Behavioral approach in geography

Introduction :
By the mid-1960s use of statistical techniques in research for precision had been largely
accepted by geographers. The duality of systematic versus regional geography was
resolved as both were now accepted as important components of the discipline though
interdependent and equally useful. It was increasingly realized by the geographers that
the models propounded and tested with the help of quantitative techniques, provided poor
descriptions of geographic reality as well as the man-environment relationship. The
dissatisfaction with the models and theories developed by the positivists, using the
statistical techniques which were based on the ‘economic rationality’ of man led to the
development of a behavioral approach in geography.

Rise of behaviorism :

The axiom of ‘economic person’ who always tries to maximize his profit was challenged
by Wolpert.Wolpert (1964) compared the actual and potential labor productivity of
Swedish farmers and came to a conclusion that optimal farming practices were not
attainable.Thus human behavior was seen to be a product of decision-making and it was a
human tendency to have incomplete information, to make imperfect choices and even
then be satisfied with sub-optimal options.
What is behavioral approach in geography :

The behavioral approach in geography represents a significant shift in the discipline's

focus from merely analyzing spatial patterns to understanding the complex interactions
between humans and their environment. Unlike traditional approaches that emphasize
quantitative analysis and spatial modeling, the behavioral approach is inductive and
places greater emphasis on the subjective experiences, perceptions, and motivations that
shape human behavior in geographical contexts.It draws on insights from psychology,
sociology, anthropology, and cognitive science to explore how individuals and
communities interact with their surroundings, make decisions about where to live, work,
and travel, and develop attachments to particular places.

Characteristics :

● Behavioral geography acknowledges that individuals and communities have

agency and exert influence over their environment.
● It seeks to understand how people make decisions about spatial behavior, such as
migration, leisure activities, and daily mobility patterns.
● The behavioral approach emphasizes the subjective experiences and meanings that
individuals attach to places.
● qualitative research methods such as interviews, participant observation, and
ethnographic studies
● Behavioral geographers study how individuals mentally represent and navigate
their environment.
● Behavioral geographers investigate how people perceive and respond to
environmental stimuli, risks, and hazards.
 ● The behavioral approach has practical implications for policy-making and applied
research in areas such as urban planning, transportation, and environmental
management.

Objectives :

● To develop models for a human phenomenon which would provide an alternative

to the spatial location theories developed under the influence of positivism.
● To define the cognitive (subjective) environment that determines the
decision-making process of humans;
● To come up with psychological and social theories of human decision-making and
behavior in a spatial framework;
● To change the emphasis from aggregate populations to the disaggregate scale of
individuals and small group
● To search for methods other than those popular during the quantitative revolution
that could uncover the latent structure in data and decision-making;
● To emphasize on procession rather than structural explanations of human activity
and physical environment;
● To generate primary data about human behavior and not to rely heavily on the
published data; and
● To adopt an interdisciplinary approach for theory-building and problem-solving.

Models , laws and theories :

● Time Geography (Hägerstrand): Time geography, developed by Swedish

geographer Torsten Hägerstrand, emphasizes the importance of time in
understanding human behavior and spatial interactions. The theory explores how
individuals allocate their time across different activities and locations, considering
constraints such as time-space limitations, daily routines, and mobility patterns.
● Cognitive Mapping (Lynch): Kevin Lynch's theory of cognitive mapping focuses
on how individuals mentally represent and navigate their environment. According
to Lynch, people develop mental maps of their surroundings based on sensory
perceptions, spatial relationships, and personal experiences. These mental maps
influence individuals' spatial behavior and decision-making processes.
● Environmental Perception (Proshansky, Ittelson, Rivlin): This theory focuses
on how individuals perceive and interpret their environment. It considers factors
such as sensory experiences, cognitive processes, and socio-cultural influences on
environmental perception. According to this perspective, people's perceptions of
their surroundings shape their behavior and attitudes towards the environment.
● Place Attachment (Altman and Low): Place attachment theory explores the
emotional and symbolic bonds that individuals form with specific places. It
suggests that people develop attachments to places based on personal experiences,
memories, and social relationships. Place attachment influences individuals' sense
of belonging, identity, and well-being, shaping their behavior and interactions with
the environment.
● Activity Space Theory (Cheng and Golledge): Activity space theory examines
the spatial extent and patterns of individuals' daily activities. It considers factors
such as accessibility, mobility, and social networks in shaping the geographic
scope of people's activities. This theory helps understand how individuals interact
with their environment and make spatial decisions based on their activity spaces.
● Spatial Decision-Making (Gould and White): Spatial decision-making theory
examines the processes by which individuals make choices about spatial behavior,
such as location selection, route planning, and activity scheduling. It considers
factors such as preferences, constraints, and cognitive processes in shaping
decision outcomes. HE talked about mental maps .
● Kirk (1952-1963) : supplied one of the first behavioral models. In his model, he
asserted that in space and time the same information would have different
meanings for people of different socio-economic, cultural and ethnic backgrounds
living in a similar geographical environment. Each individual of a society reacts
differently to a piece of information about the resource, space, and environment.
This point may be explained by citing the following example.The highly
productive Indo-Gangetic plains have different meanings for different individuals
belonging to a various caste, creed and religion.
● behavioral matrix by pred : presented an alternative to this inductive approach
of behaviorists on theory building on ‘economic man’. In his work Behaviour and
Location, he proposes a behavioral matrix (Figure 2) to give a structure in which
decisions of locations can be analyzed. The axes of the matrix are quality and
quantity of information available and the ability to use that information; man as an
economic being is at the right-hand corner. As there is variation in the quantity and
quality of the information, the position of man on the axis would also change. His
position would reflect his aspiration levels, experience and even norms of the
group to which he may belong. His further states, that even the same individual
would not be in the same position as his decisions may vary over time as spatial
patterns are never static in nature.
 ● Risk perception theory : Robert Kates (1962) : on floodplain management is one
of the bases of this approach. He states the manner in which human beings
perceive the uncertainty and unpredictability of their environment play a
significant role in the process of decision-making. He developed a scheme that had
relevance to a wide range of human behavior. This scheme of Kates was based on
four assumptions –
● Men are rational while making decisions.
● Men make choices.
● Choices are made on the basis of knowledge.
● Information is evaluated to predetermined criteria.

Criticism :

● Overemphasis on Individual Behavior: overlooking broader structural and

systemic factors that shape human-environment interactions. By focusing
primarily on individual decision-making processes
● Subjectivity and Lack of Generalizability: the subjective nature of qualitative
research may lead to biases and inconsistencies in interpretation, making it
difficult to generalize findings to broader populations or contexts.
 ● Neglect of Spatial Patterns and Structures:By focusing on individual experiences
and perceptions, behavioral geography may overlook broader spatial dynamics and
systemic inequalities that influence behavior and decision-making.
● Methodological Challenges: Qualitative research methods such as interviews and
ethnographic studies can be time-consuming and resource-intensive, limiting the
scope and scale of research.
● Lack of Interdisciplinary Integration: There may be limited integration of insights
from psychology, sociology, anthropology, and other social sciences, hindering a
comprehensive understanding of human-environment interactions.
● Limited Policy Relevance: While it offers insights into individual behavior and
decision-making processes, it may struggle to address broader systemic issues and
structural inequalities that underpin spatial challenges.
● Ethical Considerations: The use of psychological techniques to influence behavior,
such as in marketing or urban design, raises questions about consent, privacy, and
autonomy.

Conclusion:

The behavioral approach in geography has made significant contributions to our

understanding of human-environment interactions, enriching traditional geographical
analysis with insights from psychology and other social sciences. While it has its
strengths, such as its emphasis on the human dimension of geography and its
interdisciplinary nature, it also faces challenges and limitations that warrant further
consideration and refinement.