NAME:Bagsiyao,Vin

Bagsiyao,Darryl Date: May 2,2024

Bestolio, Emmanuel
Dalisdis, Johnny, Jr Score:
Montano, JemonPadawel, Jr, Cristobal
Tolentino, Raven Charls
Mendoza, Danica
Ugay, Sigred

SUBJ/SEC:Crimso2/BAA

Summary of Criminological Theories

THEORY/ EXPLANATION CRITICISMS APPLICATION

OF CRIME
CONCEPT (Discuss two(2) (Discuss two(2)
(Briefly describe criticisms or limitations practical applications
how the theory of the theory) or implications of the
explains the theory for
causes or factors understanding and
that contribute to addressing crime.)
criminal behavior.)

1. Pre-Classical/ The crime was This theory lacks a By studying this theory,
rooted in strong scientific we can gain insights
Demonological supernatural foundation. Many of into the historical
Theory beliefs and these theories rely understanding of crime
religious more on intuitive or and how it was
interpretations speculative reasoning addressed in the past.
rather than empirical This can help develop
evidence and rigorous more evidence-based
scientific methodology. approaches to crime
prevention and
This theory may no interventions
longer hold relevance
or accurately explain Examining
contemporary criminal demonological beliefs
behavior. allows us to
comprehend how
culture and religion
influenced perceptions
of crime and morality.

2. Classical The crime is It mainly focuses on By understanding the

Theory based on rational the idea of deterrence, deterrent effect of
decision-making suggesting that the punishment,
and individual threat of punishment policymakers can
choice and can deter individuals design strategies that
individuals are from engaging in effectively deter crime
seen as rational criminal activities. and promote public
beings with free safety.
will It tends to focus
primarily on Understanding the
 individual-level factors decision-making
in explaining criminal processes of potential
behavior, while offenders,
overlooking broader interventions can be
societal influences. designed to increase
the perceived costs or
decrease the
perceived benefits of
criminal behavior.

3. Positivist The criminal It tends to oversimplify By analyzing various

Theory behavior is the complex nature of risk factors, such as
influenced by human behavior by genetic
factors beyond an reducing it to biological predispositions,
individual's control or psychological childhood experiences,
like biological, factors. It also fails to and environmental
psychological, and consider the influence influences, researchers
social factors that of social, cultural, and can develop risk
contribute to environmental factors assessment tools that
criminal behavior on criminal behavior. help identify individuals
who may be more
Critics argue that not prone to criminal
all individuals with behavior
similar biological or
psychological traits By doing research and
engage in criminal analysis, criminologists
activities, highlighting can evaluate the
the need for a more impact of various
nuanced policies, such as
understanding of community policing,
criminal behavior drug treatment
programs, or
restorative justice
initiatives

4.Neo-Classical People commit It often fails to provide Understanding this

Theory crimes as a result sufficient attention to theory can help law
of rational the treatment and enforcement agencies
decision-making, rehabilitation of and policymakers
considering the offenders. Also solely develop strategies to
costs and benefits relying on punishment deter crime by
as a means to deter increasing the
crime neglects the perceived risks and
importance of decreasing the
addressing the rewards associated
underlying issues that with criminal activities.
contribute to criminal
behavior Implementing CCTV
cameras, employing
This theory relies on security guards, and
the rational choice enhancing police
perspective, that it fails presence in high-crime
to consider the areas can create a
 complex factors that perception of
influence criminal increased surveillance
behavior, such as and decrease the
psychological, social, likelihood of criminal
and environmental activities.
factors

5.Physiognomy Suggested that It is prone to biases Physiognomy was

specific facial and different historically used in
features or body individuals may criminal profiling,
types were interpret facial features where certain facial
associated with differently, leading to features or body types
criminal behavior. inconsistent and were believed to
unreliable results indicate criminal
tendencies. For
It oversimplifies the example, a theory
complex nature of might suggest that
criminal behavior by individuals with a
attempting to predict it certain type of nose or
based on facial jawline were more
features alone. And likely to be aggressive
ignores the numerous or prone to criminal
social, environmental, behavior.Another
and psychological implication of
factors that contribute physiognomy in
to criminality. addressing crime is the
social stigmatization of
individuals based on
their appearance. If
certain facial features
were believed to be
associated with
criminality, people who
possessed these
features might face
discrimination or
prejudice in society.

6. Phrenology Criminal behavior Its emphasis on the Phrenology was used

could be identified physical aspects of the in criminal profiling,
by certain physical brain and the where specific areas of
characteristics of correlation between the skull were believed
the skull, such as skull shape and to be associated with
bumps or character traits criminal tendencies or
depressions in undermined religious behaviors.
specific areas. and spiritual beliefs Phrenologists claimed
they could identify
It has been argued that "criminal bumps" or
the simplistic areas of the skull that
correlations between indicated a propensity
skull shape and for violence,
criminality oversimplify aggression, or other
the complex factors criminal
 that contribute to acts.Phrenologists
criminal behavior. believed that by
identifying and
"correcting" supposed
abnormalities or
deficiencies in the
skull, they could
change a person's
behavior and
personality.

7. Evolutionary Criminal behavior Often downplay the By identifying

Theory is influenced by role of social and evolutionary factors
evolutionary environmental factors that contribute to
factors such as in shaping criminal criminal behavior,
reproductive behavior such as researchers and
strategies, mate poverty, inequality, practitioners can
competition, family dynamics, and design interventions
resource social influences play that address the root
acquisition, and significant roles in causes of crime.
group dynamics criminality and should
not be overlooked Policymakers can
develop interventions
This theories may be that align with human
used to justify or nature and address the
excuse criminal underlying factors that
behavior based on drive crime
biological
predispositions

8.Constitutional The crime can be It assumes that By identifying common

Typology understood individuals can be characteristics and risk
through a neatly classified into factors associated with
combination of specific types based different types of
biological, on their physical offenders,
psychological, and attributes, such as policymakers can
social factors. It body build or facial design effective
emphasizes the features. Where strategies to combat
importance of it ignores the role of crime and reduce
individual social and recidivism
differences in environmental factors,
explaining criminal as well as individual By considering the
behavior, focusing experiences, in constitutional
on traits like shaping criminal characteristics of
impulsivity, behavior offenders,
sensation-seeking, professionals can
and aggression Relies heavily on make more informed
physical decisions regarding
characteristics, which sentencing, parole,
can lead to biased and rehabilitation
judgments and unfair programs
treatment of individuals
9.Somatotyping Critics argue that One major criticism of Training programs for
Theory the theory overly somatotyping is its law enforcement might
simplifies the reductionist approach, include content on
complex as it attempts to understanding diverse
interaction correlate body types body types and
between body type directly with behavioral associated stereotypes
and personality. tendencies, such as to prevent bias in
criminality. policing,
acknowledging that
Lack of empirical physical appearance
support. The does not correlate with
association between criminal propensity.
mesomorph body type
and criminal behavior
is not as strong or
direct as Sheldon Encouraging sports
suggested, making the and physical activities
theory less reliable as tailored to different
a predictor of criminal body types could be
behavior. used as a preventive
measure, promoting
self-esteem and
reducing aggression,
which can be a
component in criminal
behavior.

10.Theory on This theory posits The idea that criminal If genetic

Heredity in Crime that criminal behavior can be predispositions to
behavior can be inherited carries certain behaviors are
inherited. The significant ethical identified, interventions
belief is that implications, could be designed to
certain genetic potentially leading to address these risks
traits predispose stigmatization and early in life, potentially
individuals to discrimination against preventing the
unlawful behavior. individuals based on development of
their genetic criminal behavior.
background.
Understanding the
Modern genetic hereditary aspects of
research has shown crime could influence
that no single gene policies related to
determines criminal rehabilitation, where
behavior. Instead, a genetically
complex interplay of predisposed
multiple genes and individuals might
environmental receive more tailored
influences affects rehabilitation programs
behavior. focusing on their
specific needs.
11.Chromosomes Men with an extra Focusing heavily on Medical assessments
and Crime Y chromosome chromosomal could include genetic
were once thought differences risks screenings for
to be more overlooking the individuals at risk,
aggressive and significant roles that allowing for early
prone to upbringing, social intervention and
criminality, though environment, and support.
subsequent personal choice play in
research has behavior.
largely debunked
this notion, Educational and
suggesting that correctional institutions
any correlations The early hype about could develop
are minimal at chromosomal links to specialized care and
best. crime led to management
stigmatizing individuals strategies for
with certain individuals with known
chromosomal chromosomal
configurations. Such conditions that may
biological determinism impact their behavior.
can lead to fatalistic
attitudes toward those
individuals and
potentially unjust
treatments or
interventions.

12.Twin Studies Higher Even though twin Insights from twin

and Crime concordance rates studies are powerful in studies can help in
for criminal activity distinguishing genetic genetic counseling,
among identical influences, they can providing information
twins than still suffer from about the heritability of
fraternal, confounding variables antisocial behaviors
suggesting a such as shared and informing family
genetic environments (for planning or early
component to twins raised together) intervention strategies.
criminal behavior, that can skew results.
though the This makes it difficult Data from twin studies
environment also to isolate purely can improve the
plays a crucial genetic factors. accuracy of risk
role. assessment tools used
Twins, particularly in the criminal justice
monozygotic or system by
identical twins, incorporating genetic
represent a unique influences into
genetic and prenatal evaluations of an
environment that may individual’s likelihood
not be generalizable to to engage in criminal
the broader population. activity.
Their shared
experiences might
amplify certain traits in
ways that are atypical
 compared to the
general population.

13. Adoption These studies Adoption studies can Findings from adoption
Studies and have shown that encounter the issue of studies can inform
Crime adopted children selective placement, support systems for
sometimes exhibit where children are adoptive families,
criminal behaviors placed in homes focusing on
more similar to similar in environmental factors
their biological socio-economic status, that mitigate inherited
parents than to values, and even risks for antisocial
their adoptive ethnic backgrounds to behavior.
parents, their biological parents.
highlighting a This can create an Social services can
genetic influence. environment that use insights from
mimetically reflects the adoption studies to
biological parents' prioritize and tailor
conditions, potentially interventions that focus
confounding results. on both the biological
and environmental
Another limitation is aspects of adoptees’
the variability in access lives.
to information about
biological parents. In
some cases, detailed
histories might not be
available, leading to
incomplete data on the
biological parents'
criminal behavior or
other relevant genetic
factors

14.Biosocial These theories Biosocial theories Biosocial theories

Theories integrate biological require integrating support the
and social factors disciplines (biology, development of
to explain criminal psychology, sociology) treatment programs
behavior. that have very different that integrate
methodologies and psychological therapy
assumptions. with social and
biological
While biosocial interventions, such as
theories acknowledge medication and family
the interaction therapy.
between biological and
social factors, they These theories can
often fail to clearly inform educational
specify how these reforms that
interactions occur, emphasize the
making the theories importance of a
difficult to test and nurturing environment,
apply practically. particularly for children
showing early signs of
 biosocial stress.

15.Biochemical These theories While certain Understanding the

Theories focus on the role biochemical biochemical
of biochemical imbalances have been underpinnings of
regulation in correlated with behavior can lead to
behavior. Factors increased aggression the use of specific
like or impulsivity, proving medications to treat
neurotransmitter that these imbalances individuals prone to
imbalances, cause criminal aggression or
hormonal behavior is more impulsivity.
variations, or challenging.
nutritional Programs that
deficiencies are Biochemical theories encourage dietary and
examined for their sometimes overlook lifestyle changes could
potential to the significant be implemented within
influence individual variability in communities and
aggressive or responses to correctional settings to
criminal behavior. biochemical states. mitigate biochemical
Two individuals with imbalances that
similar biochemical contribute to criminal
profiles might exhibit behavior.
vastly different
behaviors based on
other psychological or
environmental factors

16. Psychoanalytic Psychoanalytic theory Psychoanalytic

Psychoanalytic theory suggests is often criticized for its concepts can be
Theory that criminal lack of empirical applied in therapy to
behavior may support and testability. address unresolved
stem from Many of Freud’s childhood issues that
unresolved concepts (such as the may manifest as
internal conflicts, id, ego, and superego) criminal behavior in
often originating in are seen as abstract adulthood.
childhood and difficult to
measure, which Psychoanalysis can
challenges their inform rehabilitation
validity in scientific programs that focus on
research. understanding the
unconscious motives
This can lead to a behind criminal
deterministic view of behavior, aiding in
behavior based solely more effective
on childhood without treatment and
acknowledging reduction of recidivism.
ongoing
developmental
changes and
adaptability.
17.Attachment emphasizes the Critics suggest that Early childhood
Theory importance of Attachment Theory's education and support
early emphasis on early programs: Investing in
caregiver-child experiences and high-quality early
relationships in internal working childhood education
shaping emotional models may imply a and support programs
bonds and deterministic view of that provide parents
psychological human development, with resources,
development potentially overlooking guidance, and skills to
throughout life. the role of later enhance their
The theory experiences and caregiving abilities can
suggests that the interventions in promote secure
quality of these shaping attachment attachments and
early attachments patterns. positive child
influences an development
individual's social, Some critics argue that outcomes.
emotional, and Attachment Theory's
cognitive application in clinical Early childhood
functioning settings, such as education and support
psychotherapy or programs: Investing in
child-rearing practices, high-quality early
may be oversimplified childhood education
or misinterpreted, and support programs
leading to ineffective that provide parents
interventions or with resources,
unnecessary guidance, and skills to
pathologizing of enhance their
attachment behaviors caregiving abilities can
promote secure
attachments and
positive child
development
outcomes.

18.Mental the relationship Critics argue that considering individual

Disorders and between mental focusing on mental and contextual factors
Crime disorder and crime illness as a primary that contribute to both
is complex and risk factor for crime mental health
multifaceted, overlooks other problems and criminal
involving important factors, such behavior, as well as
interactions as substance abuse, addressing systemic
between poverty, and social issues such as stigma,
individual, disadvantage, which access to mental
biological, may play a more health services, and
psychological, and significant role in social inequalities
social factors. criminal behavior
Policies and
some critiques point interventions should
out the limitations of prioritize promoting
using broad diagnostic mental health and
categories of mental well-being, early
disorder to predict or identification and
explain criminal treatment of mental
 behavior, as mental illness, and providing
illness encompasses a support and resources
wide range of to individuals at risk of
conditions with varying or involved in the
degrees of severity criminal justice
and impact on system.
behavior.

19.Behavioral Emphasizes the The use of behavior Behavior Modification:

Theory role of learned modification Behavioral theory
behaviors in techniques, such as suggests that behavior
shaping human punishment or can be modified
actions. coercion, raises ethical through reinforcement,
concerns about punishment, and
autonomy, dignity, and modeling. This has
potential harm to implications for
individuals, particularly interventions aimed at
when used in changing problematic
institutional or coercive behaviors, such as
settings. addiction, phobias, and
antisocial behavior.
Critics argue that
behavioral theory Education and
oversimplifies human Training:
behavior by focusing Understanding
solely on observable behavioral principles
actions while can inform teaching
neglecting cognitive and training methods,
processes, emotions, such as using positive
and social context, reinforcement to
which also play encourage desired
significant roles in behaviors in
shaping behavior. educational settings or
workplaces.

20.Cognitive focuses on how Some critics suggest Therapeutic

Theory thoughts, beliefs, that findings from Interventions:
and perceptions cognitive research Cognitive-behavioral
influence behavior conducted in controlled therapy (CBT), based
and emotions. laboratory settings on cognitive theory, is
may not always widely used in treating
generalize to various mental health
real-world situations, disorders, including
where behavior is depression, anxiety,
influenced by complex and PTSD. It helps
and dynamic individuals identify and
interactions among challenge maladaptive
multiple factors. thought patterns and
develop coping
Critics argue that strategies.
cognitive theory may
oversimplify human Educational Strategies:
behavior by focusing Understanding
 primarily on internal cognitive processes
cognitive processes can inform educational
while neglecting the practices, such as
influence of social, providing scaffolding
cultural, and and feedback to
environmental factors, support learning,
as well as unconscious teaching metacognitive
processes, emotions, strategies for
and motivation. problem-solving, and
promoting critical
thinking skills.

21.Social Just focus on the Some critiques include Providing quality

Structure Theory reasons why its oversimplified view education and
lower-class of urban development, resources to
teenagers commit neglect of social disadvantaged
crimes more factors, and limited communities can
frequently than applicability to diverse empower individuals
middle-and cities and cultures. and increase their
upper-class Critics argue that it chances of success,
youngster. doesn't adequately reducing the likelihood
Youngster from address the of engaging in criminal
middle and higher complexities of urban activities.
class do commit dynamics, such as
crimes ,but these gentrification, racial Policies aimed at
crimes are often segregation, and the reducing income and
less serious than influence of wealth inequality can
those perpetrated government policies. help create more
by youths from Additionally, it's been equitable opportunities
lower-classes. criticized for assuming for all members of
Social structure a linear progression of society, potentially
studies aim to urban growth, which reducing feelings of
clarify issues like doesn't always match resentment and
inequality trends reality. alienation that may
and integration. lead to criminal
behavior.

22.Social Crime is a product One criticism is that it Social disorganization

Disorganization of transitional tends to focus too theory are targeting for
Theory neighborhoods much on the change those
that manifest characteristics of ecological factors that
social neighborhoods and relate to cohesion and
disorganization neglects control or collective
and value conflict. individual-level factors efficacy. This promotes
Focuses on the that contribute to neighborhood
conditions within crime. Critics argue cohesion and informal
the urban that it overlooks the social control.
environment that agency of individuals
affect crime rates. and their ability to The government can
A disorganized resist or engage in also reduce crime by
area is one in criminal behavior providing economic
which institutions regardless of their and social supports
of social control - environment. through publicly funded
 such as the family, Additionally, some social support and
commercial researchers question welfare programs.
establishment, the theory's
and school -have applicability across
broken down and different cultural and
can no longer historical contexts, as
carry out their it was primarily
functions. developed based on
observations in early
20th-century urban
America.

23.Concentric Crime is product of Some critiques include Constitutional rights for

Zone Theory transitional its oversimplified view equality to different
neighborhoods of urban development, right of individual
that manifest neglect of social (Sec.1 Phil.
social factors, and limited Constitution)
disorganization applicability to diverse
and value conflict cities and cultures. Act No. 8371
Critics argue that it Indigenous Peoples
doesn't adequately Rights Act of 1997
address the which aims to
complexities of urban Recognize, Protect
dynamics, such as and Promote the
gentrification, racial Rights of Indigenous
segregation, and the Peoples (ICCs/IPS)
influence of and for other
government policies. Purposes.
Additionally, it's been
criticized for assuming
a linear progression of
urban growth, which
doesn't always match
reality

24.Strain posits that Some critics argue that Addressing Structural

Theories individuals may Strain Theory provides Inequalities: Policies
turn to deviant a narrow explanation aimed at reducing
behavior when for deviant behavior, structural inequalities,
they experience a primarily focusing on such as poverty,
disjunction economic goals and unemployment, and
between their opportunities. It may educational disparities,
culturally overlook other can help alleviate
prescribed goals motivations for strain and provide
and the means deviance, such as individuals with more
available to thrill-seeking, peer legitimate opportunities
achieve them. influence, or to achieve their goals.
psychological factors.
Enhancing Social
Critics suggest that Support: Providing
Strain Theory may not social support
adequately account for networks, community
cultural variations in resources, and
 aspirations, values, mentorship programs
and modes of can help individuals
adaptation to strain. cope with strain and
What constitutes navigate challenges in
success and the achieving their goals.
means to achieve it
can vary across
cultures and
subcultures, affecting
the applicability of the
theory

It explains how
25. Robert societal pressures 1.Limited focus on 1.Criminological
Merton’s Theory to achieve structural factors: Research: Merton's
of Anomie success can lead Some critics argue that theory has been
to criminal Merton's theory places extensively used in
behavior. Anomie too much emphasis on criminological research
refers to a individual responses to to examine the
breakdown in the strain while relationship between
norms regulating overlooking broader societal structure,
behavior. When structural issues such cultural goals, and
society as inequality, crime.
emphasizes discrimination, and
material success institutional barriers. 2.Policy Development:
but provides The insights provided
limited legitimate 2.Neglect of by Merton's theory
means to achieve non-economic forms of have informed the
it, individuals strain: Merton's theory development of social
experience strain. primarily focuses on policies aimed at
economic strain addressing the root
resulting from the causes of crime.
disjunction between
cultural goals and
institutionalized
means.

The Institutional
26.Institutional Anomie Theory, 1.Overemphasis on 1.Criminology and
Anomie Theory formulated by economic factors: Sociology: IAT has
Steven Messner Some critics argue that been utilized
and Richard IAT places excessive extensively in
Rosenfeld, emphasis on the criminology and
suggests that economy as the sociology to examine
crime is influenced primary determinant of the relationship
by the dominance societal values and between institutional
of the economy in norms structures, cultural
society, which values, and crime
prioritizes material 2.Limited applicability rates.
success above across cultures: Critics
other values. This suggest that IAT may 2.Policy Development:
economic not be universally The insights provided
dominance leads applicable across by IAT have
to individualism, different cultural implications for policy
weakens social contexts development aimed at
 controls, reducing crime and
undermines social inequality.
non-economic
institutions, and
creates a culture
that emphasizes
personal
achievement over
collective
well-being.
It suggests that
27.General Strain individuals 1Limited scope of 1.Criminology and
Theory experience strain strain sources: Some Sociology: GST has
when they critics argue that GST been extensively
encounter primarily focuses on applied in criminology
circumstances individual-level and sociology to
they perceive as experiences of strain, explain the relationship
unjust or such as failure to between strain and
undesirable, which achieve goals or criminal behavior.
can result in negative life events,
negative emotions 2.Policy Development:
like anger or 2.Inadequate GST has implications
frustration. Strain explanation of coping for policy development
can arise from mechanisms: While aimed at reducing
failure to achieve GST identifies strain crime and promoting
valued goals, loss as a precursor to social justice.
of valued stimuli, criminal behavior, it
or exposure to provides limited insight
negative stimuli. into how individuals
cope with strain.

28.Cultural Cultural Deviance 1.Simplification of 1.Criminology and

Deviance Theory Theory proposes cultural influence: Sociology: Cultural
that certain Critics argue that Deviance Theory has
cultural factors Cultural Deviance been extensively
within Theory may applied in criminology
disadvantaged oversimplify the and sociology to
communities can influence of culture on examine how cultural
lead to higher crime by focusing norms and values
crime rates. It solely on subcultural within marginalized or
suggests that values within subcultural groups
subcultures disadvantaged influence criminal
develop within communities. behavior.
these
communities, 2.Stigmatization of 2.Policy Development:
characterized by disadvantaged Cultural Deviance
values and norms communities: Some Theory has
that differ from critics caution that implications for policy
those of Cultural Deviance development aimed at
mainstream Theory runs the risk of addressing crime and
society. These perpetuating social inequality within
subcultures often stereotypes and culturally diverse
promote behaviors stigmatizing communities.
that are disadvantaged
considered communities by
 deviant or criminal associating their
by wider society cultural values with
but may be seen criminal behavior.
as necessary or
acceptable within
the community.

Individuals from
29. Culture diverse cultural 1.Simplification of 1.Sociology and
conflict theory backgrounds may cultural dynamics: Cultural Studies:
have conflicting Some critics argue that Culture Conflict Theory
perceptions of Culture Conflict Theory has been extensively
what constitutes oversimplifies the used in sociology and
acceptable complexities of cultural cultural studies to
behavior. interactions and analyze the clashes
conflicts within society. between different
cultural groups within
2.Neglect of structural society.
factors: Critics suggest
that Culture Conflict 2.Interethnic Relations
Theory may focus too and Diversity
narrowly on cultural Management: Culture
conflicts while Conflict Theory informs
neglecting broader efforts to manage
structural factors such interethnic relations
as socioeconomic and promote diversity
inequality, institutional within organizations
discrimination, and and communities.
political power
imbalances.

30. Focal A certain 1.Oversimplification of 1.Criminology and

Concern theory lower-class subcultural values: Deviance Studies:
subcultures Some critics argue that Focal Concerns
prioritize specific Focal Concern Theory Theory has been
concerns or values oversimplifies the widely used in
that influence their values and concerns of criminology and
involvement in lower-class deviance studies to
crime. These focal subcultures by explain patterns of
concerns include reducing them to a few delinquency and
toughness, key focal concerns criminal behavior,
smartness, such as toughness, particularly among
excitement, fate, smartness, and lower-class individuals.
autonomy, and excitement.
trouble. 2.outh Development
2.Neglect of structural and Education: Focal
factors: Critics suggest Concerns Theory
that Focal Concern informs youth
Theory neglects development programs
broader structural and educational
factors such as interventions aimed at
poverty, discrimination, addressing risk factors
and social inequality, for delinquency and
which contribute to the promoting positive
formation of youth outcomes.
 subcultural values and
norms.

31.Subculture This theory posits Some point out that the Understanding
Theory that certain subculture theory subcultures can help in
subcultures within might ignore the role of designing targeted
society develop individuals in criminal interventions and
norms, values, behavior and reduce to programs that address
and beliefs that difficult social the root causes of
are at odds with processes.Additionally, criminal behavior
mainstream it may not fully explain within specific
culture, leading to why not all individuals communities. It can
criminal behavior. in a subculture engage also inform policies
Individuals may in criminal activities. aimed at reducing
adopt these social inequalities that
subcultural values, contribute to
especially if they subcultural formation.
face social and
economic
marginalization.

32.Differential This theory, Some observers argue Interventions based on

Opportunity proposed by that the theory could this theory focus on
Theory Cloward and ignore other factors, creating more
Ohlin, suggests such as personal equitable opportunities
that access to preference and for individuals,
illegitimate psychological issues, especially those from
opportunities plays that influence crime.It marginalized
a crucial role in also assumes a communities. Job
shaping criminal deterministic training programs,
behavior. relationship between educational initiatives,
Individuals from opportunity structures and community
disadvantaged and criminal behavior. development projects
backgrounds may can be designed to
lack access to provide alternative
legitimate pathways away from
opportunities for crime.
success, leading
them to pursue
criminal pathways.

33.Social Social learning The individual explain This theory informs

Learning Theory theory, proposed that social learning strategies for
by Albert Bandura, theory may overlook intervention and
emphasizes how biological and genetic prevention by targeting
individuals learn influences on behavior. social environments
behavior through It also does not fully that promote criminal
observation, account for individual behavior. Programs
imitation, and differences in learning focusing on positive
reinforcement. and behavior. role modeling,
Criminal behavior mentoring, and
can be learned skill-building can
and reinforced counteract negative
 through influences and
interactions with promote pro-social
peers, family behavior.
members, and
media influences.

34.Differential Edwin Those who disagree Interventions based on

Association Sutherland's maintain that despite this theory focus on
Theory theory proposes exposure, this theory disrupting negative
that criminal might not be able to social influences and
behavior is explain why some providing positive
learned through people reject criminal alternatives.
interactions with influences.. It also Community programs,
others who does not address the mentoring initiatives,
provide definitions role of individual and educational
favorable to law characteristics and interventions can
violation. motivations in criminal challenge criminal
Individuals are behavior. norms and promote
more likely to prosocial values.
engage in crime if
they associate
with people who
justify and
encourage such
behavior.

35.Differential This theory, The theory may Interventions based on

Reinforcement proposed by oversimplify the this theory focus on
Theory Burgess and complexity of human altering reinforcement
Akers, behavior by focusing structures to
emphasizes how solely on discourage criminal
behavior is reinforcement behavior. This includes
reinforced or mechanisms. It also implementing swift and
punished through may not fully explain certain consequences
rewards and why individuals for criminal acts,
punishments. engage in risky or providing positive
Criminal behavior harmful behaviors reinforcement for
is more likely to despite potential pro-social behavior,
continue if it is negative and restructuring social
positively consequences. environments to
reinforced or if promote positive
negative norms.
consequences are
not consistently
applied.

36.Neutralization Neutralization The theory may not Understanding

Theory theory, proposed fully account for the neutralization
by Sykes and diversity of motivations techniques can inform
Matza, suggests behind criminal strategies for
that individuals behavior. It also raises addressing cognitive
use techniques of ethical questions about distortions and
 neutralization to the extent to which justifications
rationalize or individuals can justify associated with
justify their harmful actions criminal behavior.
criminal actions. through neutralization Cognitive-behavioral
These techniques techniques. interventions,
include denial of counseling, and
responsibility, rehabilitation programs
denial of injury, can target these
denial of the techniques to promote
victim, accountability and
condemnation of responsible
the condemners, decision-making.
and appeal to
higher loyalties.

37.Social Control Social control The theory may Interventions based on

Theory theory suggests overlook structural social control theory
that strong social factors that contribute focus on strengthening
bonds and to crime, such as social bonds and
attachments to poverty and inequality. supportive
conventional It also does not fully environments to
institutions (such explain why individuals prevent crime. This
as family, school, with strong social includes family support
and community) bonds may still engage programs, community
deter individuals in criminal behavior. policing initiatives, and
from engaging in educational
criminal behavior. interventions that
Weak social bonds foster positive social
increase the connections and
likelihood of attachments.
deviance and
crime.

38.General The general theory The idea might simplify Interventions based on
Theory of Crime of crime, proposed difficult relationships this theory focus on
by Gottfredson between personal enhancing self-control
and Hirschi, characteristics and through behavioral
suggests that low other factors that interventions,
self-control is the influence criminal cognitive-behavioral
primary factor behavior. It also raises therapy, and
contributing to questions about the skill-building programs.
criminal behavior. extent to which Early intervention
Individuals with self-control alone can efforts targeting youth
low self-control are explain all types of at risk of developing
more impulsive, crime. low self-control traits
risk-taking, and can be particularly
prone to seeking effective in preventing
immediate future criminal
gratification, behavior.
leading to a higher
likelihood of
engaging in
 criminal acts.

39. Containment The containment It lacks in providing a 1. Juvenile Justice

Theory theory proposes comprehensive Systems: Containment
that there are two explanation for the theory has influenced
main types of entire range of the design and
controls that delinquency and implementation of
prevent individuals criminal behavior. For juvenile justice
from engaging in instance, it fails to systems. It
criminal activities:account for instances emphasizes the
inner self-controls of crime or importance of
and outer social delinquency that stem establishing and
controls. from intense internal strengthening external
motivations, such as social controls, such as
Both inner compulsions, family support,
self-controls and hallucinations, and education, and
outer social personality disorders, community programs,
controls are as well as those to prevent delinquent
strong, they work resulting from organic behavior. Juvenile
together to prevent impairments. justice policies and
individuals from programs often
succumbing to It does not adequately incorporate these
criminal explain criminal or principles to provide
temptations or delinquent activities support and
external that are considered to intervention for at-risk
pressures. The be a normal and youth.
presence of these expected part of roles
controls creates a and behaviors within 2. School-Based
psychological subculturally deviant Interventions: Schools
"containment" that families and play a critical role in
inhibits the communities. implementing
individual's containment strategies.
inclination or By providing a
ability to commit structured and
crimes. supportive
environment, schools
can act as a
containment
mechanism that helps
prevent delinquency.
Programs promoting
positive school
climates, effective
discipline methods,
and student
engagement align with
containment theory
principles.

40. Social Bond The social bond 1.The Social Control 1. Crime Prevention
Theory theory suggests Theory has been Programs: The Social
that when people criticized because it Bond Theory suggests
have strong only focuses on that strengthening
connections with external things like social bonds and
others, like family, relationships with attachments can
friends, and family and society, and reduce the likelihood of
people in their it doesn't take into individuals engaging in
community, they account important delinquent behavior.
are more likely to factors like personal This insight has
follow the choices, influenced the
unwritten rules of impulsiveness, and development of crime
society. These independence that can prevention programs
bonds act like influence why people that aim to enhance
agreements that commit crimes. positive social
people learn to relationships and
respect and follow. For example, some connections. These
On the other hand, people may have a programs often focus
those who don't biological tendency to on promoting family
have these strong engage in violent support, community
connections may behavior because their involvement, and
be more likely to brain chemicals, like positive peer
engage in criminal serotonin and influences to prevent
behavior because dopamine, are not individuals, particularly
they don't feel as working properly. This youth, from engaging
obligated to follow can lead them to make in criminal activities.
these rules. quick and thoughtless
decisions, like using 2. Rehabilitation and
illegal drugs. Reintegration: The
Researchers have also theory's emphasis on
found that a gene social bonds and
called MAOA can attachments has also
predict aggressive influenced efforts to
behaviors in people rehabilitate and
(Paul, 2020). reintegrate individuals
who have been
2.Another problem with involved in criminal
the Social Control activities.
Theory is that it doesn't Rehabilitation
explain why programs in
white-collar crimes correctional settings
happen. White-collar often focus on
crimes are when developing pro-social
people who work in skills, fostering positive
professional jobs use relationships, and
their power or position providing support
to make money systems to help
illegally. These crimes, individuals reintegrate
like hiding money or into society
cheating in healthcare, successfully. By
are not violent. strengthening social
bonds, these programs
Even though aim to reduce
white-collar workers recidivism rates.
may have strong
commitments to their
jobs and good
relationships with their
colleagues, they still
 choose to break the
law and commit
crimes.

41. Labeling The theory of 1.It doesn't take into 1. Juvenile justice
Theory labeling suggests account important system: The labeling
that when society things like how people theory has had an
assigns labels to are brought up, their impact on policies and
individuals or beliefs, and the practices within the
specific groups, it chances they have in juvenile justice system.
can influence their life, which can all It emphasizes the
behavior. This influence why they do importance of diverting
theory, which has things that are young offenders away
been examined in considered bad. from formal processing
the fields of and labeling, as the
sociology, 2. It's not completely negative
criminology, and clear if labeling consequences of being
psychology, someone as a criminal labeled can create a
demonstrates that actually makes them self-fulfilling prophecy,
labeling someone more likely to keep leading to continued
as a criminal can doing bad things. criminal behavior.
result in negative When people who Restorative justice
behavior. have been in prison programs that focus on
before end up going rehabilitation and
back, it might be community-based
because they have interventions, rather
made friends with than punishment, align
other criminals, and with the principles of
being around them the labeling theory.
increases the chances
that they will have 2. Criminal justice
more chances to reform: The labeling
commit crimes. It's theory has contributed
very likely that both to discussions on
labeling someone as a reforming the criminal
criminal and being justice system and the
around other criminals need to reduce mass
make it more likely that incarceration.
they will keep doing Recognizing that
bad things. labeling individuals as
criminals can have
long-lasting detrimental
effects on their lives,
advocates of criminal
justice reform propose
alternatives such as
diversion programs,
drug courts, and
community-based
corrections that aim to
prevent the negative
consequences
associated with formal
 labeling.

42. Conflict Conflict theory 1.It often fails to 1. Power Dynamics in

Theories provides an recognize the Criminal Justice
understanding of importance of working System: Conflict theory
crime by together and reaching helps analyze the
emphasizing the agreement in social power dynamics within
role of inequality in interactions. While the criminal justice
society. According conflicts and power system. It highlights
to this theory, struggles do occur, how those in power,
crime is not just an social relationships are such as law
individual choice not solely driven by enforcement agencies,
or a result of competition for prosecutors, and
personal resources. judges, may use their
characteristics, but Cooperation and authority to maintain
rather a product of agreement play control and perpetuate
the unequal significant roles in social inequalities. This
distribution of shaping how people perspective sheds light
wealth, power, and interact with each on how legal
resources among other and maintaining processes can be
different groups. stability in societies. influenced by social,
However, conflict economic, and political
In society, there theory tends to factors, leading to
are those who overlook or unequal treatment and
possess oversimplify these outcomes for different
significant wealth aspects. social groups.
and hold positions
of power, often 2.Another criticism is 2. Structural Inequality
referred to as the that conflict theory can and Crime: Conflict
elite. These sometimes theory examines how
individuals may oversimplify the structural inequalities
engage in criminal diverse experiences contribute to criminal
behavior as a within social groups. It behavior. It
means to tends to see social emphasizes that
accumulate more groups as uniform individuals from
wealth or maintain entities, disregarding marginalized or
their dominant the internal dynamics disadvantaged groups
status. For and complexities that may engage in criminal
example, they may exist within them. This activities as a response
commit fraud, oversimplification can to the unequal
engage in limit our understanding distribution of
corporate of the many different resources and
corruption, or factors that contribute opportunities in
participate in other to social inequalities society. For example,
illegal activities to and can make it poverty, limited access
increase their difficult to effectively to quality education,
financial gains. address these issues. and lack of
employment
On the other hand, opportunities can
there are those increase the likelihood
who face financial of criminal involvement
struggles and among economically
limited disadvantaged
opportunities,
 commonly referred individuals.
to as the poor.
These individuals
may resort to
criminal behavior
as a way to
alleviate their
economic
hardships. They
might engage in
activities such as
theft, drug dealing,
or other illegal
means to acquire
necessary
resources or
improve their
financial situation.

43. Marxist The main idea of One critique of the 1 criminal behavior and
Theory Marxist Marxist theory of crime doesn't take into
criminology is that is that it gives too account other aspects
crime is caused by much importance to of human life that can
massive wealth economic relationships shape our actions.
inequality. A and ignores other
minority holds factors that influence 2.Another criticism of
most of the wealth. how people behave. In traditional Marxism is
The majority other words, it focuses that it is seen as too
engages in crime too much on how deterministic.
to obtain wealth money and resources Determinism means
and the minority affect criminal behavior that it believes people's
engages in crimes and doesn't take into actions are solely
such as violence account other aspects determined by external
to keep wealth. of human life that can factors, such as their
shape our actions. social class or
economic
circumstances, without
considering individual
Another criticism of agency or free will.
traditional Marxism is Neo-Marxism, on the
that it is seen as too other hand, addresses
deterministic. this concern by holding
Determinism means working-class criminals
that it believes accountable for their
people's actions are actions. It
solely determined by acknowledges that
external factors, such while societal factors
as their social class or may contribute to
economic criminal behavior,
circumstances, without individuals still have
considering individual the ability to make
agency or free will. choices and should be
Neo-Marxism, on the responsible for their
other hand, addresses
 this concern by holding actions.
working-class
criminals accountable
for their actions. It
acknowledges that
while societal factors
may contribute to
criminal behavior,
individuals still have
the ability to make
choices and should be
responsible for their
actions.

44. Critical Critical 1. Overemphasis on 1. Social Policy

Criminology criminology social structure: Critics Development: Critical
believes that crime argue that critical criminology informs the
is caused by the criminology focuses development of social
mistreatment and too much on social policies aimed at
exploitation of structures and doesn't addressing the root
workers, give enough causes of crime. By
especially those importance to focusing on underlying
who are extremely individual choices and social and economic
poor. It also personal factors, it emphasizes
focuses on how characteristics that the importance of
certain groups in contribute to criminal poverty reduction,
society, like behavior. They believe education, employment
women and ethnic that factors like a opportunities, and
minorities, are person's own traits, access to social
more likely to face thoughts, and services as crime
unfair treatment decision-making prevention strategies.
and oppressive should also be
social considered when 2. Understanding
relationships studying crime. Crime Trends: Critical
because of factors criminology provides
like social class, 2. Lack of empirical insights into the social
sexism, and evidence: Critics argue and economic factors
racism. In simpler that critical criminology that contribute to crime
terms, critical sometimes relies more trends. It helps
criminology on theoretical researchers and
suggests that frameworks and policymakers
crime is a result of assumptions rather understand patterns of
how society treats than solid empirical crime, such as the
marginalized evidence. They relationship between
people, and that suggest that some poverty, inequality, and
those who are critical criminologists certain types of
already prioritize promoting criminal behavior. This
disadvantaged are their theoretical understanding can
more likely to perspectives rather guide the development
experience these than conducting of targeted
unjust social thorough empirical interventions and
dynamics. research to test their prevention strategies.
ideas.
45. Letf Realism Left realism is a 1. Neglect of agency 1. Community-based
perspective within and free will: Critics crime prevention: Left
criminology that claim that Left Realism realism emphasizes
focuses on the theory tends to the importance of
examination of downplay the role of involving local
marginalization, individual agency and communities in crime
oppression, and free will in criminal prevention efforts. It
excessive policing behavior. By primarily recognizes that
as crucial focusing on structural communities are best
contributors to factors, the theory may placed to understand
criminal behavior. overlook the choices and address the
It is supported by and decisions made by specific crime
left idealism, which individuals that lead to problems they face.
holds the view that criminal acts. This Real-life applications of
societal factors at criticism argues that left realism often
a larger scale individuals have the involve
influence and ability to make rational community-based
provoke criminal choices and should be initiatives such as
activities at the held accountable for neighborhood watch
individual level. their actions. programs, community
Left realists policing, and
contend that 2. Political bias: Critics community outreach
societal influences also argue that Left projects. By
such as economic Realism theory is empowering
systems and influenced by a communities to take an
power dynamics left-wing political active role in
have a agenda. They claim preventing crime,
disproportionately that the theory tends to these initiatives can
adverse effect on downplay or ignore help build trust, reduce
individuals who factors that do not fear, and improve
are economically align with its overall safety.
disadvantaged, ideological framework,
disabled, racially potentially 2. Victim-centered
marginalized, or disregarding approaches: Left
marginalized alternative realism emphasizes
based on their explanations for crime. the experiences and
gender or This criticism suggests needs of victims of
sexuality. As a that a more balanced crime. In real-life
result, criminal and objective analysis applications, this
conduct is seen as of crime should perspective has
a reaction that consider a wider range influenced the
emerges due to of perspectives. development of
these victim-centered
circumstances. policies and practices
within the criminal
justice system. For
example, restorative
justice programs,
which aim to repair
harm caused by crime
through dialogue and
reconciliation between
victims, offenders, and
the community, are
 influenced by left
realist ideas. These
programs prioritize the
needs and
perspectives of victims,
allowing them to have
a voice in the justice
process and facilitating
their healing and
recovery.

1. Essentialism 1.Challenging Power

46.Critical It emphasizes how Critique: Some critics Dynamics : Critical
Feminism systems of argue that Critical Feminism encourages
oppression, such Feminism Theory critical examination of
as patriarchy and tends to essentialize power dynamics that
sexism, can gender, portraying perpetuate
influence women as inherently gender-based violence
individuals' actions virtuous victims and and inequality, both
and choices, as men as inherently within communities
well as shape oppressive and within institutions
criminal justice perpetrators. such as law
policies and enforcement and the
practices. 2. Lack of judiciary
Intersectionality: While
. Critical Feminism 2. Gender-Sensitive
Theory highlights the Policy and
gendered or sexual Programming: Critical
dimensions of social Feminism highlights
issues, it may not the gendered
always adequately dimensions of crime
address the and criminal justice,
intersecting forms of emphasizing the
oppression that importance of
individuals may face. gender-sensitive
approaches to policy
development and
programming.
1. Gender-Responsive
47.Power Control Social class and -The theory may not Interventions: Power
Theory gender play a adequately consider Control Theory
significant role in broader suggests that
determining socio-economic factors gendered socialization
criminal behavior and structural and power dynamics
inequalities that within families
influence delinquent influence individuals'
behavior likelihood of engaging
in criminal behavior.
-It emphasize on
gender differences in 2.Policy and Advocacy
power dynamics and Efforts: Power Control
subsequent Theory underscores
delinquency can be the importance of
criticized for broader social
structures and
 overgeneralization. inequalities in shaping
individuals'
opportunities and
behavior .
Peacemaking 1. Impracticality in 1.Community-Based
48.Peacemaking criminology is a Application: the Conflict Resolution:
Criminology theory that peacemaking Peacemaking
encourages social perspective, with its encourages community
justice, focus on nonviolent involvement and
nonviolence, and responses and empowerment in
restorative justice reconciliation, can be addressing conflict and
rather than too idealistic and promoting social
traditional punitive challenging to harmony.
methods. implement in criminal 2.Peacemaking
justice systems that emphasizes the
are often punitive and importance of repairing
adversarial. harm and restoring
2Lack of Empirical relationships, which
Support: The theory is aligns closely with
often criticized for its restorative justice
lack of empirical principles.
evidence. Because it is
more of a philosophy
than a testable theory,
it can be difficult to
measure its
effectiveness or its
practical application in
reducing crime.
Restorative justice 1. It may not be 1. Victim-offender
49.Restorative focuses on suitable for all types of mediation: This
Justice repairing the harm crimes, especially process involves
caused by criminal serious and violent face-to-face meetings
behavior by offenses, as it may not between the victim and
involving all ensure public safety or the offender, often with
affected parties in address the full scope the assistance of a
a process of of harm caused. trained mediator, to
dialogue, 2. The voluntary nature discuss the crime, its
restitution, and of restorative justice impact, and ways to
reconciliation. may lead to achieve resolution.
inconsistent 2. Community service:
participation among Offenders participate in
victims and offenders, activities that
potentially resulting in contribute to the
unequal outcomes or community, making
experiences. amends by giving back
and understanding the
broader impact of their
actions.
Development 1. Development 1.Educational and
50.Developmental theory is a theories have been Skill-Building
Theories collection of criticized for being Initiatives:
theories about eurocentric, for not Development theory
how desirable taking into full account underscores the role of
 change in society the cultural diversity education and skill
is best achieved. and different historical development in
Such theories backgrounds of fostering positive youth
draw on a variety non-Western societies. development and
of social science 2. Theories may reducing the risk of
disciplines and oversimplify complex delinquency and crime.
approaches. development
processes, failing to
account for the
multifaceted and
nonlinear nature of
development, which
can involve setbacks
and unpredictable
changes.
Life course 1. Overemphasis on 1. Longitudinal
51. Life Course theory is used as a Linearity and Strategies for Crime
Theories backbone factor Predictability: Life Prevention: Life
throughout Course Theory often Course Theory aims
childhood is the portrays life the importance of
one parent trajectories as linear considering individuals'
household case in and predictable, life histories and
which studies suggesting that trajectories over time in
have shown cause individuals progress understanding their
a higher risk for through distinct stages involvement in crime.
criminal activity and transitions in a 2.Targeted
later in one's life. predetermined Interventions at Critical
sequence. Life Transitions: Life
2. Lack of Attention to Course Theory
Structural Factors: emphasizes the
Critics argue that Life significance of key life
Course Theory tends transitions, such as
to focus heavily on adolescence, young
individual-level factors adulthood, and major
such as personal life events, in shaping
choices, behaviors, individuals' trajectories
and life events, while of criminal behavior.
overlooking broader
structural factors that
suits people's life.
Interactional 1.Limited Attention to 1Tailored Approaches
52.Interactional theory starts with Structural Inequalities: to Offender
Theory the basic Interactional Theory Rehabilitation:
assumptions and often focuses on Interactional Theory
premises of a individual-level factors importance of
social control such as personality understanding the
theory of traits, socialization interplay between
delinquency of experiences, and individual
youth who are immediate social characteristics and
strongly bonded to environments, while social contexts in
conventional paying less attention to shaping criminal
society are broader structural behavior.
unlikely to have inequalities and 2.Integrated
the behavioral systemic factors that Intervention Strategies:
freedom to engage contribute to crime. Interactional Theory
 in delinquency, 2.Complexity of suggests that criminal
drug use, and Predictability: behavior results from
other problem Interactional Theory the interaction between
behaviors. suggests that criminal individual
behavior arises from characteristics and
the interplay between environmental factors.
individual
characteristics and
environmental fact.

53. Age Graded - It suggests that - Some critics argue - Criminal justice
Theory criminal behavior that the theory does interventions: The
is influenced by not adequately theory has been used
individual account for the to inform the
life-course factors. influence of social development of
According to this inequality and interventions and
theory, individuals economic factors on programs aimed at
who experience criminal behavior. reducing criminal
early-life risk behavior, particularly
factors, such as a - The theory has also among at-risk youth.
history of been criticized for its
delinquency or a limited applicability to - Policy development:
dysfunctional diverse populations The theory has
family, are more and cultures, as it was influenced policy
likely to engage in primarily developed discussions around
criminal behavior based on research early intervention and
later in life. The conducted in Western prevention strategies,
theory also societies. with an emphasis on
emphasizes the addressing risk factors
importance of in early childhood.
social bonds and
transitions,
suggesting that
positive life events
and social support
can reduce the
likelihood of
criminal
involvement.

54. Integrated - a theoretical - its focus on - a theoretical

Cognitive framework in individual-level factors framework in
Antisocial developmental and its limited developmental and
Potential and life-course consideration of life-course criminology
criminology that structural and societal that explains antisocial
explains antisocial factors that may and criminal behavior.
and criminal contribute to antisocial It distinguishes
behavior. It and criminal behavior. between long-term and
distinguishes short-term antisocial
between long-term potential, which are
and short-term influenced by various
antisocial - It does not factors such as strain,
potential, which adequately address modeling, socialization
are influenced by the role of social processes, and
 various factors inequality, poverty, and cognitive processes.
such as strain, systemic factors in
modeling, shaping individuals' - The theory proposes
socialization choices and that antisocial behavior
processes, and opportunities. is the result of the
cognitive Additionally, some interaction between the
processes. The argue that the theory individual and the
theory proposes may oversimplify the social environment,
that antisocial complex nature of with cognitive
behavior is the criminal behavior by processes playing a
result of the reducing it to rational determining role in
interaction decision-making decision-making and
between the processes. the rational choice to
individual and the engage in antisocial or
social criminal acts.
environment, with
cognitive
processes playing
a determining role
in decision-making
and the rational
choice to engage
in antisocial or
criminal acts.

55. General Strain -It suggests that - The theory has been - Juvenile justice
Theory of Crime individuals engage criticized for its limited interventions: The
and Delinquency in criminal focus on theory has been used
behavior as a individual-level factors to inform interventions
response to and neglecting larger and programs aimed at
negative emotions societal factors that reducing delinquency
resulting from contribute to strain. among at-risk youth.
strain or stress. These interventions
According to this - Critics argue that the focus on addressing
theory, strain can theory does not the underlying strains
arise from the account for the fact and providing
failure to achieve that not all individuals alternative coping
positively valued who experience strain mechanisms.
goals, the removal engage in criminal
of positively behavior, and that it - Policy development:
valued stimuli, or may underestimate the The theory has
the presence of role of rational influenced policy
negative stimuli. decision-making in discussions around
The strain can criminal choices. social support
lead to negative systems, economic
emotions such as opportunities, and
anger, frustration, reducing strain in
or depression, communities to prevent
which may then crime and delinquency.
motivate
individuals to
engage in criminal
or delinquent
behavior as a
 coping mechanism
or to seek relief.
The theory also
emphasizes the
role of individual
characteristics and
social factors in
shaping the
relationship
between strain
and crime.

56. Latent Trait - Individuals have - The theories have - Criminal profiling: The
Theories certain inherent been criticized for their theories have
traits or deterministic nature, influenced the
characteristics that as they imply that development of
predispose them individuals with certain criminal profiling
to engage in traits are destined to techniques, which aim
criminal behavior. become criminals. to identify individuals
These traits are with specific latent
believed to be - Critics also argue that traits associated with
stable and latent trait theories do criminal behavior.
unchanging over not account for the
time, and they can potential for change - Prevention and
influence an and development in intervention programs:
individual's individuals' behaviors The theories have
likelihood of and traits over time. been used to inform
committing a the development of
crime. The prevention and
theories suggest intervention programs
that individuals targeting individuals at
with certain latent risk of engaging in
traits, such as criminal behavior.
impulsivity, low These programs focus
self-control, or a on addressing and
propensity for modifying the
risk-taking, are underlying latent traits
more likely to associated with
engage in criminal criminality.
activities. These
traits are seen as
relatively fixed and
present from birth
or early childhood.

57. Differential - It suggests that - Critics argue that the - The Differential
Coercion Theory crime is a result of theory oversimplifies Coercion theory has
unequal the complex nature of been used to explain
distribution of crime and fails to various forms of crime,
power and account for individual including property
resources in agency and free will. crimes, drug offenses,
society. It argues and white-collar
that individuals - Some also criticize
 engage in criminal the theory for crimes.
behavior when neglecting the role of
they lack psychological factors - It has also been
legitimate in criminal behavior. applied in the field of
opportunities for criminology to develop
success. interventions and
policies aimed at
reducing crime rates
and addressing social
inequalities.

58. Control - It suggests that - The theory has been - Criminal justice
Balance Theory criminal behavior criticized for its limited interventions: The
occurs when applicability to diverse theory has been used
individuals populations and to inform the
experience an cultures, as it was development of
imbalance primarily developed interventions and
between their based on research programs aimed at
control and their conducted in Western strengthening social
control societies. bonds, enhancing
opportunities. self-control, and
According to this - Some critics argue reducing control
theory, control that the theory does opportunities for
refers to the social not fully consider the potential offenders.
constraints that role of motivation and
prevent individuals desire in criminal - Policy development:
from engaging in behavior, as The theory has
deviant or criminal individuals may still influenced policy
behavior, such as engage in deviant acts discussions around
social bonds, even when control is crime prevention
attachment to balanced. strategies, focusing on
conventional addressing social and
institutions, and structural factors that
internal contribute to control
self-control. imbalances and
Control criminal behavior.
opportunities, on
the other hand,
are the actual
chances or
opportunities
individuals have to
engage in criminal
behavior. When
there is a
mismatch between
control and control
opportunities,
individuals may be
more likely to
engage in criminal
acts.
59. Trajectory - It suggests that - The theory has been - Criminal justice
Theory criminal behavior criticized for its limitedinterventions: The
is not a one-time focus on theory has been used
event but rather a individual-level factors to inform the
pattern that and neglecting larger development of
develops and societal factors that interventions and
evolves over the contribute to crime. programs aimed at
course of an targeting specific
individual's life. - Critics argue that trajectories of criminal
According to this Trajectory Theory does behavior. These
theory, individuals not fully account for the interventions focus on
may follow potential for change identifying risk factors
different and desistance in and protective factors
trajectories or criminal behavior, as associated with
pathways in their individuals may different trajectories to
involvement in transition between prevent or redirect
crime. These different trajectories or individuals from
trajectories can be disengage from engaging in criminal
influenced by criminal activities over activities.
various factors, time.
including - Policy development:
individual The theory has
characteristics, influenced policy
social discussions around
relationships, and early intervention and
life events. prevention strategies,
Trajectory Theory with an emphasis on
emphasizes the identifying and
importance of addressing risk factors
examining the in early childhood to
long-term patterns prevent individuals
and transitions in from following high-risk
criminal behavior, trajectories.
rather than
focusing solely on
specific criminal
acts. It suggests
that understanding
the trajectory of an
individual's
criminal behavior
can provide
insights into the
underlying causes
and potential
interventions.

60. Rational - Individuals - Critics argue that - Crime prevention

Choice Theory engage in criminal Rational Choice strategies: The theory
behavior when Theory oversimplifies has influenced the
they make rational the complex nature of development of crime
decisions based criminal behavior by prevention strategies
on a cost-benefit assuming that that aim to increase the
analysis. individuals always perceived costs and
According to this make rational risks of criminal
theory, individuals decisions and behavior, such as
weigh the potential neglecting the enhancing
benefits of influence of social and surveillance,
committing a crime psychological factors. increasing law
against the enforcement efforts,
potential costs and - The theory has been and implementing
risks involved. If criticized for its limited situational crime
the perceived focus on prevention measures.
benefits outweigh individual-level factors - Policy development:
the costs, and neglecting larger The theory has
individuals are societal factors that influenced policy
more likely to contribute to crime. discussions around
engage in criminal deterrence and
behavior. The punishment, with an
theory assumes emphasis on
that individuals increasing the
have free will, are certainty, severity, and
motivated by swiftness of
self-interest, and punishment to deter
make rational potential offenders.
choices to
maximize their
own utility. It also
emphasizes the
role of situational
factors and
opportunities in
influencing
criminal
decision-making.