Physics 12; Summaries; Module 8

Isaac Learson
Origin of the Elements
Investigate the processes that led to the transformation of radiation into matter
that followed the ‘Big Bang’
- 10-43 seconds is the Planck Era. Anything before this is unknown.
- The Universe began with an ‘event’ that produced an enormous amount of energy in a single
position, known as the singularity, and that all matter has condensed from this energy as it
expanded outwards and cooled.
- Enormous, pure (no matter) energy in a singularity, then massive inflation then cooling down
- Started out as pure energy, as the temperature was 1032 K, a temperature at which known
matter cannot exist. Then as it cooled, matter was formed, with elementary particles, such as
protons and neutrons forming in the latter moments of a second, along with other subatomic
particles, such as Leptons (Electrons) and Quarks.
- Gravity accretes it together (accretion)
- Main things:
- Singularity of Unified Force (1032K)
- Universe starts expanding
- Universe begins to cool
- Energy levels of matter fall
- Formation of elementary particles
- Leptons (Electrons) and Quarks.
Investigate the evidence that led to the discovery of the expansion of the
Universe by Hubble:
- The Spectrum Shift of the Light from Distant Galaxies
○ Red shift means that the universe is expanding, as the shift explains that outer planets
are moving away from the observer.
○ If the universe is constantly expanding, then it must have started at a single point.
- The Helium-Hydrogen Ratio
○ 25% Helium to 75% Hydrogen in today's universe. This is what calculations have
hypothesized, and hence, evidences BBT.
- Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR)
○ The leftover radiation from the BB that has not turned into matter, is microwave
radiation with a temperature of approx. 3 K.
○ Wilson and Penzias experiment, found the background radiation that was predicted but
not yet found.
○ Same strength in every direction
○ Evidences the BBT as it is literal left overs from the BB.
- Not Enough Hot Stars
○ Larger stars that fuse hydrogen to helium and then keep going to form other heavier
elements.
○ Because of the way helium is fused from within stars, and the acknowledgement that
there is 25% helium in the atmosphere, the conclusion can be drawn that, because there
is not enough hot stars to provide the helium in our atmosphere, there must have been a
big bang to provide for the helium.
○ Furthermore, the calculations which lead to these results are in support of a big bang.
- The Presence of Radio Galaxies and Blue Stars in Deep Space
○ If the universe began from a singularity, then it is assumed that the universe is getting
older and older.
○ Light from galaxies really far away has taken billions of years to get to us.
○ Seeing these galaxies reveals that these galaxies are different from ours and other closer
galaxies.
○ At large distances, the galaxies are radio galaxies — emit radiation in the radio
frequencies, and contain more blue stars.
○ Blue stars are very hot, and have much shorter life spans.
○ Because we can see that there are hotter radiation stars, and because there are younger
blue stars, it can be concluded that the Universe started with a singularity and massive
radiation.
 Hubble:
■ The further the galaxy is from us, the faster it expands / accelerates. Made a graph that
reveal a straight line relationship

■ Hubble's Law:
● V = Ho* D
● V → Velocity of a galaxy
Ho→ Hubble’s Constant (70kms-1 Mpc-1)
D → Distance the galaxy is from us
Analyse and apply Einstein’s description of the equivalence of energy and mass
and relate this to the nuclear reactions that occur in stars:
- E = mc2
- A very small amount can be transformed into an enormous amount of energy, with a factor of
c2 — 9x1016
- With fusion and fission nuclear reaction a mass defect occurs.
- Work out the magnitude of the mass defect, and then using E=mc2, we can find the energy
equivalent.
- If we have very small amounts, we use Atomic Mass Units (AMU) which is equal to 1.66x10-
27
kg.
- Energy is given in MeV which is 106x1.6x10-19 = 1.6x10-13 J
- E = mass defect x 931.5

Investigate the types of nucleosynthesis reactions involved in Main Sequence

and Post-Main Sequence stars, including but not limited to:
- Nuclear fusion: the production of energy from combining two smaller atoms in to a
bigger atom
- Proton–proton chain
- STEP 1:
- Starts with a single Hydrogen atom
- Another hydrogen atom then joins on too the original atom
- Almost immediately, a proton converts into a neutron, and releases a positron
(which carries away the positive charge) and a neutrino
- Equation: p + p → 2H + e+ + v
Hydrogen + Hydrogen = Deuterium + Positron + Neutrino
- Positron does not last very long, and encounters an ordinary electron, which
results in some energy that produces 2 gamma photons.
- STEP 2:
- Starts with the deuterium (Hydrogen with AtomicMass 2)
- Joins with another hydrogen atom, and end up with helium.
- Equation: 2H + p → 3He + γ
- Generates energy because the binding energy of the 2H is 2.2MeV but the
binding energy of the 3He is 7.7MeV.
- This is due to the fact that the resultants have less mass then the products, and
have received energy in proportion to E = mc2
- STEP 3:
 - Starts with Helium 3 (3He) (Hence it uses steps 1 & 2 twice)
- Combines with another 3He
- Now it is a large nucleus with 4 protons and 2 neutrons.
- This doesn't last long as two of the hydrogen atoms come off, which leaves a He
nucleus, and 2 hydrogen.
- Equation: 3He + 2He → 4He +p + p + γ
- Once again, the resultants have less mass then the products and hence there is a
energy transformation, proportional to E = mc2, with the energy going from
7.7MeV to 28.3MeV
- Conclusion:
- All up the equation is:
4
H + 2e- → 4He + 2v + 7γ AND 4.3x10-12 J or 26.7MeV
- The p-p Chain produces a single helium nucleus using 4 hydrogens in the
process

- CNO (carbon-nitrogen-oxygen) cycle

- Multiple different cycles come under the term ‘CNO’ Cycle depending on the:
- Temperature
- Relative abundance of elements
- HSC Physics only looks at one version:
- 12
6 C+p → 13
7 N+γ
- Nitrogen 13 (137N) decays into:
- 13
7 N → 13
6 C + e+ + ve
- The positron (e+) combines with an electron (e-) to create two gamma
photons/rays (γ)
- The Carbon 13 (136C) then combines with a proton (p) to make:
- 13
6 C+p → 14
7 N+γ
- Nitrogen 14 (147N) combines with a proton to make:
- 14
7 N+p → 15
8 O+γ
- Oxygen 15 (158O) is unstable an undergoes decay to make:
- 15
8 O → 15
7 N + e+ + ve
- The positron (e+) combines with an electron (e-) to create two gamma
photons/rays (γ)
- Nitrogen 15 (157N) then meets a proton which combine to form:
- 15
7 N+p → 12
6 C + 42He
- Now there is the Carbon 12 ( 126C) which is what was used to start
- Hence the end equation is:
- 4
2He + 2ve + 7γ AND a lot of energy because of E = mc , about 26.7MeV
2
Account for the production of emission and absorption spectra and compare
these with a continuous black body spectrum
- Passing it through a Prism, Spectroscope or a Diffraction Grating
- Continuous Spectrum: Any incandescent, sunlight, white light etc.
- Emission Spectrum:
○ Heat a gas, and it will emit a spectra with bright lines once it is passed through the
diffraction grating.
○ When the gas is heated, the electron is excited and jumps from one shell to a higher
shell. However, because it cannot stay at that high energy level, it relaxes. As it does so,
it releases energy that is emitted as bright light.
○ If it is a red light being released, there is a small difference in energy.
- Absorption Spectrum:
○ Pass through a cold gas and the gas will absorb any of the photons with the same
wavelength as it's emission spectra.
- Hydrogen Spectrum:
○ Balmer Series = Rydberg Equation
○ Bohr Model of the Atom: Electrons exist
in stable orbits, they don’t emit radiation
in stable orbits. They are excited by
absorbing energy, or when they emit
energy they are moving from different
electron shells.
Investigate the key features of stellar spectra and describe how these are used to
classify stars:

- Blackbody: An object that

absorbs all the energy that
falls on it and re-emits it as
EMR
- The sun is giving off a wide
range of wavelengths with the
peak being in the visible
spectrum.
- The ultraviolet drops off
dramatically as the blackbody
emits the peak wavelength of the EM according to the surface temperature of the blackbody.
- The peak intensity of a blackbody will shift to the left the hotter it gets.
- The area under the graph is the total intensity (the power per unit area) of the blackbody.
- Willem Wien:
- Wien's law: λmax = B/T
- A graph of λ vs T is an inverse graph
- A graph of λ vs 1/T is a straight line graph
-
Investigate the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram and how it can be used to
determine the following about a star:
- A diagrammatic representation
showing the relation between
colour, size, luminosity and surface
temperature.
-
> Characteristics and evolutionary
stage
-
> Surface temperature
- Colour of a star determines its
surface temperature
- Using the lettering system:
OBAFGKM (on the right), we can
classify a star's colour and hence
temperature.
- Oh Be A Fine Girl, Kiss Me
> Colour
- Colour indicates a star's temperature
- They can therefore have a surface temperature of between 3000K and 50000K
- The hotter stars are bluer, the cooler stars are redder.
> Luminosity
- Brightness
- True Brightness:
- Absolute magnitude
Structure of the Atom
investigate, assess and model the experimental evidence supporting the existence
and properties of the electron, including:
> early experiments examining the nature of
cathode rays
- Discharge tubes experiment:
- Set of tubes of differing pressures with a
cathode and anode are connected to a very
high voltage source. The result is that a viewer will see purple
striations (stripes: when there is air within the tube) and streamers
(line: when there is very little air)

- William Crookes and Crookes tubes, which

discovered the negative charge within an atom
through use of a modified cathode ray tube, aka a
crookes tube. Furthermore, he predicted that
such a negative charge has a mass.
- From this it was determined that a cathode ray
was made of electrons.
- Using the same set up, but with a paddlewheel, it
was shown that the cathode ray was able to spin
the wheel. This meant that the ray could not be a
wave, as it must have had mass, as the wheel spins
due to a transfer of momentum and energy.
> Thomson’s charge-to-mass experiment
- Thomson’s Experiment investigates the charge to mass ratio.
- To allow us to equate the two forces, the cathode ray had to be straight, as this was the point at
which the magnetic force negated the upward force of the electric force.
- The slit in the anode is so that the cathode ray (stream of electrons, also called an electron
beam) is uniform/straight.
- For the Force due to electric field
Fe = qE = qV/d
- For the force due to magnetic field
FB = Bqv
- If the ray deflects/curves when it reaches the parallel plates (when a particle enters an electric
field it undergoes circular motion)
mv2/r = Bqv
- Hence charge to mass ratio is given by
q/m =v/Br
- However, to get v, we need to straighten the beam, so it does not deflect.
- This is when Fe = FB
qV/d = Bqv
v = V/Bd
- Because he knew about Maxwell and electromagnetism, he knew that cathodes were not an
electromagnetic wave, as the speed of the ray that he calculated was far less than the value of
the speed of an electromagnetic wave.
- Substitute v=V/Bd into q/m=v/Br
- Hence it gives q/m = V/drB2 = E/rB2
> Millikan’s oil drop experiment
- Millikan's experiment fires oil droplets into parallel electric plates.
- The experiment finds the charge of an electron, this is done by finding the lowest common
denominator or smallest factor of the data found in his experiment. The reason for getting the
smallest denomination is
because as the oil drop
passes through the plate, it
picks up multiple charges.
Hence, sometimes he got 1
charge of 1.5924x10-19 and
other times he got 3.18x10-
19
, which means the first
drop had one charge, and the second drop had 2 charges.
- The oil drop fired into parallel electric plates will experience a force upwards (due to the
electrons gained by the oil droplet when fired through the air) and a force downwards due to
gravity given by mg.
- Hence by equating F = qE and F = mg (the negatively charged oil droplet will experience a
force upward due to a positively charged plate, and a force downward from gravity.) when the
oil drop is hovering (when hovering, the two forces are equal) we get the equation qE = mg,
which means
q = mg/E = mgd/V (from E=V/d) → Fluid dynamics gives this for
falling drops
- This experiment, that found the charge of an electron, used Thomson’s experiment (that was
done prior), allows us to find the mass of an electron.
investigate, assess and model the experimental evidence supporting the nuclear
model of the atom, including:
> the Geiger-Marsden experiment
- Alpha particles are launched at
a gold foil
- Previously, using Thomson's
plum and pudding model, it
was just expected for the
particles of the alpha particle
beam to penetrate the foil.
- However, a few particles are
deflected and can be deflected
at sharp angles too.
- This suggests that instead of protons and electrons being mixed evenly within an atom, an
atom is mostly made up of empty space, with a small nucleus in the centre that is minute and
dense (and is able to be deflected).
- The small angle is radiation being deflected by the positive repulsion force of the nucleus
- The larger angle is the radiation colliding and rebounding of the nucleus
- The radiation going through reveals it is mostly empty space.
- Hence there is a very small, dense, positive nucleus in the atom.

> Rutherford’s atomic model

- Alpha Radiation is a stream of particles.
- An alpha particle is a “chunk” of nucleus, made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
- It carries positive charge.
- Beta Radiation is also a stream of particles: this time it is high-speed electrons ejected from an
atomic nucleus.
- These carry negative charge.
- Gamma Radiation is very high frequency electromagnetic waves, similar to X-rays, but
carrying even more energy.
- They have no charge.
- In 1909, Rutherford gave Geiger the task of measuring the deflection of alpha radiation as it
passed through matter. Geiger carried out this experiment with his student Ernest Marsden.
 - Rutherford's model based of the Geiger-Marsden results:
- At the centre is a tiny, dense nucleus with a positive electrical charge.
- The negatively charged electrons orbit around the nucleus.
- The distance from nucleus to the electron orbits is very large compared to the size of the
particles, so the atom is mostly empty space.
- Explain with a diagram how rutherford concluded the atoms had a nucleus:

> Chadwick’s discovery of the neutron

- An alpha particle is launched into Beryllium and some unknown matter is launched into
paraffin (made up of hydrogen and carbon) which launches protons.
- Initially thought of as gamma rays, they were actually neutrons as they carried more energy
than gamma rays and must have a mass equal to a proton as to be able to knock a proton out
of the atoms of the hydrocarbon material.
- The neutron is a particle that easily penetrates
materials as it has no charge, hence it is not affected
by the polarity of electrons and protons.
Quantum Mechanical Nature of the Atom
Assess the limitations of the Rutherford and Bohr atomic models
- Rutherford's Model: Very dense small nucleus, and lots of the space, one electron orbit.
- Doesn’t know the make-up/contents of the nucleus apart from the fact that there were
protons. If it were made up of all protons, they should repel each other.
- If the electrons are in an orbit, they should be attracted to the positive charge of the
nucleus, and their orbits should get smaller as they lose KE. Hence, why aren't they
attracted to the nucleus.
- Rutherford’s model did not explain spectral lines, which are due to electrons jumping
up and falling down orbits, releasing the energy as light. He only had one orbit in his
model, hence why were there spectral lines.
- However, Rutherford focus primarily on the nucleus of the atom, and therefore, it
shouldn’t be expected that he would account for the
electron movement
- Bohr’s Model: Electrons orbit the nucleus in stable orbits
with specific energy levels (have a particular angular
momentum that was quantised. It has a SPECIFIC angular
momentum so that only those orbits exist) and don't give off
any energy (don't radiate energy and hence no gain/loss of
energy). Atoms absorb energy, exciting the electron, and
making them jump from n=2 to a higher energy level. Then
when they relax back down to n=2, they emit a photon of energy in the visible spectrum,
which is calculated to E = hf . It explained the spectral lines of hydrogen, which is in the visible
spectrum so that we could see them.
- Was a mixture of classical and quantum which cannot happen.
- Model could not explain various intensities or thicknesses of the spectral lines.
- If the electrons are in an orbit, they should be attracted to the positive charge of the
nucleus, and their orbits should get smaller as they
lose KE. Hence, why aren't they attracted/falling
toward the nucleus.
- Couldn’t explain the spectral lines if they weren’t
hydrogen.
- Could not explain the Zeeman effect when placed in
a magnetic field the spectral line splits.
Investigate the line emission spectra to examine the Balmer series in hydrogen
- The visible series of electron spectral lines in hydrogen which confirms Bohr’s model of
different energy levels. Base level is 2 and higher energy levels increase by n=1 integer at each
level. When energy is released towards n=2, the energy is calculated by E=hf. Other series
include Lyman (ultraviolet) and Paschen (infrared).

Relate qualitatively and quantitatively the quantised energy levels of the

hydrogen atom and the law of conservation of energy to the line emission
spectrum of hydrogen using:
> E = hf
> E=hc/λ
> 1/λ=R[1/nf2−1/ni2]
Investigate de Broglie’s matter waves, and the experimental evidence that
developed the following formula:
> λ=h/mv
- De Broglie postulated that matter acts both as a wave and a particle simultaneously — wave-
particle duality.
- He asked two questions:
- If light has both wave and particle-like properties, can matter, which has particle-like
properties, have wave-like properties?
- How can we explain Bohr’s postulate that an electron can be in discrete stable orbits
without emitting any energy?
- P = mv and E = 1/2mv2 cannot be used when particles are going near the speed of light.
- We end up instead, by using the equation when close to light speed, with E2 = p2c2 + m02c4
- With a photon, m0=0, hence E = Pc
- Hence P = E/c
- With E = hf, we end with P = h/λ and λ = h/P
- Broglie hence postulated a mathematical solution to the bohr problem
- De Broglie stated that Bohr’s stable orbits correspond to radii where waves are standing waves
around the nucleus.
- The number of wavelengths will
always follow nλ = 2πr, where n is
a whole integer (1,2,3…)
- Hence, each value of n has a
particular radius that the electron
orbits at, thus being a stable orbit,
where the electron does not release any energy.
- If we sub in λ, we get nh/P = 2πr
- Experimental evidence by Davisson and Germer:
- Set up an electron gun
- Shot electrons through a double slit diffraction grating.
- Found there were bands of maxima and minima on the screen
 - This is consistent with the electrons acting like a wave rather than a particle (if they
were particles, there would be an overlap, as the electrons pass through on or the other)

- If matter has wave-like properties, then why can we see it in

everyday life?
- Simply because the wavelength is so minute compared to the particle (using the λ =
h/mv, the wavelength is x10-37)
- Whereas, when the wavelength of an electron is calculated, it comes out to be 0.073 nm,
which is the wavelength in the x-ray range, and also the space between atoms in nickel,
allowing a diffraction pattern to form.
- Hence, because electrons displayed the same experimental pattern as x-rays, Davisson and
Germer proved electrons act like x-rays, or like
Analyse the contribution of Schrödinger to the current model of the atom
- Changed the model from electron orbits to electron clouds, and based his model on
mathematics and the probability of finding an electron in certain regions around the nucleus.
Properties of the Nucleus
Analyse the spontaneous decay of unstable nuclei, and the properties of the
alpha, beta and gamma radiation emitted
- Decay is Nuclear Decay (Decay of the nucleus) which is caused by too few too many neutrons,
which causes instability. It tries to become a stable amount, and does so by nuclear decay. It
gets smaller and smaller until it is stable.
- Alpha Radiation/Decay/Particles:
- A helium ( 42HE) nuclei +2 charge.
- It is charged: Highly ionised (creates radicals (causes cancer))
- Relatively large mass
- Low penetration
- Low range
- Beta Radiation/Decay/Particles:
-Electron (e-)
-Still charged, just not as much. Moderately ionising
-Relatively light
-Moderately penetration
-Medium range
-Also accompanied by giving off an anti-neutrino (a bit of anti-matter to balance the
mass)
- Gamma Radiation/Decay/Particles:
- Electromagnetic Radiation
- 0 Mass
- Fully energy
- No charge, neutral, no ionisation
- Highly penetrating
- Long range
- Technetium 99 n — Pure gamma emitter
Examine the model of half-life in radioactive decay and make quantitative
predictions about the activity or amount of a radioactive sample using the
following relationships:
> Nt = Noe-λt
> λ = ln(2)/t1/2
where Nt = number of particles at time t, N0 = number of particles present at t =
0, λ = decay constant, t1/2 = time for half the radioactive amount to decay
analyse the spontaneous decay of unstable nuclei, and the properties of the
alpha, beta and gamma radiation emitted
Model and explain the process of nuclear fission, including the concepts of
controlled and uncontrolled chain reactions, and
account for the release of energy in the process
- Comment on the ways in which nuclei are unstable, and
how they decay:
- Anything above atomic number 82 means that it
is unstable because there are too many protons,
and the repulsive force of electrostatics gets too
big and the neutrons can no longer hold them
within the nucleus. The decay by giving off Alpha
particles (Alpha decay). The only way for these
to become stable is to reduce the size of their
nucleus.
- If it has too many neutrons per proton, then the
neutron has to decay to make a proton and a beta
particle (Beta- decay) which neutralises the charge.
- If it has too little neutrons per proton, then the proton has to decay into a positron and
a neutron, reducing the protons and increasing the neutrons to get to a 1:1 ratio of
stability (Beta+ decay).
- Fission: Bombard a big atom with neutrons and split it apart into two smaller nuclei
- Proton
- Neutron
- Stable Nuclide
- Unknown

Analyse relationships that represent conservation of mass-energy in spontaneous

and artificial nuclear transmutations, including alpha decay, beta decay, nuclear
fission and nuclear fusion
Account for the release of energy in the process of nuclear fusion
- The Proton-Proton chain.
- STEP 1:
- Starts with a single Hydrogen atom
- Another hydrogen atom then joins on too the original atom
- Almost immediately, a proton converts into a neutron, and releases a positron (which
carries away the positive charge) and a neutrino
- Equation: p + p → 2H + e+ + v
Hydrogen + Hydrogen = Deuterium + Positron + Neutrino
- Positron does not last very long, and encounters an ordinary electron, which results in
some energy that produces 2 gamma photons.
- STEP 2:
- Starts with the deuterium (Hydrogen with AtomicMass 2)
- Joins with another hydrogen atom, and end up with helium.
- Equation: 2H + p → 3He + γ
- Generates energy because the binding energy of the 2H is 2.2MeV but the binding
energy of the 3He is 7.7MeV.
- This is due to the fact that the resultants have less mass then the products, and have
received energy in proportion to E = mc2
- STEP 3:
- Starts with Helium 3 (3He) (Hence it uses steps 1 & 2 twice)
- Combines with another 3He
- Now it is a large nucleus with 4 protons and 2 neutrons.
- This doesn't last long as two of the hydrogen atoms come off, which leaves a He
nucleus, and 2 hydrogen.
- Equation: 3He + 2He → 4He +p + p + γ
- Once again, the resultants have less mass then the products and hence there is a energy
transformation, proportional to E = mc2, with the energy going from 7.7MeV to
28.3MeV
- Conclusion:
- All up the equation is:
4
H + 2e- → 4He + 2v + 7γ AND 4.3x10-12 J or 26.7MeV
- The p-p Chain produces a single helium nucleus using 4 hydrogens in the process and a
flip ton of energy per atom.
- This is why we investigate ways to have cold fusion (cold enough to do on earth),
because it is the best energy source eva
Predict quantitatively the energy released in nuclear decays or transmutations,
including nuclear fission and nuclear fusion, by applying:
> The law of conservation of energy
> Mass defect
> Binding energy
> Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relationship E = mc2
Deep Inside the Atom
Analyse the evidence that suggests:
> that protons and neutrons are not fundamental particles
- Neutrons have their own magnetic field, means that it must be made up of its own charges
- Because the proton has a mass very similar to neutrons, and the same positioning, the same
question is applied to the proton, as was to the neutron
- Evidence that protons are made up of other particles comes from nuclear decay (alpha and
beta decay, particularly Beta).
- The annihilation of matter and antimatter, particularly electrons and positrons
> the existence of subatomic particles other than protons, neutrons and
electrons
Investigate the Standard Model of matter, including:
- John Dalton - Matter made up of particles, atoms are grouped in whole number
combinations.
- JJ Thomson - The atom was found to be made up of subatomic particles following the
discovery of electrons.
- Ernest Rutherford: nucleus that is full of protons.
- Chadwick: the neutron that holds the nucleus together.
- Discovery of the muon and other subatomic particles
- Particle zoom
- Gell-mann and zweig are the constructors of the standard model.
- They were finding evidence of other subatomic particles in their accelerators.

- Fermions have a spin of ½

- Quarks and Leptons
- Baryons
- Bosons have a spin of 1
- Gluons, W/Z and γ
- Mesons
- Hadrons are multiple particles
- Mesons and Baryons
- Limitations:
- Does Not address the nature of dark matter and energy
- Does Not explain Gravity
- Assumes neutrinos have no mass (they do)
> quarks, and the quark composition hadrons
- Quarks:
- Up Quark (+⅔) and down quark
(-⅓)
- Hadrons
- Baryons (three quarks) and
mesons (2 quarks)
- Protons (2 up quarks and a
down quark, gluons
holding together)
- Note: the forces of the
gluon only exist at short
distances and hence when
they exceed this, the
particle will fall apart.
> leptons
- Leptons
- Electron (neutrino)
- Muon (neutrino)
- Tau (neutrino)
> fundamental forces
- Bosons
- Force Carriers
- Gamma Ray = γ
- Gluon
- Holds
everything
together
- Vector Bosons (Z and
W Bosons)
- Higgs Boson
Investigate the operation and role of particle accelerators in obtaining evidence
that tests and/or validates aspects of theories, including the Standard Model of
matter