IMPROVING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS AND

SCIENCE LEARNING OF GRADE 6 LEARNERS

USING INQUIRY BASED INSTRUCTION

_____________________________________________

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Aparri Campus

__________________________

LEIZEL ASUNCION
MARIELLE AGUSTIN
ELAIZA PHEI FLORES
MARYROSE GARNADE
KEITH HYACINTH GUILLEN
NOVILYN VALENCIA
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Rationale of the Study

As the world continues to grow and change, teachers need to make sure that they are

educating students to be the best prepared version of themselves. This means that education

needs to shift from teacher-centric, passive learning where students are meant to absorb and take

in knowledge to a model where learning is student-centric with active learning that allows them

to grow in knowledge and skills. By developing skills, in conjunction with knowledge, students

can apply prior knowledge and link new information to past experiences such that they can be

successful in solving problems. The ability to connect new and old information is especially

important as we continue to see societal innovation so that as citizens, students can continue to

be lifelong learners.

The Level/School Grade 6 is one of the most critical phases in a student’s learning

journey. Here, the foundational skills that will shape a student’s academic trajectory are

enhanced and mastered. However, the current teaching and learning methodologies seldom

promote critical thinking. Rather, most of the concepts are based on mere memorization and

replication. As a result, the learners often exhibit low complicity, retention, and application of

the knowledge and skills learned, especially in intricate subjects like science. Central to the

existing educational paradigms is the need to develop learners with critical thinking skills.

‘Critical thinking’ can be defined as the practice of analyzing, assessing, and providing

information to initiate or substantiate decisions-making. It underlies academic achievement and

empowers individuals to cope with the global dynamics.

 Society has reached a point where innovation, discovery, and change are happening all

the time. This is especially true in the field of science, technology, engineering, and math

(STEM). As in STEM continues, factual knowledge should no longer be the sole focus in science

education. Students need to develop skills that can be applied both in school and once they exit

school. These skills, describe as 21st-century skills, are highly important as they include critical

thinking, problem solving, communication, collaboration, creativity, and technology use (Baran

et al., 2021). By developing these skills and many others in science class, Panjaitan (2020) shares

that students will be able to work with others in all disciplines to create effective solutions. By

implementing hands-on inquiry learning students will have the opportunity to develop a wide

range of skills and in an environment that has room for improvement. An additional way to

create even more authentic skill development is the use of inquiry that has reallife connections.

The development of skills in a vacuum with discrete segments of knowledge is ineffective.

Examining the teacher’s perspective, the goal of teaching is to help students grow and

develop. The purpose of teacher any science class is not for students to memorize material just to

get a good grade. The teacher is striving to get students interested and engaged such that they can

take their new knowledge with them and apply it to experiences they have had or will have. This

strive to create a rich body of knowledge comes with the mindset that not all students will go

onto become scientists and engineers, but having the deep body of knowledge and strong skill set

can be a life-long benefit for all citizens of our society. Considering the student perspective, there

is often a hyper focus on just getting a good grade or just getting an assignment done to check off

a box. This can be amplified when the students are passively learning. By being exposed to more

active learning methods, the students can build interest and engagement with the topic as they are

leading their learning. They have more say and control in the steps and outcomes.
 One method that can be used to develop skills and knowledge through active,

studentcentric leaning is inquiry. Inquiry-based learning, defined by Abdi (2014), is a method

that allows students to become more engaged and involved in their learning. Additionally, Mutlu

(2020) explains that inquiry requires students to use their science skills. Inquiry-based learning

gives students the opportunity to ask questions, explore ideas, and collaborate. This is especially

important in science classes as students can begin to learn through true scientific methods rather

than memorizing a list of facts and figures. With inquiry, the students no longer have a fixed way

of acting and thinking, they become the driver of their learning. Rather than following a list of

steps, depending on the inquiry style, the students have to define their own questions and set up

the procedure to be followed. This increase in student participation will take their thinking

outside of rote facts and require the use of specific skills. An additional benefit to inquiry is that

is not limited to one single method or set of steps. Inquiry can be changed and modified to fit the

needs of the curriculum and use a variety of tools and materials. With the implementation of

inquiry in classroom and laboratory settings, learning becomes more active for the students as

they are engaged in more real-life examples and can try multiple methods rather than trying to

reach one set answer (Jeon et al., 2021). The students are now at the center of learning, which

allows for greater depth of knowledge and overall growth.

By implementing inquiry-based learning methods in secondary science classrooms,

teachers have the opportunity to promote the greatest chance for success of their students. The

students will have a change in their mindset. Rather than looking at an assignment 11 as a job

that has to be done or a box to check off, the students can find more meaning and connection

with inquiry. By shifting away from lecture and simple worksheets to a variety of inquiry

methods, the current and next generation of students has the opportunity to grow into strong
critical thinkers and problem solvers that will be lifelong learners and support the continuous

growth of our society. Teachers who implement inquiry in the science classroom have the

strongest opportunity to push students closer to their future success rather than just focusing on

shorts term academic knowledge (Hogan, 2023).

This prompts the researchers to expand upon the existing knowledge of students by

demonstrating the effectiveness of inquiry-based instruction in improving the critical thinking

skills of the learners. This could benefit multiple stakeholders in the field of education. Grade 6

learners are the primary beneficiaries, as they have the opportunity to enhance their critical

thinking skills and deepen their understanding of scientific concepts. Educators can gain insights

into effective instructional strategies, informing their teaching practices and professional

development. Curriculum developers can use the findings to refine science curricula, aligning

them with best practices. Policymakers can make informed decisions regarding curriculum

development, instructional strategies, and resource allocation, ultimately improving science

education and promoting critical thinking skills among Grade 6 learners.

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of inquiry-based instruction in enhancing

critical thinking skills and improving science learning outcomes among Grade 6 learners.

Specifically, it will seek answers to the following queries.

1. What is the profile of the Grade 6 learners in terms of the following variables?

a. Age

b. Sex
 c. Parents’ educational attainment

d. Available learning materials

2. What is the assessment of the teacher-evaluators on the developed instructional materials

for inquiry-based instruction along the following aspects?

a. Content

b. Format

c. Presentation and organization

d. Accuracy and up-to-datedness

3. What is the level of critical thinking skills of the learners in inquiry-based instruction?

4. What is the pretest and posttest performance of the learners?

5. Is there significant difference between the pretest and posttest performance of the

learners?

6. Is there a significant relationship between the posttest performance of the learners and the

following variables?

a. Profile

b. Level of critical thinking skills

Framework of the Study

The following discussions present theories, principles, concepts, research findings,

insights, generalizations and ideas which formed the basis for evolving the framework of this

study. It is sub-divided into four sub-topics clustering relevant related literatures and studies: (1)

Critical Thinking Skills Development; (2) Inquiry-Based Instruction in Science Education; (3)
Benefits of Inquiry-Based Instruction; and, (4) Theories and Concepts Relevant to the Present

Study.

Critical Thinking Skills Development

The development of critical thinking skills is a fundamental aspect of education that

plays a crucial role in shaping students’ ability to analyze information, evaluate arguments, and

solve complex problems. Within the context of Grade 6 learners and using an Inquiry-Based

Instruction approach, the cultivation of critical thinking skills goes beyond memorization and

rote learning. It involves strategies that encourage students to question assumptions, consider

multiple perspectives, and apply logical reasoning in their scientific inquiries.

The strategy to improve critical thinking skill is very urgent for science students as it is

related to life skills competencies for them after completing their studies at the university

(Silalahi, Situmorang & Sutiani, 2021). The development of critical thinking skills in education

involves implementing various strategies and pedagogical approaches to enhance students’

abilities in higher order thinking. Inquiry-based learning plays a crucial role in fostering critical

thinking by encouraging students to ask questions, analyze information, and draw evidence-

based conclusions. Ennis (2015) proposes a simplified framework for understanding and

teaching critical thinking, which can help individuals navigate complex information

environments more effectively.

Research studies have indicated that inquiry-based instruction leads to improved critical

thinking skills, as students engage in hands-on activities, problem-solving tasks, and real-world

application of knowledge. Inquiry-based learning is a constructivist learning approach that can

increase the knowledge from investigation and exploration activities which will enhance their

critical thinking skills (Jeffery, et al., 2016; Capps & Crawford, 2013; Bell, et al., 2010; Dudu &

Vhurumuku, 2012). Empowering critical thinking skills among students in higher education

especially in academic writing through the integration of critical thinking into the teaching

learning process is essential in order to develop students’ problem solving, decision making and

communication skills (Abdullah, 2014; Adege, 2016). Critical thinking skills such as

interpretation, analysis, inference, evaluation, expansion have been developed in accordance with

the students’ competence (Shaw, et al., 2019; Jiang, et al., 2018; Kleinig, 2018).

Overall, the development of critical thinking skills is essential for students to become

independent learners, effective decision-makers, and problem-solvers in various academic and

real-life situations.

Inquiry-Based Instruction in Science

Inquiry-based learning in science education is a pedagogical approach that

emphasizesactive exploration, questioning, and problem-solving. At its core, inquiry-based

instruction is student-centered, with learners taking an active role in constructing their

understanding of scientific concepts through investigation and experimentation. It is a discovery

method of learning that involves students in making observations; posing questions; examining

sources; gathering, analyzing, interpreting, and synthesizing data; proposing answers,

explanations and predictions; communicating findings through discussion and reflection;

applying findings to the real situation, and following up new questions that may arise in the

process (Lee, 2014). This pedagogical method encourages learners to ask questions, design

experiments, collect data, and draw conclusions based on evidence. Inquiry based instruction is a
teaching strategy that aims to develop students' skills to deal with problems that they may

encounter by using the methods used by scientists via researching, investigating, analyzing and

inquiring in the classroom. There are studies that investigate the effects of inquiry-based learning

environments almost all grade students’ understanding scientific process skills, and provides

motivation and positive attitude towards science and science (Ceylan ŞEN, Gülşah SEZEN

VEKLİ 2016). The fundamental principles of inquiry-based learning include encouraging

curiosity, fostering a spirit of inquiry, promoting critical thinking skills, and nurturing a deep-

seated understanding of the scientific method. Characteristics of inquiry-based learning include

hands-on activities, collaborative group work, open-ended questioning, and the development of

skills such as observation, data analysis, and hypothesis testing.

Implementing effective inquiry-based instruction in science classroom requires a

combination of thoughtful planning, supportive resources, and teacher guidance. Teachers can

create a conducive environment for inquiry-based learning by designing engaging activities that

allow students to explore scientific phenomena, encouraging peer collaboration and discussion,

and providing scaffolding to support student inquiry processes. Incorporating real-world contexts

and problems into lessons can enhance student motivation and relevance, while also fostering

connections between scientific concepts and everyday experiences.

By promoting hands-on exploration and collaborative learning experiences, inquiry-based

instruction fosters a deeper understanding of scientific concepts and principles. The book of

Windschitl, M., Thompson, J., & Braaten, M. (2018) advocates for ambitious science teaching,

which involves engaging students in meaningful and challenging scientific practices provides

strategies for planning and implementing inquiry-based instruction that promotes deep learning

and critical thinking skills.

 Contrasting inquiry-based learning with traditional approaches highlights the distinct

advantage of the former in promoting deeper understanding and retention of scientific

knowledge. While traditional teaching methods often focus on the transmission of information

from teacher to student, inquiry-based instruction encourages active participation and

exploration. By engaging in hands-on investigations, students are able to make meaningful

connections between theory and practice, leading to a more profound grasp of scientific

concepts.

By integrating inquiry-based approaches into the science curriculum, educators can create

a dynamic and stimulating process of scientific inquiry and discovery, empowering Grade 6

learners to become active participants in their scientific learning journey.

Benefits of Inquiry-Based Instruction

Inquiry-based instruction offers a myriad of benefits for learners, fostering a deeper

engagement with science, enhancing critical thinking skills, and promoting a lifelong

appreciation for the scientific method. By actively involving students in hands-on exploration

and discovery, inquiry-based learning cultivates a sense of curiosity and wonder about the world

around them. This approach not only improves students’ understanding of scientific concepts but

also instills a passion for learning and discovery, motivating them to inquire, investigate, and

seek answers to intriguing scientific questions.

Through inquiry-based instruction, learners develop essential skills such as observation,

experimentation, and data analysis, which are fundamental to scientific inquiry and exploration.

By engaging in authentic investigations and experiments, students actively participate in the

scientific process, honing their ability to formulate hypotheses, gather evidence, and draw logical

conclusions. This experiential learning approach not only deepens students’ comprehension of

scientific principles but also enhances their problem-solving and analytical skills, preparing them

for future scientific endeavors. Inquiry-based approaches significantly enhance students’

understanding of scientific concepts and processes (Minner, D. D., Levy, A. J., & Century, J.,

2014). In the book of Kuhlthau, C. C., Maniotes, L. K., & Caspari, A. K. (2015), it emphasizes

the role of inquiry in developing students' skills for navigating and making sense of complex

information in the 21st century.

Research study shows that inquiry-based instruction for learners not only enhances their

academic performance in science but also fosters a positive attitude towards learning and a sense

of scientific self-efficacy. Ergul, Simsekli, Calıs, Ozdilek, Gocmencelebi and Sanlı (2011)

carried out the study with elementary students about how inquiry-based science learning change

their science process skills and attitudes towards science and had reached the conclusion that

inquiry-based science learning significantly influenced on their science process skills and

attitudes towards science. Science process skills (SPS) are important in science learning. SPS is a

skill process that encourages lifelong learning. In guided inquiry-based science learning, students

engage in many of the activities and thought processes that scientists use to generate new

knowledge. This inquiry approach can be implemented effectively with the use of chemistry

modules for investigation in which students learn to understand the content of the subject

(Arantika, 2019). Science process skills are considered the basics of scientific inquiry and critical

thinking. A deep understanding of science lessons requires the use of process skills in science

subjects (Majeed, S. ., Yasmin, F., & Ahmad, R., 2023). Results on the study of Abdi (2014)

showed that students who were instructed through inquiry-based learning higher score than the
ones which were instructed through the traditional method. It is also revealed on the study of

Duran, M., & Dökme, I. (2016) that science and technology learning supported with the guided

activities developed in line with the IBL approach have significant effects on students' critical-

thinking skills in science and technology courses. In the study of AKTAMIŞ, H., HİĞDE, E., &

ÖZDEN, B. (2016), it was found that the inquiry-based learning method used in science

education had much more significant effects on student achievement rather than on their science

process skills and their attitudes towards science in contrast to the traditional teaching method.

These works emphasize the importance and effectiveness of inquiry-based learning approaches

in developing critical thinking skills in science. They highlight the shift from structured to open

inquiry and the role of guided inquiry in promoting deeper understanding and critical analysis of

scientific concepts.

In addition, inquiry-based instruction promotes a growth mindset and resilience for

learners by encouraging them to approach challenges as opportunities for learning and growth.

By engaging in inquiry-driven activities that require experimentation, iteration, and reflection,

students develop a sense of perseverance, adaptability, and problem-solving skills. This

resilience-building aspect of inquiry-based learning equip students with the mindset and skills

needed to navigate uncertainties, overcome obstacles, and embrace intellectual challenges in

their academic journeys and beyond.

Overall, inquiry-based instruction not only enhances academic performance in science

but also equips learners with essential 21st-century skills such as critical thinking,

communication, and collaboration. By promoting a growth mindset, resilience, and intellectual

curiosity, inquiry-based learning empowers students to approach scientific challenges with

confidence, adaptability, and a spirit of inquiry. The benefits of inquiry-based instruction extend
far beyond the classroom, laying the foundation for a lifelong love of learning, a deep

appreciation for scientific inquiry, and a skill set that prepares students for success in the ever-

evolving world of science and technology.

Theories and Concepts Relevant to the Present Study

The integration of educational theories such as behaviorism and constructivism plays a

crucial role in shaping instructional strategies and learning experiences for learners in the context

of improving critical thinking skills and science learning through inquiry-based instruction.

Behaviorism emphasizes the influence of environmental stimuli on shaping behaviors through

reinforcement and conditioning, while constructivism highlights the active construction of

knowledge by learners through hands-on experiences and reflection. By understanding and

applying these theories in this study, educators can enhance students’ cognitive development,

scientific reasoning, and engagement in the learning process.

Behaviorism, as a theoretical framework, provides valuable insights into the role of

positive reinforcement and rewards in stimulating critical thinking skills and active participation

in scientific inquiry tasks. Behaviorists believe external stimulation influences one’s leaning

behavior, rewards and punishment can change one’s learning performance ((Ouyang & Stanley,

2014). By implementing behaviorist principles in the study, educators can use feedback, praise,

and recognition to reinforce desired behaviors and motivate learners to engage in inquiry-based

learning activities. Researchers and scholars confirmed that behaviorism has greatly promoted

and effectively implemented in inquiry based learning instruction. The attitude and level of

student involvement in learning are highly dependent on the mastery of science literacy (Abdi,
2014). Incorporating behaviorism principles into inquiry-based instruction can provide a

structured framework for reinforcing desired behaviors linked to critical thinking. By utilizing

behaviorist strategies such as positive reinforcement and conditioning within the inquiry process,

educators can shape students' thinking patterns and encourage active engagement in scientific

inquiry.

On the other hand, constructivism emphasizes the active role of learners in constructing

knowledge and meaning based on their experiences and interactions with the environment. This

theory emphasizes that good and real learning information is not based on what the teacher says

or the learners heard even if the learners repeating this information over and over. Instead,

constructivism emphasizes that the learners construct and built the information inside their mind

based on their experiences and prior knowledge (Aldoobie, 2015). The learners working within

their mind individually in order to build their own knowledge, which explains that, the

knowledge is not transmitted to them in a way or another instead learners will use their own

experience and prior knowledge to explain new knowledge. Inquiry based learning instruction

are proven to self-pacing approach in learning (Gray, 2011). Constructivist principles can guide

educators in providing opportunities for learners to engage in hands-on, experiential learning

activities that promote inquiry, exploration, and discovery. Inquiry-based learning is a

constructivist learning approach that can increase the knowledge from investigation and

exploration activities which will enhance their critical thinking skill (Jeffery, et al., 2016; Capps

& Crawford, 2013; Bell, et al., 2010; Dudu & Vhurumuku, 2012). Constructivism in the context

of the study promotes an active learning environment where Grade 6 learners are encouraged to

construct their knowledge through inquiry-based activities. By engaging students in hands-on

exploration and collaborative problem-solving, constructivism fosters a deeper understanding of

scientific concepts and enhances critical thinking skillsBy encouraging students to construct their

understanding of scientific concepts through experimentation, problem solving, and reflection,

educators foster a deeper engagement with the material and empower students to take ownership

of their learning process.

The combination of behaviorism and constructivism in the instructional design of the

study creates a dynamic and interactive learning environment that fosters critical thinking,

problem-solving skills, and scientific inquiry processes among learners. By balancing the

behavioral aspects of reinforcement and conditioning with the constructivist emphasis on active

learning outcomes in the context of science education. Through the integration of these theories,

educators can empower learners to become independent thinkers, problem solvers, and lifelong

learners in the field of science education.

Finally, these cited literatures/studies support the theoretical foundation of our study

“Improving the Critical Thinking Skills and Science Learning of Grade 6 Learners using Inquiry-

Based Instruction. They provide evidence of the effectiveness of inquiry-based learning, the

importance of developing critical thinking skills, and the positive impact of such approaches on

science learning outcomes.

Definition of Terms

To give light on how the relevant terms are used in the context of this study, the following

terms are operationally defined.

 Critical thinking skill refers to the ability of Grade 6 learners to analyze information,

evaluate evidence, construct logical arguments, and make informed decisions in the context of

their science learning.

Science Learning refers to the Grade 6 learners’ understanding of scientific concepts,

principles, and theories taught in their science curriculum.

Inquiry-based Instruction refers to the instructional approach implemented in the science

classroom, where learners are actively engaged in questioning, investigating, and problem-

solving activities.

Grade 6 Learners refers to the students in the sixth grade who are participating in this

study.

Age refers to the length of time that the respondent has lived.

Parent’s Educational Attainment refers to the highest level of education completed by the

parents or guardians of Grade 6 learners.

Available Learning Materials refer to the educational resources and materials accessible

to Grade 6 learners for the purpose of supporting their science learning.

Pre-test and Post-test are the assessment instruments administered to Grade 6 learners

before and after the implementation of the inquiry-based instruction intervention, respectively.
 CHAPTER 2
METHODOLOGY
Research Design

This study utilized quasi-experimental design. Specifically, it involves a single group of

respondents comprising Grade 6 learners who will receive instruction in science using the

Inquiry-Based Instruction approach. All learners undergo a pre-test prior to the intervention.

Throughout the intervention period, the learners are exposed to Inquiry-Based Instruction

methods. Following the intervention, the learners undergo a post-test to examine the

effectiveness of the intervention.

Participants of the Study

The study was conducted at CSU Aparri and involved Grade 6 learners from San Antonio

Elementary School, located in Aparri, Cagayan. The participants were selected randomly from a

single section of Grade 6 students to ensure consistency in the instructional approach. The
inclusion criteria for participants were based on their enrollment status in Grade 6 at San Antonio

Elementary School during the research period. A total of _________ Grade 6 learners

participated in the study, all of whom received instruction using the Inquiry-Based method.

Participation in the study was voluntary, and informed consent was obtained from both the

students and their parents or guardians prior to their involvement in the research as well as the

permission of the teacher in charge and advisory teacher of the chosen participants.

Instrumentation

In this study, researchers will seek permission from the school principal or school head of

San Antonio Elementary School. Data will be gathered using inventory questionnaires with two

parts. Part 1 will collect demographic information such as age, sex, parents’ educational

attainment, and the availability of learning materials, with tools designed by the researchers. Part

2 will assess Grade 6 pupils’ performance in science using inquiry-based and traditional

instruction methods, with instructional materials and lesson plans as special equipment. Data will

be collected through questionnaires to evaluate critical thinking skills and science learning

outcomes, with pre-test and post-test assessments measuring initial levels and changes in critical

thinking skills and science knowledge, respectively. Additionally, questionnaires will be

distributed to gather quantitative data on students’ perceptions of the inquiry-based instructional

approach.
Data Gathering Procedure (for quasi-experimental)

The following data gathering procedure outlines the systematic approach for conducting

the study.

1. Development of Lesson Plans and Instructional Materials

- Developed lesson plans and instructional materials focusing on improving critical

thinking skills and science learning through Inquiry-Based Instruction for Grade 6

learners.

2. Assessment of Instructional Materials by Educators

- Educators evaluated the developed instructional materials to ensure their

sustainability, clarity, and effectiveness in promoting critical thinking skills and

science learning.

3. Pre-test Administration

- Before implementing the Inquiry-Based Instruction, a pre-test was administered to

Grade 6 learners. This test served to establish a baseline measure of their current

levels of critical thinking skills and science knowledge. The results helped in

comparing the students’ progress after the intervention.

4. Implementation of Inquiry-Based Instruction in Science Teaching

- Involved delivering science instruction to Grade 6 learners using the Inquiry-

Based Instruction approach. The focused is on engaging students in active

learning, exploration, and inquiry to foster critical thinking skills and deepen their

understanding of science concepts.

5. Post-Test Evaluation
 - After completing the Inquiry-Based Instruction, a post-test was administered to

the Grade 6 learners. The test is similar to the pre-test and aimed to assess the

students’ progress and improvement in critical thinking skills and science learning

following the intervention.

6. Distribution of Survey Questionnaires

- Survey questionnaires were distributed to the Grade 6 learners to gather feedback

on their experiences with the Inquiry-based instruction. They offered perspectives

on their engagement, understanding, and perceived learning outcomes.

7. Data Analysis and Interpretation

- The collected data, including pre-test and post-test scores, as well as feedback

from survey questionnaires, were analyzed to assess the impact of the Inquiry-

Based Instruction on critical thinking skills and science learning among Grade 6

learners.

Statistical Tools/Data Analysis Plan

For the descriptive part of the study, frequencies, means, median, mode, and standard

deviation will be calculated and use. Improving critical thinking skills and science learning of

grade 6 learners through inquiry-based learning. It will be describe through 5-point rating scales

and weighted mean which are describe as follows:

Scale Evaluation Rating:

5-4. 50-5 – Excellent

4-3. 50-4.49 – Very Satisfactory

3-2. 50-3.49 – Satisfactory

2-1. 50-2.49 – Fair

1-1.00-1.49 – Poor

One-way analysis of variance will be use for the comparison of pre-test score and post-

test score or respondents on their critical thinking skills and science learning during the

demonstration using inquiry-based instruction.

Pearson r will be used to evaluate the impact of inquiry-based instruction using the pre-

test and post-test to assess if there is a correlation and improvements on the respondents’ critical

thinking skills and science learning during science sessions.