CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Water is made up of two molecules (Hydrogen and Oxygen) which are chemically bonded to each
other through equivalent bond. Water exists naturally in 3 forms.
I. Solid
II. Liquid
III. Gas
It may take many similar forms like liquid underground, seawater in oceans, glaciers and streams
in mountains, icebergs in polar oceans, vapours and clouds in the sky. At standard temperature and
pressure, it exists in liquid form. Water is tasteless and odorless in natural forms. The water colour
is naturally like bluish when it is in large quantities but mostly it is considered colourless when it
is in smaller quantities. It cannot be seen when it is in gaseous or vapour form (Piyaruwan &
Leelamanie, 2020).
In liquid form, it exists in many different forms like in lakes, ponds, rivers, oceans, canals and
streams. Seawater is the major portion of water. It consists of 3.5% salts and other constituents.
The salt concentration varies from 0.7% (Baltic Sea) to 4.0% (Red Sea). With some properties, sea
water properties are opposite to that of fresh water (Nam et al., 2020).
At about temperature less than -1.90 C this water freezes and its density increases when it moves
towards freezing point. Flavors can be added to the natural water for refreshments of humans. The
taste of mineral water is because of salts present in this. The taste and purity of water can be
changed with the removal of pollutants, toxins and microbes. Water is essential for all living things.
The human body is composed of 70% of water excluding fats. It has important roles in the
transportation of solutes from one part of the body to other. It is an important solvent of the body
and crucial for all metabolic processes. Potable water which can also be called as drinking water
is sufficient to utilize for human purposes with low health risk (Ptak et al., 2020).
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CHAPTER 2
Review of literature
2.1. The significance of water
Water is present in liquid form that forms most part of the Earth and it covers almost 70% of earth
surface and remaining 30% exists in the environment. For drinking only 2% water is available.
Chemical nature of water is important for many chemical and metabolic reactions in the body. It
is important for nutrients transformation from one part of body to other, for temperature
maintenance of body, for management of body weight and volume and for maintenance of body
framework of human (Armstrong, 2007).
Water is present in almost all type of cells and it is a basic requirement for the life which exists on
Earth. Water is present in almost all cells and its quantity varies different cells from each other. It
ranges from 45% to 95% in all cells. Microbe’s body is composed of 80% of water and the human
body is composed of 70% of water. Water maintains the temperature of the body with the
environment and it acts for the more gelation. Human body almost has 42L of water. If It remains
up to 2.7L the body will show abnormality and it will be in a disease condition. A headache, the
high temperature of body, weakness, and dehydration are the symptoms of deficiency of water.
Water is a crucial requirement for human body and environment (Gandy & Gandy, 1980).
Water is an important part of human life and it is the basic need for a human. Due to this, fight
exists among demand and supply of water. Water is required for irrigation of fields, production of
light, dams, reservoirs and all of these are very important for recycling of water. All of these
activities cause land loss, migration of wildlife and disturbance of aquatic life (Botkin & Keller,
2005).
Due to abnormal activities of human water is highly contaminated nowadays. It is because of
leakage of sewerage water from the waste of agricultural lands and farms. These are the total health
risks for human living near these water resources and these are the major resources of water-borne
diseases (Huttly, 1990).
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• Irrigation purpose
• For fulfilling requirement of livestock
• Public demand
• For production of power
• Agriculture usage Industrial usage
• For the extraction of chemicals, minerals, metals (Botkin & Keller, 2005)
2.4. Water Pollution
There are two ways for drinking water, surface water and ground water. 65% of the demand for
drinking is fulfilled through ground water. Therefore, ground water has more importance. Due to
increase in world population and industries, the demand for drinking water is increasing day by
day. Due to increase in population and industries, drinking water is getting contaminated. The
chemicals and waste materials are mixing in water through leaching of soil surface and air (Holt,
2000).
The sources through which the water is being contaminated are following:
• Leaching of soil surface
• Human waste
• Animal waste
• Industrial waste
• Farm and agricultural waste
• Sewage water
These are the main sources through which ground water is contaminated. Chemicals, fertilizers,
heavy metals, are entered in ground water and contaminate it (Mattikalli & Richards, 1996).
Chemicals have different nature and these are in large numbers and quantities. Almost 0.1 Million
chemicals are used on regular basis in this environment. These all chemicals have the ability to
cause different and many types of diseases (Holt, 2000).
Modernization of life is increasing day by day and enhancing the quality of life through
mechanization. But it is also affecting the lives of humans. Usage of chemicals and mishandling
of sewage water is affecting the quality of ground water. For controlling this contamination, for
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improving the quality of water and to handle risks many researchers are working on improving the
quality of water (Bjorvatn et al., 1997).
Ecology and public health are being affected due to degradation of water quality and pollution of
drinking water. Water pollution is producing due to pollutants which are different in nature and
may be physical, biological and chemical. These are harmful to health. These pollutants include
heavy metals (Pb, H, Na), isotopes, pathogenic bacteria, poisonous bacteria and fecal materials.
There are 3 types of contamination:
• Chemical contamination (organic and inorganic chemicals)
• Biological contamination (bacteria, virus, and fungus)
• Physical contamination (temperature, pH, odor, color, turbidity)
The contamination of water is due to mixing of contaminants from animal and human wastes and
it is too dangerous for human health especially for developing countries. Water is contaminated
with animal waste or any other source acts as a carrier of diseases (Gadgil, 1998).
The fresh water should be protected from microbial growth, chemical contaminants and pollutants
(Levy et al., 1998). Surface water is mostly contaminated with birds dropping, leaching of
chemicals, surface runoff and agricultural chemicals. When it rains this rainwater leaches, many
chemicals, acids, minerals, salts, pathogenic and poisonous microbes get mixed with pond and lake
water. Ultimately they pollute the water (Basak, 2003).
Most waterborne diseases are caused by polluted water which as reported in past and will be
reported in future similarly. Nowadays, waterborne diseases are a major concern. About 400
million peoples are reported with diarrheal diseases. This was 5.7% of total diseases which was
reported in the year 2000. The problem of contamination of water is mostly at the sources of water
and at collection points. The quality and food safety measures should be adopted at collection and
storage of water. For controlling these problems, bores in ground surfaces, through pipes and wells
should be established for improving the quality of water. Water is mostly contaminated at the
household level more than that at the collection of water (Lindskog & Lindskog, 1988).
There is a serious issue of supplying safe water to urban areas especially in major cities like
Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar and Faisalabad. There is the worst issue in villages due to lack of water
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CHAPTER 3
Materials and Methods
3.1. Collection of samples
The city was divided into Three Zones.
1. Rural Areas
2. Urban Areas
3. Old City
The samples were collected in whirl pack bags from these areas. Before collecting water, hands
and whirl pack bags were sanitized with ethanol. After collection, samples were stored in the
refrigerator until testing was done. To isolate the water quality following analytical and microbial
testing was performed.
3.2. Physio-chemical Analysis
3.2.1 pH
pH was measured with (HANNA pH-211) according to the standard method of APHA (American
Public Health Association). The electrode was rinsed and dipped in sample water. After stabilizing
reading on pH meter, reading was noted (Trivedy & Goel, 1984).
3.2.2. Total Dissolved Solids(TDS)
TDS was measured by using (Portable HANNA HI-8734N) TDS Meter at 250 C. Sample was taken
in beaker and the temperature of the sample water was adjusted at 250 C. TDS meter probe was
rinsed with sample water and stirred in the sample to remove the bubbles in water and after
adjustment of value, reading was recorded (Manivasakam, 2005).
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3.2.3. Conductivity
Conductivity was measured with a Conductivity meter (HANNA HI-2300) at 250C. The probe of
Conductivity meter was rinsed and placed in sample water which was present in a beaker. After
adjusting the temperature of the sample at 250C reading was calculated. After setting the
temperature, conductivity of the sample was measured and noted (2510, Conductivity 2017).
3.2.4. Turbidity
For the purpose of measurement of turbidity, we used the colorimeter (DR/890). Program of
colorimeter was set to 93 which is specific for turbidity. Adjusted the timer of this program.
Measured the sample size of water of 25ml. After completing time of program placed the sample
in colorimeter and pressed the button of start and note the reading (Trivedy & Goel, 1984).
3.2.5. Hardness
The hardness of the sample of water was determined as 100ml of sample water was taken in a
beaker and 3-5 drops of Ammonia Buffer were added with pipette. Then 2-3 drops of EBT
indicator were added.
If hardness present, the color of the water will be changed into purple after adding EBT indicator.
If hardness is nil, the color of the water will be turned into blue.
For removal of hardness, we titrated sample with 0.1 N EDTA turned purple color of water into
the blue (2340, Hardness 2017). Formula: Hardness= Readingx10
3.2.6. Alkalinity:
100ml sample of water was taken in a beaker and 2-3 drops of M. Indicator were added which
turned the color of water into the blue. Then it was titrated against N/50 H2SO4 until the color
changed into light yellow (2320, Alkalinity 2017).
Reading was noted.
Formula: Alkalinity= Reading*10
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3.3.2. Coliform:
The test was performed by pour plate method for observing total coliforms and E. coli. 1 ml water
was poured on MaCkonkey Agar media from sample water. After pouring these plates were
incubated at 37˚C for 24 hours. For total Coliform MaCkonkey agar media was used. The colonies
were observed after 24-48 hours after completion of the incubation period (Brenner et al., 1993).
3.3.3. Aciduric Bacteria:
The test was performed by pour plate method for observing Aciduric Bacteria. 1 ml water was
poured on Orange serum agar from sample water. After pouring these were incubated at 25˚C for
48 hours. The colonies were observed after 2 Days after completion of the incubation period
(Rompré et al., 2002).
3.3.4. Yeast:
The test was performed by pour plate method for observing total yeast. 1 ml water was poured on
Orange serum agar from sample water. After pouring these were incubated at 25˚C for 72 hours.
The colonies were observed after 24-48 hours after completion of the incubation period (9610,
Detection of Fungi 2017).
3.3.5 Mold:
The test was performed by pour plate method for observing total mold. 1 ml water was poured on
Orange serum agar from sample water. After pouring these were incubated at 25˚C for 72 hours.
The colonies were observed after 24-48 hours after completion of the incubation period (9610,
Detection of Fungi 2017).
3.3.6. Pseudomonas:
The test was performed by pour plate method for observing Pseudomonas. 1 ml water was poured
on Pseudomonas cetrimide agar from sample water. After pouring these were incubated at 41˚C
for 24-48 hours. The colonies were observed after 48 hours after completion of the incubation
period (Szita et al., 2007)
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