lying fallow
This system of cultivation that preserves soil
fertility by rotating plots
It need large space of land
There is no need for fertilizer
It usually far from settlement areas
It creates fallow area and accelerates land
degradation.

55
 Extensive and Intensive Farming
• Extensive farming or cultivation is basically the land
tillage which is aimed increasing yield.
• Farmers will tend to increase the size of land for
cultivation to improve yield without changing other
factors or inputs.
• On the other hand, intensive farming involves increasing
capital, inputs, and labour on the same piece of land
being cultivated so as to increase yield.

Irrigation
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to
land/ crops in order to increase agricultural
production.
Effective irrigation influences the growth process
from seedbed preparation, germination, root
growth, nutrient utilization, plant growth and
regrowth, yield and quality
Type of Irrigation
Surface Irrigation
Overhead Irrigation
Drip Irrigation

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 Factors affecting farming
Environmental Factors Cultural factors
Temperature Land tenure
Precipitation and Water Inheritance laws
Supply Farm size
Wind • Economic Factors
Transport
Angle of Slope (gradient) Markets
Aspect Capital
Soil (edaphic factors Technology
The state

If you want to start farming these are some of the factors to consider

Farming as a threat to the Environment

Use of chemical (pesticides and herbicides) – applied
to control pests, diseases and weeds
Leads to eutrophication
Affects the natural ecosystems as some of the instects and
plants are killed
Affects human health – some farm workers are usually
affected (contamination)
Genetically Modified Organisms
The lost of the natural habitat
Farms clear natural environments (vegetation) and
wetlands and this leads to loss of biodiversity
It may increase soil erosion and runoff
Irrigation can cause salination

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 Solutions to the challenges
Organic farming
Avoid the usage of pesticides and genetically modified foods
It aimed to produce food of high nutrient by using management
practices to avoid the use of agrochemicals inputs which will
minimise the damage to the environment and widlife
Environmental improvement schemes
Land and agriculture polices
Extension workers
Training of farmers
Organisations that help farmers to protect the environment
Environmental stewardship programs that help conserver
wildlife, protect historic environment, maintain landscape quality

TOURISM
James Magidi

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 SUBJECT OVERVIEW

Define Leisure, recreation and tourism

Classification of tourism
Factors causing tourism growth
Benefits or effects of Tourism

Definitions
Leisure is the time free from employment,
at one’s own disposal
Recreation – activities, events and
pursuits that are undertaken through
choice eg sport, gardening, mountain
hiking, bird watching etc
Tourism involves travel away from home to
visit friends or relatives or to see places of
scenic beauty.

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 Classification of Tourism
• By nature of attraction (coastal, mountains,
rivers and lakes, climate, woodlands, fauna
and flora, historic heritage buildings,
cruisesm retailing, urban, rural, activity
centres.
• Length of stay e.g. weekend break, annual
holiday
• Local (domestic) or international
• By type of transport (air, road, rail)
• By type of accommodation (camping, lodge,
village, hotel)

Factors causing growth in Tourism

• Greater affluence
People are earning better salaries and have disposable income
• Greater mobility
Many people have their own cars so its easy to travel. Its also easy to use other forms of transport
• Improved accessibility and transport facilities
Improved roads, improved and enlarged airports
• More leisure time
People have more flexible time
• Technological developments
Computerised reservations systems, internet
• Product development and innovation
Better holiday home, better recreational facilities, package tours etc
• Changing lifestyles
People are retiring early
Changing fashions
More leave days at work
• Changing recreational activities
Increase in activity recreational centres, increase in parks
• Advertising and TV Programme
Holiday programmes, TV, magazines, internet, brochures are helping promoting different
destinations

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Economic positive and negative benefits or effects

Positive benefits or effects Negative benefits or effects

• Increase in gross domestic product • May divert government expenditure
• Taxes on tourism increase • Requires government expenditure
government revenue on tourism
• Increase foreign exchange earnings • Over-dependence on outside
• Foreign investments agencies and some external control
• Create employment on the economy
• Help fund new infrastructure • Profit may go overseas
• • Income reduced by external
Stimulates and diversify economic leakages
activities
• Outstretches infrastructure
• May act as seedbed for
entrepreneurship • Labour unskilled and seasonal
• Improves balance of payment • Foreign personnel and firms
through increase trade • Inflated prices for land, housing,
food and clothes

Social positive and negative benefits or effects

Positive benefits or effects Negative benefits or effects

• Cultural exchange stimulated • May cause polarisation
with broadening horizons between population in
• May enhance role and status advancing tourist regions and
of women less developed areas
• Encourage education • Increases rift between rich and
• Encourage travel, mobility, and poor
social integration • Breakdown of families due to
• Improves services (electricity stress between younger
and health), transport (new generation
roads, airports) and widens • Social pathology, including an
range of shops and leisure increase in prostitution, drugs
amenities and petty crime
• Increases health risk e.g. AIDS

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 Cultural positive and negative benefits or effects

Positive benefits or effects Negative benefits or effects

• May save aspects of • Impact of commercialisation
indigenous culture due to may lead to pseudo-cultural
tourism interest activities to entertain tourists
• Contact with other cultures and at extreme may cause the
may enrich domestic culture disappearance or dilution of
through new ideas and indigenous culture
customs being introduced • Mass tourism may create
• Encourage contact and antagonism from hpst
harmonious relations population who are concerned
between people of different for traditional values eg dress,
cultures religion
• Increase international Westernisation of culture, food
understanding and drinks

Environmental positive and negative benefits or

effects

Positive benefits or effects Negative benefits or effects

• Improved landscaping and Destruction of natural
architectural standards in resort
areas environment and wildlife
• Promote interest in monuments and habitat – marine, coastal
historic building and encourages and inland
funding to conserve and maintain
them Excessive pressure leads to
• May induce tighter environmental air, land, noise, visual and
legislation to protect environment
i.e. landscape, heritage sites, wildlife water pollution
• Establishment of nature reserves
and National Parks, growing interest Traffic congestion and
and awareness protect area from pollution
economic and economic
encroachment Clearance of natural
• Poor building and infrastructure vegetation, loss of
development ecosystems

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SETTLEMENTS
James Magidi

63
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 What is a settlement?

A settlement is any form of human

dwelling, from the smallest dwelling
(house) to the largest city.

Settlement patterns
Settlements comes in different
shapes and sizes depending on
the situation. There are some
common patterns that emerge and
these can be seen in the diagram
beside.
Nucleated settlements are
ones that have
buildings/dwellings packed
close together.
Linear settlements is when
dwellings follows a linear
feature e.g. a road, coastline or
river
Dispersed settlements is
when dwellings buildings
spread out over a large area.

67
 NUCLEATED SETTLEMENT
• Good transport links (road, rail, river)
• Good fertile land to grow food.
• Flat land, that is easy to build on
• Favorable weather that is good for
agriculture
• Closer to natural resources e.g. fuel
• Closer to good job prospects
• Near good amenities such as
schools, shopping centres and
hospitals
• The land tenure systems

LINEAR SETTLEMENT
Settlements built along a linear
feature e.g. road, rail, river,
coastline
The linear feather was
probably existed before the
settlement.
The settlement then grew up at
some way station or feature,
growing along the linear
feature
It can be single street with
houses built on either side of
the road or it can be a river.
The land tenure systems

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CAUSES OF DISPERSED SETTLEMENTS
Mountainous areas that are hard to build
on and hard to build good transport links
to.
Severe weather conditions e.g. extremely
hot or cold or wet.
Mainly in the farm lands
Floodplain or coastal area that are
vulnerable to flooding/natural disasters
e.g. Barotsaland in Zambia
Only limited natural resources
No job prospects
No nearby schools and hospitals
No electricity supply
No entertainment
The land tenure systems (communal
areas)

Factors affecting the location of settlements

Accessibility to Building supplies: they are needed to build

home dwellings.
Access to Water supplies: water is needed for cooking,
irrigation, washing, cleaning and drinking.
Nature of the Terrain: Flat lands are good for crop farming
such as wheat and vegetables. Steep areas are good for tree
and tea plantation. Some people prefer hilly areas and some
prefer flat areas.
Need for Protection: There is need for villagers to be
protected from invaders so they tend to establish settlement
where there is protection. Hilly areas are good for defence and
enhances visibility of the enemy.
Nodal Point: Where routes meet its usually preferred for
dwellings. Bri

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 Reasons for not choosing an area for
settlement
• Flooding areas: Flat areas are good for
settlement but if they are flood prone they are
very risk to the community
• Swamp Areas: These areas are bad as they
are difficult to built and are difficult to grow
crops on.
• Poor farming areas:
• Lack of water supply: Irrigation, cooking,
washing, cleaning and drinking become very
difficult if there is no water..

Questions
Establish factors that leads to the establishment of informal
settlements
What is urban growth?
What is rapid urban growth
What are the negative impacts of rapid urban growth
What is urbanisation?
What is urban sprawl?
Explain the different settlement patterns.
Define a nucleated settlement?
Define aa Linear settlement?
What is a Dispersed settlement?
Name two good reasons for settlement
Which two things would you avoid if you wanted to create a
settlement?

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 Assessments
• Question 1
There are many natural and man-made disasters that are affecting the world. Write
an essay highlight five natural and five man-made disaster that have affected Africa.
In your explanation, include examples of the countries that were affected by these
disasters. Include the level of damage that was cause by those disasters.
[40]

Question 2
Informal settlements (slums) are a global challenge and they are included in the
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
a) Highlight the main causes of informal settlements
[10]
b) As a spatial scientist, you are asked to highlight the problems that are caused
by informal settlements in the world. [10]
c) If you are the Minister of Housing, what solutions can you suggests to end
these informal settlements by 2040.
[20]

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