iA2 Biology

Unit 5
Respiration, Internal Environment,
Coordination and Gene Technology

Simplified Lecture Notes

Dr. Mohab Megahed

 Contents

Topic 7: Respiration, Movement and the Internal environment

• Cellular respiration 3
• Support & Movement 12
• Homeostasis 21
• The Liver & Kidneys 32

Topic 8: Coordination, Response and Gene technology

• Nervous communication 44
• The Mammalian Eye 52
• The Brain 57
• Gene technology 66
• Sensitivity in Plants 69

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 1

 Topic 7:
Respiration, Muscles and the
Internal Environment

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 2

 Chapter 1: Cellular Respiration
Aerobic Respiration
General Equation
!"#$%&' + )*+,'- → 0123%- 45%*56' + 718'2 + 9-'2,+ (36 − 38 ?@A)
C6H12O6 + O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

1. Glycolysis
Site: Cytoplasm
Steps:- It is the breakdown of Glucose in the cytoplasm into 2 Pyruvate molecules.

Products: 1. Net gain of 2 ATPs by Substrate Level Phosphorylation. (-2 then +4)
2. 2 Reduced NAD

2. Link reaction & Krebs’ Cycle

Site: Matrix of mitochondria
(A) Link Reaction:-
- Pyruvate is decarboxylated.
- Pyruvate is oxidized.
- This produces a 2C fragment (Acetyl group)
- Then Coenzyme A joins the Acetyl group producing Acetyl CoA.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 3

 Products: 1. 2 Reduced NAD
2. 2 CO2

(B) Krebs’ Cycle:-

- It is a series of decarboxylation reactions in which a 6C acid (citric) is converted into a
5C acid (α-ketoglutaric) which is then converted into a 4C acid (OxaloAcetic).
- This 4C acid is used to regenerate the 6C acid by Acetyl CoA.
Products: 1. 6 reduced NAD
2. 4 CO2
3. 2 ATP
4. 2 reduced FAD

Process CO2 ATP red. NAD red. FAD

Glycolysis - 2 2 -
Link Reaction 2 - 2 -
Krebs’ Cycle 4 3 6 2
Totals 6 4 10 2

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 4

 3. Oxidative Phosphorylation by Chemiosmosis
Site: Inner Mitochondrial membrane

- Reduced NAD/FAD release the 2 H atoms. (terminal oxidation)

- The 2 H atoms split into 2 electrons and 2 protons.
- The 2 electrons are picked by an electron acceptor and pass through an ETC releasing
energy.
- This energy is used for the active pumping of H protons into the intermembrane space.
- The inner membrane is impermeable to H+ except for certain channel proteins containing
ATP synthase enzyme (stalked particles).
- The diffusion of H+ down electrochemical gradient through stalked particles releases
energy.
- This energy is used for the active coupling of ADP + Pi forming ATP.
- Oxygen is the final H+ and electron acceptor.
Role of O2

- This reoxidises the coenzymes NAD and FAD, restoring oxidises ETC.
- As a result, metabolic water is formed.

N.B
In anaerobic conditions there is no oxygen, so NAD & FAD are not re-oxidised
leaving no oxidized coenzymes to be used in the link reaction & Krebs’ cycle, so they
stop.
In this case, respiration is limited to Glycolysis which only produces 2 ATP
molecules.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 5

Comparison between Aerobic Respiration & Photosynthesis
P.O.C Oxidative Phosphorylation Photophosphorylation
Site Inner mitochondrial membrane Thylakoid membrane
Source of energy Chemical energy in respiratory Light energy
substrate
Final electron acceptor Oxygen NADP
Role of O2 Reactant Waste product
Role of CO2 Waste Product Reactant

Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation)

(A) Lactic Acid fermentation
Site: Muscles of mammals & some types of bacteria
General Equation: CDEFGHI → JKFLMF KFMN + OPIQRS (T UVW)
- There is no oxygen to act as the final hydrogen & electron acceptor, so link reaction and
Krebs’ cycle stop and respiration is limited to Glycolysis.
- Pyruvate acts as the final hydrogen & electron acceptor, this re-oxidises the coenzyme
NAD and produces lactic acid.

(B) Alcoholic Fermentation

Site: Plants (roots in water logged soil) & Yeast
General Equation: CDEFGHI → OLXKPGD + YZT + OPIQRS (TUVW)
- There is no oxygen to act as the final hydrogen & electron acceptor, so link reaction and
Krebs’ cycle stop and respiration is limited to Glycolysis.
- Pyruvate is decarboxylated producing Ethanal, then Ethanal acts as the final hydrogen &
electron acceptor restoring oxidized NAD and producing Ethanol.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 6

 Anaerobic Respiration & Exercise
- During exercise, oxygen demand may be higher than oxygen supply. So anaerobic
respiration takes place producing Lactic acid.
- After exercise, Lactic acid produces in muscles is transported in blood to the liver.
Fate of Lactate

- Inside liver cells, Lactic acid is oxidized back to Pyruvate.

- This Pyruvate would either diffuse into mitochondrial matrix to enter the link reaction &
Krebs’ cycle producing more energy OR would be stored in the liver in the form of
Glycogen.
- This explains why after exercise the breathing rate continues to be rapid & deep to supply
enough oxygen repaying oxygen debt. (EPOC, Excessive Post-exercise Oxygen
Consumption)

Exam Tips
Metabolic Pathway
- In a metabolic pathway several reactions occur in order to reach the final product. The
product of each reaction is the substrate of the next reaction.
- Each reaction is catalyzed by a certain enzyme. Enzymes are specific, so if one enzyme is
missing, the final product is never reached.
- Enzymes catalyse metabolic reactions by lowering activation energy.

Oxidation Potential
i) Description: Bacteria has consumed Oxygen with
all substrates A
Explanation: - Oxygen is the final H+ and electron
acceptor.
B
O2 used

- This reoxidises the coenzymes NAD and FAD,

restoring oxidises ETC. (Role of O2)
- As a result, metabolic water is formed.
C
ii) Description: Substrate A used the most O2
Explanation: - Substate A has the highest H:O
ratio, so it produces the largest amount of reduced Time
coenzymes NAD & FAD. A, B & C are respiratory substrates
- So, it needs more oxygen –atoms- to reoxidise the
coenzymes NAD & FAD.

Conclusion: Substrate A has the highest Oxidation Potential.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 7

Respirometer

Investigation Design
Investigating Rate of seeds Respiration:-
- Select seeds of the same mass & species. Add them to the Respirometer.
- Add a substance absorbing CO2 to the apparatus, such as Soda Lime/KOH/NaOH.
- Close the connection to the atmosphere and introduce a drop of coloured liquid.
- Mark the initial position of the coloured liquid using a permanent marker.
- Leave them for 5 minutes using a stopwatch.
- Mark the final position of the coloured liquid.
- Calculate O2 consumption using the formula [QT N where d is the distance moved by
the coloured liquid.
- Divide this volume of O2 by time to get rate in cm3/minute.
- To ensure Validity, keep all other factors constant, such as temperature using a
thermostatic water bath set at 25○C.
- Repeat without seeds (Control for Comparison) (Atmospheric pressure effect)
- Repeat the whole process 5 times and calculate average rate of respiration.
- Between repeats, use the syringe to reset the coloured liquid back to its original position.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 8

■ Role of Soda Lime
- Soda Lime removes CO2 and the organism removes O2 through aerobic respiration.
- This leads to a net decrease in volume and pressure inside the Respirometer which leads to
inward movement of the coloured liquid.
(Without Soda Lime no movement would occur)

■ Role of syringe
The syringe is used to reset the coloured liquid back to its original position between repeats.
(Calibration of the Respirometer)

■ Anaerobic Respiration
- In case of anaerobic respiration, no oxygen is consumed and no CO2 is produced (Or if CO2
produced, it is absorbed by Soda Lime)
- So there is no net change in volume or pressure inside the Respirometer and thus, no
movement of the coloured liquid.

N.B
- More complex U-shaped Respirometers have the advantage of eliminating the
effect of Atmospheric Pressure, so there is no need for a control experiment without
the organism.
- However, the simple Respirometer has the advantage of being easy to set up and
having minimal connections, so it is well sealed.

N.B. Respiratory Quotient (RQ) is a term referring to the ratio of CO2 released to Oxygen
consumed in an organism. It is affected by the type of respiratory substrate used. For instance,
the respiratory quotient of Carbohydrates is 1.0 while for fats it is about 0.7.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 9

 Investigating rate of yeast respiration using an artificial Hydrogen
carrier (Redox indicator)

Concept:
During oxidative phosphorylation in aerobic respiration the hydrogen carriers, FAD & NAD,
are re-oxidized. In this experiment, we will use an artificial hydrogen carrier that picks
Hydrogen from reduced coenzymes so that they are oxidized while this artificial carrier is
reduced. When the artificial carrier becomes reduced, its color changes. This is why it is known
as a redox indicator. The time taken for the redox indicator to change color indicates the rate of
respiration. The shorter the time, the higher the rate of respiration.

Redox indicators:
- TTC: Colorless when oxidized and red when reduced.
- Methylene blue: Blue when oxidized and colorless when reduced.
- DCPIP: Blue when oxidized and colorless when reduced.

Method:
- Prepare yeast suspension by adding 10g of dried yeast and 50g of glucose to 1dm3 of
distilled water. Mix thoroughly using a stirring rod & allow the yeast culture to stabilize for
24 hours before starting the experiment.
- Set up a water bath at 30°C.
- Use a pipette to add 10cm3 of yeast suspension into one test tube and 1cm3 of TTC into a
different test tube.
- Place both test tubes in the water bath and leave them for 5 minutes to allow them to reach
the temperature of the water bath.
- Rapidly pour the TTC solution into the test tube containing yeast, stir with the stirring rod
and start the stopwatch.
- Stop the timing once the solution turns red and record the time taken in seconds in a table.
- Repeat the whole process but with water baths set at temperatures of 10, 20, 40 & 50°C.
- Calculate the rate of reaction at each temperature (1/time take for color change)
- Plot a graph showing temperature against rate of reaction.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 10

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 11
 Chapter 2: Support & Movement
The Musculoskeletal System (Support System of Animals)
Functions & Importance
1. Carrying the body weight. (as it’s heavier than most plants’)
2. Withstanding environmental factors.
3. Generating forces from movement:
(A) Tension: when body parts are pulled apart = monkey hanging
(B) Compression: body parts are pushed together = monkey falls on the ground
(C) Shear: body parts slide over each other = monkey trips over then balances back.

Components
Ⅰ. Bones
● Microscopic Structure: Osteocytes (bone forming
cells) embedded in a matrix of Collagen fibres + Calcium
salts
● Macroscopic Structure: Hard Vascular tissue

N.B
Cartilage:-
● Microscopic Structure: Chondrocytes embedded in
a matrix of Collagen fibers ONLY.
● Macroscopic Structure: Hard Avascular tissue.

● Skeleton:-
(A) Axial skeleton: Skull, Ribcage & Vertebral Column
(B) Appendicular skeleton: Lims & Limb Girdles

II. Ligaments
They are structures holding bone to bone.
● Structure: Collagen fibers + Minimal Elastic fibers
● Function: - Support bone position
- Allow for a range of controlled
movement
- Stabilising joint structure

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 12

III. Tendons
They are structures holding muscles to bones.
● Structure: Collagen fibers without Elastic fibers
● Function: When a muscle contracts, its tendons pull the
distal bones towards the proximal bones.
N.B
The tendon has to be inelastic so that the force generated
from muscle contraction can act completely pulling bones.

IV. Joints
They are the meeting point of 2 or more bones.

1. Synovial joints: (A) Ball & Socket: -Shoulder -Hip (joints)

Movement = 360○ (3 planes)
(B) Hinge: -Knee –Elbow (joints)
Movement = 180○ (1 plane)
2. Non-Synovial joints: (A) Fixed Immobile: -Skull joints –Sacroitic joints
(B) Intervertebral discs: Cartilagenous joints
(cartilage between vertebrae)

● Synovial Joint Structure:-

N.B
A torn ligament is replaced
by autogenous tendon graft,
Evaluate this surgery.
Advantages:
- it’s possible to remove part of a
tendon, but not part of a ligament
-Autogenous, so there is NO
foreign antigens and NO risk of
tissue rejection.
Disadvantages:
- The tendon is inelastic, so it takes
a long period of physiotherapy to
slightly stretch the tendon.
- Relatively slow healing, as
different types of tissues are used.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 13

V. Skeletal Muscles
Muscle Contraction (Macroscopic)
When a muscle contracts it shortens. So, its
tendons pull the distal bone towards the
proximal bone.
- This explains why tendons should be
inelastic. So, when a muscle contracts and
shortens, the FULL force generated from
contraction is used to pull the distal bone
towards the proximal bone.
- This allows for movement.
Antagonistic muscles are muscles with opposing
actions. When a muscle contracts, its antagonistic
pair relaxes.
- A muscle can shorten only during contraction,
but it cannot straighten itself.
- A muscle is only straightened by contraction of
its antagonistic muscle pair.
- This allows for controlled movement.

To lift a weight = Biceps (flexor) contracts & Triceps

(extensor) relaxes.
To extend/straighten the arm = Triceps contracts & Biceps relaxes.
To hold a weight steady (90○ angle) = Both contract.

Microscopic structure of muscles

Just like any other structure/tissue, muscles consist of
cells. Muscle cells are known as Muscle fibres.

Muscle fibre structure:

- Multinucleated
- Sarcolemma (Cell membrane)
- Sarcoplasm (Cytoplasm)
- Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
- Contains Myofibrils

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 14

Myofibril structure:-

Each myofibril consists of different types of Protein Filaments:

Thick Filaments Thin Filaments
› Formed of Myosin protein. › Formed of Actin protein.
› About 15nm in diameter. › About 7nm in diameter.
› Shorter in length. › Longer in length.
A myofibril has repeated units of interlocking Actin & Myosin filaments known as
Sarcomeres.
Each Sarcomere starts and ends by a Z line. The Sarcomere has the following regions:
A. I band = Actin only
B. A band = Actin + Myosin
C. H zone = Myosin only
During muscle contraction, the following changes occur within a Sarcomere:
1. Actin filaments slide over Myosin leading to:
2. Z lines get closer
3. H zone almost disappears
4. A band does not change.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 15

Muscle Contraction (Microscopic)
■ Mechanism of Contraction:- (see detailed picture later)
- The Myosin molecule has a protruding bulbous head and the Actin filament above it has
a series of complementary binding sites.
- When the head binds to one site, the Actin filament is pushed to slide over Myosin due to
tilting of the head.
- Then the head straightens, detaches from this binding site and attaches to the next binding
site to tilt again.
- This movement of Actin over Myosin is described as Rowing movement.
- The detachment and reattachment of the bulbous head needs energy released from the
breakdown of ATP into ADP & Pi.

■ Role of Calcium ions:- (Initiation of Contraction)

- During relaxation, the myosin binding sites on Actin are blocked by a protein called
Tropomyosin.
- When a nerve impulse arrives at the Neuromuscular Junction Ca++ ions are released from
the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum.
- Ca++ activates Troponin protein. Active Troponin removes Tropomyosin exposing the
binding sites, so that the Myosin bulbous head can bind.
- For the muscle to relax, Ca++ are actively pumped back into the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum.
This proess needs energy from the hydrolysis of ATP. Troponin is now inactive and
Tropomyosin blocks the binding sites again.

■ Role of ATP:- (Summarised)

- ATP is responsible for detachment and reattachment of the Myosin bulbous head towards
complementary sites on Actin during muscle contraction.
- ATP is responsible for the active pumping of Ca++ back into the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
during muscle contraction.
(Add more according to weight of marks)

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 16

Sliding Filament Theory (Detailed Role of ATP)
A molecule of ATP joins the Myosin head.
ATPase (present inside the head) breaks
down ATP into ADP + Pi. This provides
Energy for the head to bind to its specific
binding site on Actin filament. (Forming
Acto-Myosin cross bridge)

Inorganic Phosphate (Pi) is released from the

head. This leads to tilting by 45○ angle. This
movement is called a Power Stroke and the
sliding of Actin over Myosin is described as
Rowing move.

Now ADP is released, so the head detaches and

straightens. (Resetting of the head)
For the head to join the next binding site, a
fresh molecule of ATP is needed. The whole
process is repeated rapidly. (Ratchet
mechanism)
ATP is also needed for the active pumping of
Ca++ back into the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
inducing Relaxation.

Effect of Regular Exercise on muscles

There are 2 types of growth: -
• Hyperplasia: Increase in number of cells
• Hypertrophy: Increase in size of cells
Regular exercise leads to hypertrophy of muscle fibers.
Muscle fibers increase in thickness due to increase in number of Actin & Myosin filaments
inside each cell. BUT, the number of cells remains the same.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 17

Hemoglobin vs. Myoglobin
Hemoglobin: an oxygen transporting protein found inside RBCs in blood.
Myoglobin: an oxygen storing protein found inside muscle cells.
P.O.C Hemoglobin Myoglobin
Structure 4 Polypeptide chains (Quaternary 1 Polypeptide chain
level) (Tertiary level)
O2 carrying ability 4 molecules of O2 1 molecule of O2
Affinity to O2 High affinity at high O2 pressure High affinity at both high and low
and low affinity at low O2 pressure O2 pressure
Function Transports O2 from lungs to tissues Stores O2

Oxygen dissociation curve:-

Conclusion:
When O2 affinity increases the
curve shifts to the left

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 18

Energy Systems in muscles
1. Aerobic system:-
■ Advantages: - Large amount of ATP (38)
- Doesn’t produce Lactic acid (↓ / No fatigue)
■ Disadvantages: - Long multiphasic process, so delayed supply of Energy
- Consumes O2 (O2 is a limiting factor)

2. Anaerobic systems:-
(A) Glycolysis Lactate pathway
■ Advantages: - Rapid supply of Energy
- Doesn’t need O2
■ Disadvantages: - Produces Lactic acid, so rapid fatigue
- Less ATP (only 2 ATPs)

(B) Phosphocreatine pathway (minimal ATP contribution)

YQIKLMPI ]MPKHI
WYQ + U\W ^⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯` YQ + UVW
In this pathway, an enzyme called Creatine Kinase removes Phosphate from
Phosphocreatine and adds this Phosphate to ADP forming ATP.
■ Advantages: - Very rapid supply of Energy
- Doesn’t need O2
- Doesn’t produce Lactic acid
■ Disadvantages: - Minimal supply of ATP

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 19

 N.B
Explain how skeletal muscles get energy when there is limited supply of
Oxygen. (6)
- The sources of ATP for muscles in this case would include: stored ATP, Phosphocreatine
pathway (very limited supply) as well as minimal aerobic respiration if possible.
- However, muscles in this case would mainly rely on Glycolysis Lactate pathway. In this
pathway, Glucose is broken down in the cytoplasm producing Pyruvate, with a net gain
of 2 ATPs by Substrate Level Phosphorylation.
- Pyruvate then acts as the final Hydrogen & electron acceptor restoring oxidized NAD &
FAD and producing Lactic acid.

Types of Muscle Fibers

There are 2 types of muscle fibers in animals, Fast twitch & Slow twitch fibers. The proportion
of these types of fibers varies according to Genetic & Environmental factors.
Slow twitch fibers Fast twitch fibers
Mainly rely on Aerobic respiration Mainly rely on Anaerobic respiration
Delayed contraction, but also delayed fatigue Rapid contraction, but also rapid fatigue
More Capillaries Less Capillaries
More Mitochondria Less Mitochondria
More Myoglobin Less Myoglobin
Less Sarcoplasmic Reticulum More Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Less Glycogen More Glycogen
N.B
- Fast twitch fibers are also adapted to anaerobic
respiration by being less sensitive to lactic acid than slow
twitch fibers.
- Trials proved that fast twitch fibers are more responsive
to stimulation than slow twitch fibers at low pH

N.B
Muscle Fatigue
- Anaerobic Respiration produces lactic acid
- Lactic acid lowers pH
- This decreases level of anaerobic respiration, so less ATP available
- Therefore muscle contraction stops
(Anaerobic Respiration is a self-inhibitory process)

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 20

 Chapter 3: Homeostasis
Definition:-
- Keeping the internal environment constant
- This occurs by Negative Feedback = Any deviation from a normal set value / range is
corrected.

Stations of a Homeostatic mechanism:-

Thermoregulation
Definition: Keeping core body temperature controlled.
Stations
■ Receptor:-
- External temperature receptors (on the skin surface)
- Core temperature receptors (the hypothalamus itself)

■ Center:-
- Thermoregulatory centers ([Link] gain center [Link] loss center) in the hypothalamus

■Coordinator:-
- Autonomic Nervous System (Discussed in Topic 8)

■ Effector:-
- Skin
- Liver
- Muscles
© Dr. Mohab Megahed 21
Overheating Overcooling
■ ↑ Heat loss:- ■ ↓ Heat loss:-

- Vasodilation of skin arterioles & - Vasoconstriction of skin arterioles &

Vasoconstriction of shunt vessels, so more Vasodilation of shunt vessels, so less blood
blood in capillaries under the skin and more in capillaries under the skin and less heat
heat loss by radiation loss by radiation

- ↑ Sweating, so ↑ Heat loss by evapouration - ↓ Sweating, so ↓ heat loss by evapouration

(as latent heat from the body is used to
evapourate sweat) - Contraction of erector muscles, so hair
becomes perpendicular to the skin surface
- Relaxation of erector muscles, so hair trapping a layer of air that acts as insulation
becomes parallel to the skin surface
■ ↑ Heat gain:-
- Panting = Rapid deep breathing to ↑ heat - ↑ Metabolic rate in the liver, as respiration
loss (similar to sweating) is an exothermic reaction that releases heat
■ ↓ Heat gain:-
- Contraction & Relaxation of muscles
- ↓ Metabolic rate in the liver, as respiration (shivering) = to ↑ Respiration which also is
is an exothermic reaction that releases heat. an exothermic reaction that releases heat

N.B
For Vasodilation to occur, smooth muscles in the walls of arterioles
relax. The opposite occurs in case of vasoconstriction

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 22

Electric Regulation of the Heart Beat
- The heart is myogenic in nature; it can initiate its own contraction with no need for external
stimulation.

- The SAN (SinoAtrial Node)

initiates a wave of depolarization
that is spread through the walls of
both atria leading to Atrial
systole. (AV valves open, so
blood flows from atria to
ventricles)

- The wave of depolarization is

picked by the AVN
(AtrioVentricular Node) then it
passes through the Bundle of His
& Purkinje fibers causing
contraction of both ventricles leading to Ventricular systole. (SL valves open & AV valves
close, so blood is forced into major arteries)

- This is followed by a Refractory period in which the Cardiac muscle is insensitive to

stimulation. This leads to relaxation. (Diastole) (SL valves close & AV valves open.
Ventricular filling occurs)
N.B
In the septum between the ventricles there is a band of Non-conducting fibers.
Explain the importance of it.
- This band leads to a delay of 0.1 second between Atrial systole & Ventricular systole to
ensure Ventricular filling.
- This causes the wave of depolarization to move in the correct direction; to the apex
downwards then to the rest of the ventricles upwards.
- So blood is pumped in the direction of major arteries

N.B
Importance of a Refractory period
- It corresponds to diastole, in which most Ventricular filling
take place.
- Allows for resting of the cardiac muscle so that it is able to
keep beating throughout life.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 23

Cardiac Output Regulation (Heart Rate + Stroke Volume)
1) Nervous Regulation (Heart Rate)
■ Receptor:-
1. Chemoreceptors (in Aortic & Carotid bodies): detect changes in - CO2 in blood
- pH of blood
- O2 concentration
2. Baroreceptors (in walls of blood vessels): detect changes in blood pressure

■ Center:-
CVC (CardioVascular Control Center) in the Medulla Oblongata

■ Coordinator:-
Autonomic Nervous System

■ Effector:-
SAN: leading to changes is Frequency of waves of depolarization

Example:
- When blood pressure increases above normal, this change is detected by Baroreceptors in
the walls of arteries.
- Baroreceptors send impulses to the CVC in the Medulla Oblongata.
- The CVC center responds by sending inhibitory impulses via the Parasympathetic arm
of the Autonomic Nervous System to the SAN.
- The SAN responds by decreasing the Frequency of waves of depolarization leading to
lowered heart rate.
- This restores blood pressure back to normal (Homeostasis by negative feedback)

2) Hormonal Regulation (Heart Rate)

Adrenaline Hormone acts as a neurotransmitter on the SAN increasing Frequency of waves of
depolarization leading to a higher heart rate

3) Intrinsic Regulation (Stroke Volume)

- Increased Venous Return to the heart N.B
- Increases stretching of the cardiac muscle Factors ensuring Venous Return to the heart:-
- More forceful contraction occurs - Negative Intrathoracic pressure
- This leads to higher Stroke Volume - Muscle pump
(Starling’s Law) - Valves in veins

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 24

Q: Explain the effect of Exercise on the Cardiac Output. (Answer outline)
A: Nervous Regulation:-
- Chemoreceptors (in aortic & carotid bodies) detect changes in blood gases & pH.
- CVC
- Sympathetic, Autonomic ++
- SAN, ↑ Frequency of waves of depolarization, ↑ Heart rate.
Hormonal Regulation:-
- Adrenaline
Intrinsic Regulation:-
- ↑ Negativity of Intrathoracic pressure + Stronger muscle pump
- ↑ Venous Return
- ↑ Forceful contraction
- ↑ Stroke Volume
(This is Homeostasis by Negative Feedback)

Q: Explain the role of the SAN.

A: - It initiates the wave of depolarization leading to contraction of the cardiac muscle (intrinsic
rhythmicity
- It determines the heart rate by responding to nervous & hormonal stimuli.
N.B
Some chemicals act on the CVC center causing overstimulation such as: Nicotine & Caffeine

Benefits of Regular Exercise

■ At rest:- HR x SV = CO
Athletes have lower resting pulse Non-athletes 80 x 50 cm = 4000 cm3
3

Athlete 60 x 100 cm3 = 6000 cm3

■ During Exercise:-
Athletes have a relatively lower heart rate, HR x SV = CO
But higher stroke volume leading to Non-athletes 150 x 50 cm = 7500 cm3
3

Larger Cardiac Output. Athlete 80 x 100 cm3 = 8000 cm3

Advantages:
- Higher efficiency as less energy is consumed in cardiac muscle contraction
- Longer cardiac cycle = Longer diastole = Better Ventricular filling
- Higher potential to reach maximum

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 25

ECG (Electro Cardio Gram)
- Electric activity of the heart (waves of depolarization) is transmitted through body fluids
and picked by electrodes placed over the skin of the chest.
- These electrodes are connected to a device that can draw a chart showing electrical
activity during the cardiac cycle.

Types of ECG
- Resting ECG
- Stress ECG (during exercise)

Chart analysis

Uses of ECG
1. Heart rate detection:-
(A) Tachycardia = Heart rate > 100 bpm
(B) Bradycardia = Heart rate < 50 bpm

2. Arrhythmia detection; Any abnormality in the electric activity of the heart, such as:-
- Inverted peak / Notched peak
- Missing wave
- Missing beat

N.B
Any change in the shape of the waves is simply
explained by abnormal activity of the heart

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 26

 N.B
- The PR interval reflects the period of time between Atrial systole & Ventricular systole. This is the
time needed for the Bundle of His to deliver the wave of depolarization from the AV node above to
the Purkinje fibers downwards at the apex of the heart.
- A prolonged PR interval suggests heart block.

N.B
- The interval between a T wave and the next P wave reflects the Refractory period.
- A short Refractory period equals improper Ventricular filling and thus lower volume of blood
pumped from the ventricle to the next systole.

Homeostasis of Breathing

■ Receptor:-
Chemoreceptors in Aortic body & Carotid body.
Medulla Oblongata itself.

■ Center:-
Respiratory center in Medulla Oblongata

■ Coordinator:-
Autonomic Nervous System

■ Effector:-
Respiratory muscles: - Diaphragm
- Intercostal muscles

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 27

Q: Describe how pH is returned back to normal after exercise?
Q: What are the effects of exercise on the heart & lungs?
A:-
- During exercise, anaerobic respiration produces lactic acid. Lactic acid is transported in
blood from muscles to the liver.
- Lactic acid causes a drop in pH which is detected by Chemoreceptors in the Aortic & Carotid
bodies.
- Chemoreceptors send impulses to the Respiratory center in the Medulla Oblongata.
- The Respiratory center sends excitatory impulses to the respiratory muscles; diaphragm &
intercostal muscles, increasing rate and depth of breathing.
- Chemoreceptors also stimulate the CVC center which sends impulses to the SAN increasing
heart rate.
- All of the above increase oxygen delivery to tissues. So, lactate is oxidized back to pyruvate
which either diffuses into the mitochondrial matrix to complete the Link reaction & Krebs’
cycle or stored as Glycogen.
- When blood pH is restored back to normal, Chemoreceptors stop firing.

(Homeostasis by Negative Feedback)

N.B
↑ CO2 in atmosphere → ↑ CO2 in alveoli → ↑ CO2 in blood → ↓ pH → Chemoreceptors …..
(diffusion) (diffusion)

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 28

Spirometer (Core Pratical)

Concept
A spirometer is a closed chamber with a moveable lid in which the candidate breathes through a
mouthpiece.
When a person breathes out, the lid is pushed upwards.
When the person breathes in, the lid is pulled downwards.
The lid is connected by a pen to a chart on a rotating device (Kymograph)

N.B
- The lid is counterpoised by a weight to facilitate upward movement.
- Nose clip: to ensure that all breathing occurs through the mouth

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 29

Trace Analysis

1) Tidal Volume (VT): Volume of air inhaled & exhaled in 1 resting natural breath (0.5 dm3)
Equals the height from peak to trough of a single breath
2) Breathing Rate: Number of breaths in 1 minute (bpm)
Count no. of breaths in a set time then multiply by factor.
3) Minute Ventilation: VT x BR (dm3)
4) Vital Capacity: Volume that can be exhaled by the most vigorous exhalation following the
deepest possible inhalation in 1 breath (4 dm3) = VT + IRV + ERV
5) Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Volume of air inhaled above normal Tidal Volume
(1.0 dm3)
6) Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Volume of air exhaled above normal Tidal Volume
(1.5 dm3)
7) Residual Volume (RV): Volume of air remaining in the alveoli after the most vigorous
exhalation (1.5 dm3) (to prevent alveolar collapse)
8) Total Lung Capacity: Vital Capacity + Residual Volume
9) Oxygen Consumption per minute: The difference
in height between the first and last peaks in this minute.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 30

■ Calibrating the y-axis for volume:-
- Empty the Spirometer chamber completely.
- Mark the initial position of the pen.
- Introduce a known volume of air (500 cm3)
- Mark the final position of the pen.
- Determine how many squares represent 1 dm3.

■ Calibrating the x-axis for time:-

Adjust the Kymograph’s rotating speed at 1 mm/s.

■ Why use Soda Lime?

Safety: Soda lime is used to absorb CO2 so that CO2 does not accumulate inside the closed
chamber reaching a toxic level.
Practical: Inhalation removes oxygen and exhalation adds CO2 which is removed by soda lime.
So the total volume inside the Spirometer’s closed chamber decreases leading to inclination of
the trace.
This allows us to calculate another parameter:

Investigation Design
Comparison between Breathing in males & females:-
- Select male & female candidates of the same age, BMI & health conditions / choose all
non-smokers. (Controlled Variables)
- Calibrate the Spirometer for volume (y-axis /dm3) & Time (x-axis /s)
- Ask each candidate to have rest for a few minutes, then start breathing through the
mouthpiece.
- Use the Spirometer trace to measure the following parameters:
• Tidal Volume: equivalent to height from peak to trough of one breath.
• Breathing Rate: Count no. of peaks in (15 seconds). Multiply by (4) to get
breathing rate in bpm (breaths per minute)
• Ventilation Rate: equivalent to Tidal Volume x Breathing Rate.
• O2 consumption: The difference between first and last peaks in one minute.
- To ensure Validity, make sure to keep external temperature constant.
- To ensure Reliability, Repeat & calculate average (parameter of choice) for both females
& males.
- Compare the results for both genders.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 31

 Chapter 4: The Liver & Kidneys
Deamination of Excess amino acids in the Liver
- Amino acids contain a nitrogen group which makes the molecule alkaline.
- This means that the body cannot store amino acids because pH would become dangerously
high. So amino acids must be excreted.
- However, these amino acids still contain energy that would be wasted if we simply removed
the whole amino acid.
- So, in order to harness the energy of the amino acid, we remove ammonia from it. This is
known as Deamination. This toxic ammonia is converted into less toxic urea through the
ornithine cycle. Urea is then excreted by the kidneys in urine. The rest of the amino acid
molecule forms a keto acid that can be used in respiration to produce ATP.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 32

 The Ornithine Cycle
This cycle occurs in the Liver following deamination.

The cycle aims at breaking down toxic ammonia into less toxic urea.

The general equation of the cycle is:

This cycle has 3 intermediate molecules known as Ornithine (after which the cycle is named),
Citrulline & Arginine. The cycle goes as follows:

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 33

 Excretion by the Kidney
The kidneys are lying in the lower back behind the abdominal cavity. Their main functions are
filtering blood by removing toxic urea (excretory function) and controlling water potential of
blood (osmoregulatory function).

Gross structure of the kidney:

- The outer layer of the kidney which is pale in color is
called the cortex.
- The inner layer which is darker in color is called the
medulla.
- There are pale branches in the medulla known as the renal
pelvis.
- These branches collect urine and funnel it into the ureter – a
tube which carries urine to the urinary bladder.
- The kidney is protected from mechanical forces by a layer
called the fibrous
capsule.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 34

Blood supply of the kidney:

- The kidney is supplied with blood from the renal artery.

- The renal artery is a direct branch from the aorta which takes
blood straight from the heart. This ensures high blood
pressure and flow to the kidney.
- The blood leaves the kidney from the renal vein.

Microscopic structure of the kidney:

- The kidney is made up of millions of tiny structures known as nephrons.

- The Glomerulus is a mesh of blood capillaries surrounded by a cup shaped part of the
nephron called the Bowman’s capsule. Blood is filtered into the kidney at the glomerulus
and Bowman’s capsule. The filtered blood then travels through proximal convoluted tubule
to the loop of Henle. From the loop of Henle, it goes to the distal convoluted tubule and
finally to the collecting duct.
- Urine formation by the kidneys occurs through two major processes: Ultrafiltration followed
by selective reabsorption.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 35

Ultrafiltration:
- It is the separation of very small molecules from larger ones
under high pressure. It occurs between the glomerulus and
Bowman’s capsule. All components of blood are filtered
except blood cells & plasma proteins as they are too large to
pass. It is a passive process.
- Blood is supplied to the glomerulus by the afferent arteriole
and leaves from the efferent arteriole.
- The efferent arteriole forms blood capillaries that surround
the tubules of the kidney nephron.

N.B. Blood in the glomerulus needs to be at high blood

pressure so that it gets into Bowman’s capsule at a higher rate,
this is ensured by:
1- The afferent arteriole has a larger diameter than the efferent
arteriole.
2- The endothelium of the glomerulus has narrower pores than
other capillaries, these pores are known as glomerular
fenestrations.

N.B. The barrier between blood in the glomerulus

and fluid inside the renal capsule (blood renal barrier) consists of 3 layers
1- Glomerular endothelium: which has tight fenestrations to increase pressure.
2- Basement membrane of the renal capsule: it is
made of a mesh of collagen & glycoproteins
that filters blood as it only allows very small
molecules to be filtered, while it prevents blood
cells and large plasma proteins to pass.
3- Podocytes: they are foot like extensions with
slits in between, they maintain the basement
membrane in position.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 36

Selective reabsorption:
- It is the reabsorption of useful substances from glomerular filtrate back into blood. It occurs
from renal tubules into surrounding capillaries (most reabsorption occurs from the PCT).
This includes reabsorption of all glucose, most water & some solutes but none of the urea. It
is an active process that requires energy from ATP.

- Reabsorption of Sodium: the epithelial cells of the PCT have an apical side (facing the
lumen) and a basal side (facing capillaries). Sodium pumps lie on the basal side and they
pump sodium ions into blood against concentration gradient. This reduces sodium ion
concentration in the cytoplasm of epithelial cells. This is known as active transport as it uses
ATP.
- Reabsorption of Glucose and Amino acids: On the
apical side of the epithelial cells there are cotransporters of
Na+ and glucose or amino acid. They transport sodium
attached to glucose or an amino acid. These cotransports
will transport Na+ from the filtrate in the lumen into
epithelial cell cytoplasm down concentration gradient as
NA+ concentration is now low in the cytoplasm. This is
accompanied by transporting glucose/amino acids against
concentration gradient. This process is known as secondary
active transport because it doesn’t directly use ATP but it
only occurs secondary to active transport of Na+ by sodium
pumps in the basal side.
- Reabsorption of water: the cotransport of solutes in the
cytoplasm of epithelial cells increases concentration of the
cytoplasm so water moves by osmosis down water potential
gradient from the filtrate in the tubule lumen into the
epithelial cell cytoplasm through the epithelial cell
membrane.

N.B. Adaptations of the PCT for reabsorption include:

1- The PCT is tangled to increase surface area for
reabsorption.
2- The apical side of epithelial cells has protrusions called microvilli which increase their
surface area so that they accommodate more cotransporter proteins and increase the
rate of movement.
3- The basal side of epithelial cells is slightly in-folded to increase surface area for better
transport from the cells into blood.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 37

 The Loop of Henle
- The role of the loop of Henle is to decrease water potential in the medulla. This allows water
to be removed from the urine as it travels through the collecting duct. The loop of Henle
achieves this goal through counter-current multiplication.

Structure of the Loop of Henle:

- The loop of Henle starts at the cortex and descends deep into the medulla.
- The loop of Henle is made up of the descending limb and the ascending limb.
- The descending limb is thinner and permeable to both ions and water.
- The ascending limb is thick and impermeable to water – it also contains protein pumps for
pumping ions out.
- Outside the loop of Henle is the interstitial fluid.

Concentrating the Medulla (Counter-current multiplication)

- All the filtrate would be initially of the same water potential and ion concentration as the
medulla tissues.
- When filtrate reaches the thick ascending limb, it pumps out sodium ions into the interstitial
fluid, they are not followed by water as the ascending limb is impermeable to water.
- This increases the ion concentration and reduces water potential of the medulla (interstitial
fluid).
- Now Sodium will diffuse into the permeable descending limb and water diffuses out.
- As a result, the descending limb will have a much lower water potential than the ascending
limb.
- The fluid moves along the loop of Henle- this put what was in the descending limb into the
ascending limb. The ascending limb actively pumps out sodium ions and the process repeats
- resulting in a medulla with a higher sodium ion concentration.
- This process is known as counter-current multiplication. Counter-current because fluid is
flowing in opposite directions in the limbs of the loop of Henle and multiplication as
movement of the fluid increases the ion concentration in the medullary interstitial fluid of
the kidney.
- Increasing concentration of the medulla allows water to be reabsorbed from the collecting
duct by osmosis which concentrates urine.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 38

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 39
 Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Antidiuretic Hormone is released from the posterior pituitary gland. It travels in blood to act on
the collecting ducts of the kidney to regulate blood concentration.

It controls how much water is lost in the urine. This is known as osmoregulation. Keeping water
potential of blood constant prevents water from getting in or out of cells. If there is more ADH
in blood less water is lost in the urine and vice versa.

The water potential of the blood needs to be detected in order to know how much water to
remove. This is detection is done by the osmoreceptors.

Osmoreceptors of the hypothalamus detect water potential of blood. When the water potential
of blood is low (concentrated blood), osmoreceptors shrink as water moves out of osmoreceptor
cells. When the water potential of blood is high (dilute blood), osmoreceptors swell as water
moves into osmoreceptor cells by osmosis. Osmoreceptors detect this change in shape and pass
the signal to specialized neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus which are connected to the
pituitary gland to control the secretion of ADH. In case of detecting concentrated blood, they
fire more frequently, leading to more release of ADH and vice versa. Osmoreceptors also send
signals to the thirst center of the brain to control the drinking behavior.

Neurosecretory cells are specialized neurons with cell

bodies in the hypothalamus and an axon that descends
into the posterior pituitary gland. The axon terminates at a
knob where ADH is manufactured and released.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 40

ADH travels in blood to act on the kidneys. The cells lining the collecting duct (and DCT) have
ADH receptors in them. When ADH binds to its complementary receptors on the surface of
collecting duct cells, it activates phosphorylase enzyme inside the cells. Phosphorylase causes
vesicles of aquaporin to move to the cell surface and fuse with the cell membrane. Aquaporin is
a type of channel protein that increases membrane permeability as it allows lots of water to
move through the membrane. This leads to exit of water by osmosis down water potential
gradient into the salty medulla. Some urea also exits the cells through aquaporin channels to
increase medullary concentration leading to more exit of water by osmosis. When ADH levels
decrease, Aquaporin vesicles detach from the cell membrane and remain stored in the
cytoplasm of cells lining the collecting duct. This reduces permeability and consequently
increases water loss in urine.

N.B. Osmoregulation is an example of Homeostasis by negative feedback

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 41

 Transcription Factors
Transcription factors are chemical messengers involved in the process of transcribing DNA into
RNA which is followed by protein synthesis. Examples include peptide hormones that act
extracellularly and steroid hormones that act intracellularly.

Peptide hormones:
- A peptide hormone binds to its specific receptor on the cell surface membrane.
- This stimulates the formation of a secondary messenger in the cytoplasm of the cell. This
secondary messenger is also known as Transcription Initiation Complex (TIC).
- The TIC binds to the promoter region of a certain gene. This activates the promoter region
which switches the gene on by allowing RNA polymerase to bind.
- RNA polymerase transcribes the gene producing mRNA which is then translated into a
protein.

Steroid hormones:
- A steroid hormone binds to its specific receptor on the cell surface membrane.
- This forms hormone receptor complex which detaches from the cell membrane and enters
the cell.
- The hormone receptor complex enters the nucleus through nuclear pores and binds to the
promoter region of a certain gene. This activates the promoter region which switches the
gene on by allowing RNA polymerase to bind.
- RNA polymerase transcribes the gene producing mRNA which is then translated into a
protein.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 42

 Topic 8:
Coordination, Response and Gene
technology

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 43

 Chapter 5: Nervous Communication
Neurones
Typical Motor Neurone structure

■ Comparison between Axon and Dendrites:-

- Axon transmits electric impulses away from the cell body, while Dendrites transmit
electric impulses towards the cell body.
- Axon has no ribosomes, while Dendrites have ribosomes.
- Axon is mostly myelinated, Dendrites are mostly unmyelinated.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 44

Types of Neurones
P.O.C Motor neurone Sensory neurone Relay neurone
Structure

- Terminal cell body - Central cell body - Similar to either sensory

- Multiple, short dendrites - Single short dendron or motor neurons.
- Single, long, mostly - Single, short, mostly - Always shorter.
myelinated axon unmyelinated axon.
Direction Exiting the CNS Entering the CNS Between sensory & motor
of
impulse
Location Cell body & dendrites Cell body & Dendron Entirely inside CNS
inside CNS, outside CNS,
Axon outside CNS Axon inside CNS

N.B
- Neurone = Nerve cell
- Nerve fiber = Axon of a neurone
- Nerve = Bundle of nerve fibers (axons)

Reflex Actions
It is an immediate, involuntary response that occurs at the level of the spinal cord or the brain.

Types of Reflex Actions

According to synapses According to center of reflex
Monosynaptic Polysynaptic Spinal reflex Cranial reflex
(most common) (below the mandible)
Sensory neuron is Sensory neuron is Center is the spinal Center is the
directly connected to connected to 1 or cord ex. Knee reflex. unconscious area of
motor neuron. more relay neurons the brain ex. Pupillary
which are connected reflex.
to motor neuron.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 45

Reflex arc

Resting Membrane Potential

It is the difference between positive charges inside and outside the
cell AT REST. N.B
In neurons, RMP = -70 (inside – outside) = more +ve outside Main outside = Na+
Main inside = K+
How is RMP reached?
- The membrane of a neurone is more
permeable to K+ ions as it has a larger
number of K+ than Na+ channels.
- So, more K+ exits the cell than Na+
entering. (diffusion down conc. gradient)
- The Na+K+ pump actively moves 3Na+
outside and adds only 2K+ inside (unfair)
(active transport against conc. gradient
using ATP)
- This leads to more +ve charges outside
the neurone than inside. (-ve membrane
potential)

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 46

Action Potential
It is a Local reversal of Potential Difference across the membrane due to arrival of a
stimulus above threshold. (can open enough VG Na+ channels up to PD= -55)
Phases of an Action Potential

1) Depolarization:- (VG Na+ open)

- When a stimulus above threshold occurs, Voltage Gated Na+ channels in the membrane of a
neurone open leading to influx of Na+ ions into the neurone by diffusion down concentration
gradient.
- This adds more +ve charges inside the neurone, and the Potential Difference increases up to
+30mV.

2) Repolarization:- (VG K+ open, VG Na+ close)

- At +30mV, Voltage Gated Na+ channels close and Voltage Gated K+ channels open.
- This leads to efflux of K+ outside the neurone by diffusion down conc. gradient.
- This adds more +ve charges outside the neurone and the Potential Difference decreases back
to -70mV.

3) Hyperpolarization:- (VG K+ remain open)

- Voltage Gated K+ channels stay open, so more K+ are removed outside the neurone leading
to hyperpolarization.
- At -90mV, Voltage Gated K+ channels close.
- Now, Non-Gated channels will allow backward diffusion of the excess K+ removed back into
the neurone until equilibrium is restored again at -70mV.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 47

Propagation of a Nerve Impulse
- When part of a neurone depolarizes, this stimulates Voltage Gated Na+ channels in the
adjacent part to open. (+ve feedback) = change triggers more change rather than restored back to
normal conditions
- So, the electric impulse is not a current across wires (plot twist), but rather a wave of
depolarization.
- The speed of propagation/ transmission is affected by the following:
1. Diameter of the axon (+ve correlation) = ↑diameter ↑SA ↑channels ↑diffusion
2. Myelination of the axon (+ve correlation)

N.B
- In a myelinated axon, the depolarization of a Node of Ranvier stimulates VG Na+
channels in the next node to open leading to depolarization of the next node.
- This means that the electric impulse jumps from one Node of Ranvier to the next node
(forming minicircuits)
- The above leads to faster conduction in myelinated neurons (Salutatory Conduction)

Refractory Period
- The neurone membrane is only responsive to
stimulation if the RMP is restored.
- During Action Potential, the membrane is insensitive
to further stimulation.

■ Value of the Refractory Period:-

- Controls the frequency of nerve impulses transmitted
through a neurone.
- Ensures that the propagation of a nerve impulse
occurs in the correct direction, as when one part of
the neurone membrane depolarizes the previous part
is still hyperpolarized (The Neurological Valve)

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 48

 N.B
- The Phospholipid bilayer is impermeable to Na+ and K+, so they can only pass through
proteins spanning the full thickness of the bilayer. (intrinsic proteins)
- These proteins could be either Channel proteins (Non-Gated & Voltage Gated) OR
Carrier proteins. (Na+K+ pump)
ALL or NONE principle
- For a stimulus to cause an Action Potential it must be a stimulus above threshold.
- Increasing the stimulus intensity does not affect the width or height of the Action
Potential, it only increases the frequency of Action Potentials generated.

Sensory Receptors
- A sensory receptor may be as simple as part of the sensory neurone (touch receptor)
OR as complex as being supported by a full organ. (The Eye itself)
- When a stimulus above threshold is present, it opens Voltage Gated Na+ channels leading
to influx of Na+ into the sensory receptor (Depolarization)
- When a stimulus is maintained over a period of time, Voltage Gated Na+ channels start
to close gradually. (Membrane Permeability to Na+ decreases).
- The receptor is said to be adapted.

■ Importance of Adaptation:-
Filter out trivial stimuli, so they don’t reach the brain.

Q: Suggest how an analgesic could stop or reduce pain sensation?

A: An analgesic may block Voltage Gated Na+ channels in the membrane of a sensory neurone/
receptor.
- This results in NO influx of Na+ into the neurone.
- Therefore, NO depolarizatuion → NO electric impulse propagated / wave of
depolarization → NO Neurotransmitter released in the next synapse → NO impulse
reaching the brain.
- So. NO pain sensation

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 49

Synapses
It is the junction between 2 neurones where they get closer but don’t touch
Components
1. Presynaptic membrane
2. Synaptic gap/ cleft (20 nm)
3. Postsynaptic membrane

Mechanism of Action

1. When the wave of depolarization arrives at the Presynaptic membrane it opens Voltage
Gated Ca2+ channels.
2. Calcium ions diffuse into the Presynaptic neurone down concentration gradient. This
diffusion stimulates the release of Neurotransmitter Acetyl Choline by exocytosis.
3. Acetyl Choline diffuses through the Synaptic cleft down concentration gradient. Acetyl
Choline then binds to its receptors on the Postsynaptic membrane.
3’. This binding opens Voltage Gated Na+ channels on the Postsynaptic membrane. So Na+
diffuse into the Postsynaptic neurone leading to Depolarization.
4. Acetylcholinestrase enzyme breaks down Acetyl Choline.
5. Breakdown products of Acetyl Choline are reabsorbed back into the Presynaptic neurone to
be used in the reformation of Acetyl Choline.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 50

Types of Neurotransmitters
(A) Excitatory NTs (B) Inhibitory NTs
+
They open Voltage Gated Na channels They open Voltage Gated K+ channels OR
leading to depolarization of the Postsynaptic Cl- channels leading to hyperpolarization of
membrane/ neurone. the Postsynaptic membrane/ neurone.
Example: Acetyl choline

Value of Synapses
- They have a valve-like action, to ensure that transmission of impulses occur in the correct
direction.
- They filter out trivial stimuli that cannot release sufficient Neurotransmitter.
- Summation: The synapse integrates the effect of several stimuli, releasing more
Neurotransmitter
- Synaptic Accommodation (fatigue): When a stimulus is maintained over a long period
of time, the rate of breakdown of Neurotransmitters is higher than the rate of reformation.
So the Neurotransmitter stores are temporarily exhausted.

Types of Summation:-
(A) Spatial summation (B) Temporal summation
Several stimuli at the same time. Several successive stimuli.
Example: The Eye

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 51

 Chapter 6: The Mammalian Eye
Retina structure

Components
1) Innermost layer: Ganglion cell layer
2) Middle layer: Bipolar cell layer
3) Outermost layer: layer of Photoreceptors (rods & cones)

N.B
The retina is said to be inverted; as light passes by the Ganglion & Bipolar cell layers before
reaching the Photoreceptor layer.
Photoreceptor structure (Rod cell)
The Rod cell consists of;
- The outer segment: It contains Rhodopsin pigment
enclosed in vesicles.
- The inner segment: It contains many mitochondria to
provide energy for rhodopsin reformation.
- Synaptic knob: It forms a synapse with bipolar cells.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 52

Rod vs. Cones
P.O.C Rods Cones
Number 120 millions 12 millions
Distribution All over the retina, except the The center only (Fovea)
center (Fovea)
Nerve Connection Every 10 rod cells synapse with Ever cone cell synapses with 1
1 Bipolar cell Bipolar cell
Shared nerve connection Individual nerve connection
(Spatial Summation)
Type of Pigment Rhodopsin Iodopsin
Retinal + Opsin protein Red Green Blue
sensitive sensitive sensitive

Perception of Light / Visual Transduction

- When light hits Rhodopsin, cis-retinal is converted into trans-retinal and opsin protein is
released.
- This breakdown of Rhodopsin is known as Bleaching.
- Bleaching is a fast process that doesn’t need energy.
- Bleaching is unlike the reformation of Rhodopsin in the darkness, which is a slow process that
requires energy from the breakdown of ATP.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 53

 Dark Light
- The Rod cell membrane has open VG Na +
- When a suitable light intensity reaches
channels and active Na+ pump. Influx of the eye, Light is absorbed by Rhodopsin
Na+ through open channels causes pigment. This converts cis-retinal into
depolarization. trans-retinal and Opsin protein is released.
- This depolarization stimulates the release - The breakdown of Rhodopsin is known as
of an inhibitory Neurotransmitter Bleaching.
(Glutamate) - Free Opsin (produced from bleaching)
- Glutamate causes hyperpolarization of blocks Na+ channels, while Na+ pump is
the Bipolar cell. still working. So the rod cell is
- No neurotransmitter released from hyperpolarized.
Bipolar cells. - No inhibitory neurotransmitter released
- Therefore, No depolarization of Ganglion from Rod cells.
cells and No impulses reaching the brain. - Bipolar cells are now depolarized.
- Bipolar cells release excitatory
neurotransmitter acting on Ganglion
cells.
- Depolarization of Ganglion cells occur
and an electric impulse is transmitted to
the brain.
N.B
- If the light stimulus is of lower intensity than the threshold of stimulation, then few
bleaching of Rhodopsin would occur and few Opsin molecules released. So, not all Na+
channels are blocked.
- The changes in Potential Difference across the Rod cell membrane are minimal, which
means that the Rod cell is not hyperpolarized and is still able to release the inhibitory
Neurotransmitter Glutamate

N.B
What is the role of ATP in the process Visual Transduction?
- ATP is needed for the activity of the Na+ pump.
- ATP is needed for the reformation of Rhodopsin by joining Retinal & Opsin.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 54

Pupillary Reflex
It is changing the size of the eye pupil in response to changing Light Intensity.
Bright Light
●What happens? Pupil constricts.
●Why it happens? To protect the retina from high light intensities.
●How it happens? Circular muscles contract, Radial muscles relax.
(Antagonistic muscles scheme)

Dim Light
●What happens? Pupil dilates.
●Why it happens? To collect more light rays on the retina.
●How it happens? Radial muscles contract, Circular muscles relax.

N.B
- Some drugs act on the Local Nervous System of the eye inducing
contraction of the radial muscles and relaxation of the circular muscles.
- This dilates the eye pupil allowing for better examination of the retina
(the fundus, more accurate)

N.B
The eye pupil appears black as the choroid layer
absorbs light, preventing internal reflection of the eye.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 55

© Dr. Mohab Megahed

Organization of the Nervous System

56
 Chapter 7: The Brain
The Brain Structure
1) Cerebrum
(A) Functional Areas:-
■Sensory Areas: They receive and interpret
stimuli from sensory receptors or organs.
■Motor Areas: They send impulses to
Effectors.
■Association Areas:
- Memory, Thinking and Learning
⸫ determine IQ
- Feeling emotions
(located in the Frontal lobe)

(B) Corpus Callosum:-

A bundle of neurons connecting the 2 cerebral hemispheres.

(C) Thalamus:-
- A relay station for ascending sensation.
- Can carry out basic sensory functions (e.g. = Face recognition)

(D) Hypothalamus:-
- It plays an important role in Homeostasis, as it contains [Link] center
[Link] center.
- It is connected to the Pituitary gland, so it controls the release of certain hormones.
(E) Pituitary Gland
2) Cerebellum
It is responsible for learned coordinated responses. (e.g. = Balance and Speech)

3) Medulla Oblongata
It is responsible for involuntary Automatic processes.
e.g. = Controlling Heart Rate and Breathing Rate
N.B
The Blood Brain Barrier:-
- The capillaries in the brain have a very tight/ narrow
Endothelium (narrow pores)
- This protects the brain from many pathogens in the
blood.
- However, this has the disadvantage of many drugs
being unable to reach the Brain tissues.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 57

Brain Imaging
Value of Brain Imaging:-
- Detecting the type, site and size of any lesion (tumour/ oedema/ stroke/ hemorrhage)
- Follow up effectiveness of a treatment by repeated scans and comparisons.
- Looking for surgical accessibility (according to site/ size/ pressure on other parts)

N.B
- Different areas of the brain have different functions, so the site of the lesion determines
the symptoms produced.
- Different sites = Different symptoms.

Types of Brain Imaging

1) CT/ CAT Scan (Computerized/Axial Tomography)
Mechanism:-
- X-rays from a rotating source are applied to the
Brain.
- Density of the Brain tissue determines the ability of
rays to pass through.
- This is used by the computer to draw a 3D model.
Advantages:-
- It can detect lesions. (e.g. = tumours)
- Cheap and available.
Disadvantages:-
- It can’t detect smaller lesions due to low resolution.
- Hazards of X-ray (Carcinogenic, Congenital malformations)

2) MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Mechanism:-
- Magnetic fields align/ excite protons in
water. When the applied field is removed
(the magnetic field source is turned off),
the magnetic field is reemitted.
- This is used by the computer to produce a
3D model.
Advantages:-
- It can detect minor lesions due to higher resolution.
- It can also detect larger lesions.
- Safe to use in pregnancy as X-ray hazards are eliminated.
Disadvantages:-
- Only shows brain structure, not function.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 58

3) fMRI (functional MRI)
Mechanism:-
- It uses magnetic fields to differentiate
deoxygenated hemoglobin from oxygenated
hemoglobin; as oxygenated hemoglobin reflects
magnetic fields.
- More active areas have more oxygenated
hemoglobin, so they appear white/pale. While, less
active areas appear black.
- This shows Brain activity in real-time.
Advantages:-
- MRI advantages
- Shows brain functions, not only structure.

4) PET scan (Positron Emission Tomography)

Mechanism:
- The person is given radioactive
material containing glucose. This
material is up taken by more
active cells such as dividing cells
to be used in respiration. The
increased radioactivity emitted
from areas with high metabolic
rate can be detected by the PET
scanner.
Advantages:
- It helps to diagnose conditions that affect cell activity such as areas with cancer
growth (more active) or brain diseases like dementia.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 59

Habituation
It is decreased responsiveness to a neutral, non-threatening stimulus, until the response is
permanently lost.

■Examples:
- Moro reflex in humans.
- Sea slug (Aplysia): Adult sea slug does not
withdraw its syphon in response to water
currents. Newborns still do.

■Value of Habituation:-
- (Mainly) Prevents responding to neutral,
non-threatening, natural stimuli to conserve
energy. (elaborate; energy for what?)
- (Sea slug only) Keeping the syphon
exposed allows the sea slug to uptake
oxygen from water.

■Mechanism of Habituation:-
- Decreased responsiveness (permeability) of the presynaptic neurone to Ca2+.
- Less Neurotransmitter released from the presynaptic membrane.
- Less binding to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
- Less depolarization of the postsynaptic neurone.
- Less Action Potential generated in the postsynaptic neurone.
N.B
Factors affecting how quickly habituation occurs:-
1. Strength of stimulus.
2. Frequency of stimulus.
3. Duration of stimulus

N.B
Comparison between Habituation and Synaptic Accommodation:-
Habituation Adaptation
- Permanent, irreversible loss of response - Temporary process
- Occurs in response to neutral, non- - Occurs to any persistent stimulus
threatening stimuli only. - Due to exhaustion of Neurotransmitter
- Due to reduced responsiveness of stores (Rate of breakdown > Rate of
presynaptic membrane to Ca2+ reformation)

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 60

■Investigation Habituation:-
- Select Giant African Snails of the same age,
gender and mass.
- Place one snail over a clean, firm surface.
- Leave the snail to acclimatize to the new
conditions. (fully emerge from its shell)
- Use dampened cotton to touch the snail lightly
between the eye stalks.
- Once the snail enters the shell, start your
stopwatch.
- Measure the time taken to fully reemerge from its shell.
- Repeat this touch for 10 successive times, and each time record how long it took the snail
to reemerge.
- To ensure validity, Control temperature, light intensity and humidity.
- Make sure to touch the snail with the same force each time.
- To ensure Reliability, Repeat the whole process on other snails and Calculate average
time taken to reemerge after each touch.

N.B
Learning in Laboratory bred Rats
Rats find hidden food faster after repeated exposure to the maze containing food,
Explain why?
- More stimulation.
- More neurons formed in the brain.
- More synapses.
- Better transmission.
- Learning by acquired behavior.

N.B
Ethical concerns of Using Animals
Pro (Relativists) Against (Absolutists)
- The preclinical phase of drug - Animals may die, which is
testing should include animals, to unethical
monitor drug toxicity before - Animals may feel pain
clinical trials on humans. (The - Animals cannot give a written
Greater Good Principle / consent
Utilitarian Principle) - There are physiological
- No effective alternative to animal differences between animals and
testing; as tissue culture and humans, so it’s not guaranteed that
computer models are not enough the effect of a substance on
humans and animals would be the
same.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 61

 N.B
How drugs act on Synapses:-
- Blocking Ca2+ channels on the presynaptic membrane.
- Preventing synthesis of the Neurotransmitter in the presynaptic neurone.
- Preventing exocytosis of the Neurotransmitter from the presynaptic neurone.
- Blocking Neurotransmitter receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
- Blocking the enzyme that breaks down the Neurotransmitter.
- Blocking the reuptake channels of the Neurotransmitter on the presynaptic
membrane.

Chemical Balance of the Brain

Coordination of Movement
- The motor command arises from Motor areas in the brain (Cerebral Cortex).
- The Basal Ganglia in the Cerebellum determines the speed of movement.
- This determination of speed occurs in response to 2 Neurotransmitters:
• Dopamine (secreted from Subsatntia Nigra): Speeds up motor command.
• Acetylcholine (secreted from Cholinergic area): slows down motor command.
- Therefore, the balance between these 2 Neurotransmitters is what really determines the
speed of movement.

Parkinson’s Disease (Parkinsonism)

■Risk factors:-
- Genetic factors
- Environmental factors, e.g.: repeated head
trauma.
■Pathology:-
- Damage (Gradual degeneration) of Substantia Nigra which normally releases Dopamine.
- Serious reduction in Dopamine levels leasing to slow non-coordinated movements.
■Symptoms:-
- Static tremors (in fingers)
- Slow movement
- Shuffling gait/ Waddling gait
- Stiffness and rigidity of muscles (Usually the latest stage after which failure of breathing occurs)
- Difficulty of Speech and Swallowing.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 62

■Treatment of Parkinsonism:-
1) L-Dopa:
- Parkinson’s disease is normally caused by low levels of Dopamine.
- Giving Dopamine itself is ineffective; as Dopamine is too large to pass the Blood Brain
Barrier.
- L-Dopa is the precursor of Dopamine, so it can enter the brain due to its smaller size.
- Inside the brain tissue, L-Dopa is converted into Dopamine.
2) Dopamine Agonists:
- They stimulate Dopamine receptors. (receptors perceive 1x as 100x)
- However, by time receptors become desensitized.
- This exacerbates symptoms.
3) MAO Binders:
- MAO (MonoAmine Oxidase) is an enzyme that breaks down Dopamine.
- MAO Binders block MAO enzyme, so Dopamine is not broken down.

Depression
■Pathology:-
Decreased levels of Serotonin.

■Symptoms:- SIGE CAPS

1. Sleep: Disturbed Sleep pattern
• ↑ Sleeping hours (typical) 60%
• ↓ Sleeping hours (atypical) 40%
2. Interest: Lack of interest in previously enjoyed stuff.
3. Guilt feeling.
4. Easy fatigability.
5. Concentration loss.
6. Appetite
• ↓ Appetite (typical)
• ↑ Appetite (atypical)
7. Psychomotor Retardation.
8. Suicidality N.B
• Death wishes - 1 – 3 symptoms
• Suicidal thoughts (Mild depression)
• Suicidal plan - 3 – 5 symptoms
• Suicidal attempts (Moderate depression)
- 5 – 7 symptoms
(Severe depression)

If Suicidality joined any

group, it is considered
Severe depression.
© Dr. Mohab Megahed 63
■Treatment of Depression
1)Pharmacotherapy:-
(A) TCA (TriCyclic Antidepressant):
- They block reuptake channels of Serotonin and Noradrenaline. (SNRIs)
(B) SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor):
- They block reuptake channels of Serotonin in the presynaptic membrane
(Partial blockade)
- More Serotonin in Synaptic cleft.
- More binding to receptors on postsynaptic membrane.
- More Action Potentials in postsynaptic neurone.
(C) MDMA (Ecstasy):
- Same as SSRIs (complete blockade)
- Euphoria, Elation, Ecstasy, Confidence and Inflation.
Side Effects:
• Hypothalamus: Hyperthermia
Oliguria (↑ADH)
• Medulla Oblongata: Tachycardia
Hypertension
2)Psychotherapy:-
Discussing the problem with the patient.

3)Electroconvulsive Therapy:-
Indicated in cases of Severe Depression and Suicidality.

N.B
Phases of Drug Testing:-
- Preclinical phase: Animal testing to check how the drug is metabolized in a whole
organism, in order to exclude toxicity.
- Phase I: Testing on Healthy Volunteers, to monitor safety.
- Phase II: Trying the drug on a small sample of patients, to monitor efficacy and confirm
safety.
- Phase III: A Large sample of Patients, to undergo statistical analysis comparing to other
drugs on the market.
Phases II and III should include Placebo and Double Blind trials.
Placebo: Control drug with no active ingredient that looks like the real drug. It’s used to
assess the magnitude of Psychological effect and Compare with the real drug.
Double Blind trial: Neither the doctor nor the patient know who is taking the real drug and
who is taking placebo. This eliminates bias.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 64

The effect of Drugs on the Nervous system

Many drugs, both legal and illegal, create their effect by altering the normal functioning of the
human nervous system. These drugs include: L-DOPA, MDMA, Nicotine, Lidocaine & Cobra
venom alpha toxin.

Nicotine:
- People intake nicotine through cigarette smoke and it is absorbed in the lungs into the
blood stream, reaching the brain in less than 10 seconds.
- In the brain, nicotine mimics the effect of acetyl choline as it binds to cholinergic
receptors in the brain synapses, triggering action potentials. Since acetyl choline is
important in controlling things like mood, appetite and memory, nicotine affects them as
well.
- Nicotine also increases dopamine levels in the brain. This triggers the feelings of pleasure
and reward. This explains why nicotine is addictive.

Lidocaine:
- It is a local anesthetic drug that numbs tissues in a specific area.
- It works by blocking sodium ion channels which prevents depolarization so no impulses
sent from neurons of a specific area to the brain.
- This stops pain sensation.

Cobra venom alpha toxin:

- It is a toxin that blocks acetyl choline receptors at the neuromuscular junction.
- This prevents acetyl choline from binding to its receptors on the post synaptic membrane.
- No action potentials generated and thus no muscle contraction resulting in paralysis.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 65

 Chapter 8: Gene Technology
Genetic Modification
It is Transferring DNA of one organism into another organism.

Steps
- Cut the gene of the desired protein using Restriction Endonuclease
enzyme (or Reverse Transcriptase which acts on mRNA)
- Amplify the cut gene using PCR (DNA Polymerase)
- Cut the bacterial plasmids using the same Restriction enzyme.
- This produces sticky ends allowing formation of Hydrogen bonds.
- Add the genes to cut plasmid using DNA ligase enzyme to form Phosphodiester bonds.

- Add a marker gene to the bacterial plasmid; a gene coding for resistance to a certain
antibiotic.
- Introduce the genetically modified plasmids into bacterial cells.
- Culture the bacteria over Nutrient medium.
- Add to the Nutrient medium a certain antibiotic to which your bacteria are resistant, this
kills any foreign bacteria.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 66

Uses
■Humans:-
- Forming/ synthesizing human proteins, enzyme and antibodies.
These proteins are human proteins, so they don’t trigger an immune
response.
- Producing vaccines (not available yet)

■Plants:-
- Modifying plants to be pest resistant (gene releasing chemicals that kill pests before
infecting the plant)
- Modifying crops to be herbicide resistant, so that the used herbicide only affects weeds.
- Modifying plants to delay fast ripening, this reduces crop waste. (very successful)

Disadvantages
■Humans:-
It opens doors to Gene Manipulation, which is unethical.

■Plants:-
Transfer of herbicide resistance genes/ alleles by Cross Pollination leads to production of
super weeds.

■Animals:-
It might give certain animals an unfair competitive edge over others leading to food
chain disruption.

■General:-
- Only available for certain countries, this leads to discrimination.
- Might be abused to produce biological weapons.

How to insert recombinant DNA into other cells:

- Using Viruses as vectors: viruses bind to receptors on the host cells and insert their
genetic material inside the cell.
- Using Liposomes as vectors: a liposome is a phospholipid bilayer that can fuse with the
cell membrane and release its contents (recombinant DNA) inside the cell. This is known
as Liposome wrapping.
- Microinjection: Using a very fine glass pipette to physically inject the desired DNA into
a fertilised egg cell.
- Microprojectiles (gene gun): Injecting DNA by firing it at very high speed inside the
cell.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 67

Microarrays:
- Microarrays can be used to identify active genes within cells of an organism.
- An array is a set up containing DNA probes complementary to the genes we are testing
for. These probes are known as cDNA. They are prepared from mRNA using reverse
transcriptase enzyme.
- The person’s DNA is fragmented, fluorescently labelled then washed over the array.
- The active DNA of the person will be transcribed into mRNA which can hybridize with
the cDNA probe. This can be viewed with UV light.
- This shows if the gene is present and expressed or not.

Bioinformatics:
- It’s a branch of biology that stores and analyses data about the genomes (DNA
sequences) of living organisms. It combines information from biology, mathematics,
computer science & statistics.

- Bioinformatics aims at:

1- Developing algorithms used to assemble the whole genomes from small overlapping
sequences of DNA.

2- Compare whole genomes across individuals in one species to find links between genes
and diseases.

3- Compare whole genomes across species to work out evolutionary relationships.

4- Predict the primary structure of proteins from gene sequences.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 68

 Chapter 9: Sensitivity in Plants
Introduction
- There are 2 main types of light:
(A) Red light: Bright light/ Daytime (660nm)
(B) Far Red light: Moonlight/ Dark/ Night (730nm)
- Light receptors in plants are known as Phytochromes. Phytocromes are mainly found in
leaves.
- There are 2 isomers of Phytochromes:
(A) Phytochrome Red (PR)
(B) Phytochrome Far Red (PFR)
- When the specific light hits its phytochrome, it is converted into the other isomer.

Phytochromes and Greening

- PFR (active phytochrome) is responsible for greening of the plant.
- This explains why greening occurs at daytime.
- Greening means: - Increasing Chlorophyll formation.
- Expansion of leaves.
- Inhibition of internode growth. (to save energy used in more imp. processes)
- If the plant is placed in darkness, Far Red light converts PFR into PR. So greening is
inhibited and Etiolation occurs.
- Etiolation means: - Decreasing Chlorophyll
formation.
- Thinning of leaves.
- Stimulation of internode
growth. (searching for light)

■Fate of Etiolated plants:-

- Either to reach sunlight.
- OR to die due to exhaustion of food stores.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 69

Phytochromes and Germination
In the lab:-
- A Light source (Red light) is applied to Tobacco seeds.
- Temperature increases, indicating increased enzyme activity. Therefore, Germination
success.
- Then, another light source (Far Red light) is applied to tobacco seeds.
- Temperature decreases, indicating decreased enzyme activity. Therefore, inhibition of
Germination.
- Temperature was measured using a probe.

Explanation
- PFR (active phytochrome) is responsible for germination of rare types of seeds.
- This means that Red light stimulates germination, while Far Red light inhibits
germination.
- The effect of light on seeds is reversible.

Phytochromes and Flowering (Photoperiod)

1) Long Day plants (Summer plants)
- Short nights = Not enough time for sufficient conversion of PFR into PR; as this process is
slow.
- PFR remains high most of the day.
- PFR stimulates flowering in summer plants, as it leads to release of Florigen.

2) Short Day plants (Winter plants)

- Long nights = Enough conversion of PFR into PR.
- So PFR levels significantly decrease and consequently PR levels are high.
- In these plants PFR stimulates flowering by inducing the release of Florigen.
3) Day neutral plants
- These plants don’t depend on Phytochromes for Flowering.
- Flowering occurs when they reach a certain size.
N.B
Explain why Flowering depends on Photoperiod and not any other
abiotic factor?
- Photoperiod is the minimum length of day required for a plant to flower.
- Photoperiod shows a regular pattern of seasonal variation.
- Unlike other abiotic factors, such as temperature or light intensity that shows
fluctuations throughout the day.
- This ensures that all members of the same species produce flowers at the same
time to increase the likelihood of pollination.
- Moreover, this coincides with important biotic factors, such as presence of insect
pollinators.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 70

 Phototropism
Response of Plants to Sunlight
- If light is shone from one side (Unilateral light), Auxins are
redistributed to the shaded side.
- So bending towards sunlight occurs.
- If bilateral light is shone (from both sides), Auxins are
equally distributed on both sides.
- So vertical growth occurs.
- If no light is shone, more Vertical growth occurs (Etiolation)

Mechanism of Growth by Auxins (IAA)

- Auxins are secreted from the Meristem
(tip of the shoot).
- They diffuse downwards to reach the
Zone of Cell Elongation.
- When Auxins bind to their specific
receptors on the cell membrane. H+
pumps in this cell membrane are active.
- This increases H+ in the cell wall and
consequently decreases pH.
- Acidity (low pH) breaks cross-linkage
(H-bonds) between cellulose molecules.
- The weakened / flexible cell wall allows
growth by expansion, when the cell
uptakes water.
- This continues until Auxins are broken down by certain enzymes.

Plant hormones vs. Animal hormones

Similarities Differences
- Both are synthesized inside cells. - Plant hormones move by diffusion, but
- Both are secreted from one site, but act Animal hormones are transported in
on another site. blood.
- Both bind to receptors on cell - Plant hormones have slower action.
membrane. - Longer duration for plant hormones.
- Both modify gene expression. (act as - All plants are involved in Growth, while
transcription factor) Animal hormones may have other
functions.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 71

Investigating the production of amylase in germinating cereal grains

Concept:
Cereal grains store food in the form starch which is insoluble. This is an energy store for the
embryo. For the embryo to grow, starch must be broken down by amylase into soluble maltose
that is transported to the embryo to use it in respiration. This occurs when the developing
embryo releases hormones known as gibberellins which stimulate other cells in the endosperm
to release amylase enzyme.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 72

Method:
Day 1:

- Prepare a range of gibberellin concentrations (0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 & 1.0g/dm3) by adding
different volumes of gibberellin acid to different volumes of distilled water.

- Collect seeds of the same size and species. Use a scalpel to

cut each seed in half and discard the embryo part. (As we
can’t control the amount of gibberellin produced by the
embryo, so we will use our prepared solutions of known
gibberellin concentrations instead)

- Place the endosperm halves in a solution of sodium

hypochlorite for 5 minutes to sterilize them without being
killed. Then wash them under running water and drain in
muslin to remove sodium hypochlorite.

- Use sterile forceps to place 3 cut seeds in each gibberellin solution and leave them for 24-48
hours. Slightly unscrew the lids of the used bottles to allow oxygen to enter. (This allows
cells of the endosperm to undergo aerobic respiration so that they have enough energy to
secrete amylase in response to gibberellin)

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 73

Day 2:

- Use sterile forceps to transfer the seeds from each gibberellin solutions to a starch-agar petri
dish. Label each dish carefully with the relevant gibberellin concentration. This means you
will have a number of petri dishes equivalent to the number of gibberellin concentrations
tested. Make sure the cut surface of the seed is pointing downwards.

- Cover the petri dish and incubate for 24-48 hours at temperature of 28°C.

Day 3:

- Open the lid of each agar plate and pour iodine solution over agar.
- The areas where starch is still present will turn blue black while areas around seeds where
amylase has broken down starch will stay yellow brown.

- Measure the diameter of the clear area (yellow brown) around each seed and calculate the
average for the 3 seeds in each plate. (You can also calculate the area of clear zone using the
formula p r2 or using graph paper tracing)
- Record the results in a table.
- Plot a graph showing gibberellin concentration against average diameter of clear zone.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 74

Limitations
- Aseptic techniques are never 100% efficient, any contamination may cause damage to the
seeds or hydrolysis of starch.
- While cutting seeds, you can never be sure that endosperm size is equal so amylase content
maybe different.
- In some cases, it might be difficult to determine the exact border of the clear zone which
reduces accuracy of measurements.

© Dr. Mohab Megahed 75