Chapter 2

Lubricants
 Frictional forces and lubrication
• Resistance to motion is defined as friction
• Friction - is created when there is relative motion
between two surfaces
• Lubrication is use of a material between surfaces
to reduce friction
• Any material used to reduce friction is called a
lubricant

Fluid
Molecules

The friction between fluid molecules moving over each other less than the friction between the
two surfaces moving across each other.
Coefficient of friction(μ) for some materials
Lubricants
• Lubricants introduced
in between moving
parts are useful in
order to reduce the
friction, generated
heat & wear and tear
of machine parts are
called Lubricants.
• This process of
introducing lubricant is
called Lubrication.
Human body of lubricants Hyaluronic injections

Acts as a lubricant and shock absorber in the joints and for beauty
Classification of lubricants
Semi solid lubricants
 Methods of lubrication
• Two main methods
• Hydrodynamic lubrication Film lube regime
• Boundary lubrication

• Boundary lubrication
• Occurs when Hydrodynamic
lubrication fails. By adsorption or
chemical reaction
• Boundary lubrication (h<Ra)
Composition of lubricants
Base oil
• Typically contains 90% base oil (petroleum-mineral oils) and less than
10% additives
• Non liquid lubricants contains Grease, powder(dry graphite,
Molybdenum disulphite), Teflon tape used in plumbing etc.
• Those non liquid lubricants provide lubrication at higher temp.(up to
350°C)

Additives
• Anti-oxidant: Aromatic amines,Phenols,Sulphides and phosphates
• Corrosion Inhibitor: Amino salts and salts of sulphonic acids
• Antiwear agents: Tricresyl phosphate
• Foam inhibitors : Glycerols
Surface Protective additives - Automotive Lubricants
Additive Purpose Typical Function
type compounds
Anti wear & Reduce friction & wear. Zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP), Chemical reaction with metal
EP Agent Prevent scoring & seizure surface and forms a film.
Prevents metal-to-metal contact

Organic Phosphates, acid phosphates,

organic sulfur and chlorin compounds
etc.
Corrosion Prevent corrosion and ZDDP, Metal phenolates, Basic Metal Preferential adsorption of polar
and Rust rusting of the metallic sulphonates, fatty acid & Amines. constituent on metal surface.
Inhibitor parts in contact with Provide protective film
lubricant Neutralize corrosive acids
Detergents Keep surface free of Metallo organic compounds of Chemical reaction with sludge
deposits Sodium, Calcium and Magnesium and varnish precursors to
phenolates neutralize them and keep them
Phosphonates and sulphonates soluble
Additive Purpose Typical Function
type compounds
Dispersant Keep insoluble Alkylsuccinimides, alkylsuccinic esters Contaminants are bonded by
contaminants dispersed and mannich reaction products polar attraction to dispersant
in the lubricant molecules.
Prevented from agglomerating
Kept in suspension due to
solubility of dispersant
Friction Alters coefficient of Organic fatty acids and amides. Preferential adsorbtion of
modifier friction Lard Oil, high molecular weight surface active materials
organic phosphorus.

Viscosity Reduce the rate of Polymers and copolymers of olefins, Polymers expand with increasing
modifier viscosity change with methacrylates, dienes temperatures
temperature Alkylated styrenes. This counteract oil thinning
Origin based oils classification
 Synthetic oils
Synthetic lubricants have been available for many years; in the early 1930s, synthetic
hydrocarbon and ester technologies were simultaneously developed in Germany and the
United States. Development of a catalytic polymerisation process of olefins in the United
States led to the formulation of automotive crankcase lubricants with improved low-
temperature performance. These products were not commercialised due both to the
inherent cost of these new synthetic base fluids and to performance improvements of
mineral oil-based lubricants.
In Germany, low-temperature performance drove the development of similar products,
although the main objective was to overcome the general shortage of petroleum base
stocks.
The seven types have major importance synthethic oils are polyalphaolefins, alkylated
aromatics, polybutenes, aliphatic diesters, polyolesters, polyalkylene glycols, and
phosphate esters.
 Synthetic esters
During the Second World War, a range of synthetic oils was developed, amongst which
esters of long-chain alcohols and acids proved to be excellent as low-temperature
lubricants. Following the Second World War, further development of esters was closely
linked to that of the aviation gas turbine. Neopolyol esters were used in the early 1960s
for this application because of their low volatility, high flash points and good thermal
stabilities. Esters are now used in many applications including automotive and marine
engine oils, compressor oils, hydraulic fluids, gear oils and grease formulations. The
inherent biodegradability of ester molecules gives added benefits, in addition to
thermal stability, hydrolytic stability, solvency, and lubricity.
Types of esters Control of physico-chemical
properties of synthetic esters
The viscosity of an ester lubricant can be altered by:
• increasing the molecular weight of the molecule by:
– increasing the carbon chain length of the acid,
– increasing the carbon chain length of the alcohol,
– increasing the number of ester groups.
• increasing the size or degree of branching,
• including cyclic groups in the molecular backbone,
• maximising dipolar interactions

The pour point of an ester lubricant can be decreased by:

• increasing branching,
• positioning of the branch – branching in the centre of
the molecule gives better
pour points than branches near to the chain ends,
• decreasing the acid chain length,
• decreasing the internal symmetry of the molecule.
SYNTHETIC OILS MINERAL OILS
HH HH S
C10H20 H-C-C-C-C-C-H
C10H20 C10H20 Small molecules HO HN H
vaporize at high temp Impurities oxidize
C10H20

All molecules same size

Large Molecules thicken at low temp
 Thick film Lubrication

• Hydrodynamic or fluid film lubrication.

• Two sliding metal surfaces are separated from each other by a thick film of
fluid (1000 A thick).
• The coefficient of friction in such cases is as low as 0.001 to 0.03
• Lubricants used : Hydrocarbon Oils.
• Provided in delicate instruments such as watches, clocks, light machines like
sewing machines, scientific instruments etc.
 Thin Film Lubrication

• This lubrication is also called Boundary Lubrication.

Its used for high load conditions. Very thin film of the
lubricant is adsorbed on the surface by physical or
chemical forces or both.
• The coefficient of friction is 0.05 to 0.15
• Lubricants used for boundary lubrication should have
high viscosity index, resistance to heat and oxidation,
good oiliness.
• Examples are Organic oils, Vegetable oils, Graphite
and MoS2, Mineral Oils etc.
• This lubrication is for very high
press/temp/speed sliding surfaces.
Extreme pressure additives are used along
with the lubricants.
Compounds of Cl, S & P
• These additives form solid surface films of
Cl, S & P.
• High melting point metal compounds are
good lubricants. E.g. graphite is used for
drawing wires made up of mild steel.
 Characteristic of lubricants
Flash Point
The flashpoint is defined as the lowest temperature at which the lubricating oil will flash
when a small flame crosses its surface. When the oil is heated, it reaches a temperature
at which, if a small flame is brought near it, a flash spreads across the oil. It happens due
to the volatilization of the light particles in the oil. The flashpoint of the oil should be
sufficiently high to avoid flashing of oil vapours at temperatures in common use.

Fire Point
If the oil is heated further after the flashpoint has been reached, the lowest temperature,
at which the oil will burn continuously is called the fire point. The fire point also must be
high in lubricating oil, so that the oil does not burn in service.
Oiliness
Oiliness is the characteristics property of oil. Oil is said to be oil when it has oiliness. This property
highly desirable in helping the lubricant to adhere to the cylinder walls.

Corrosion
Corrosion has been defined as the destruction of a solid body by electro-chemical action which
starts unintentionally outer surface. A lubricant should not occur the working parts and it must
retain its properties when in the presence of foreign matter and additives.

Colour
Colours of lubricating oil are not of so much importance for its properties aspect as a test for
checking the uniformity of any given grade or brand of oil.

Neutralization number
An oil may contain impurities that are not removed while refining. It may contain alkaline or acid
products. The neutralization number test is a simple procedure to determine acidity or alkalinity of
the oil. This is the weight in milligrams of potassium hydroxide necessitated by neutralizing the
acid content of one gram of oil.
Dilution
During the combustion, petrol vapour may accept past the piston ring if the rings are worn
or broken. A considerable amount of such fuel is mixed with the crankcase oil and dilutes
it, thus affecting its lubricating property. The test to determine the amount of dilution in
crankcase oil indicates how far oil could be used when mixed with petrol vapour.
Crankcase ventilation is forever, adopted to escape the petrol fumes

Sulphur Content
The sulphur is present in a considerable amount in the lubricating oil it promotes
corrosion. The corrosion test explains the amount of sulphur content.

Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is a measure of the density of oil. It is determined by a hydrometer which
floats in the oil, and the gravity is read on the scale of the hydrometer at the surface of the
oil. The scale used is the one recommended by the American petrol institute, and the
result is called the API gravity.
Emulsification
A lubricating oil, when mixed with water, loses its lubricating properties. The
emulsification number is an index of the tendency of an oil to emulsify with water.

Physical Stability
Lubricating oil must be stable physically at the lower and the highest temperature
between which the oil is to be used. At the lowest temperature, there should not be any
separation of solids, and at the highest temperature, it should not vaporise beyond a
certain limit.

Chemical Stability
A lubricating oil should also be stable chemically. There should be no tendency for oxide
to form. The oxidation products, being sticky, clog the working parts, cause the faulty
piston rings and valve action. Oil should not decompose even at high temperatures to
form carbon, which makes the spark plugs and valves defective to function.
 Cloud Point and Pour Point
• Pour Point is the temp at which the lubricant just ceases to flow when cooled.
• Cloud Point is the temp at which the lubricant becomes cloudy or hazy when cooled.
• Pour point of wax can be lowered by dewaxing or adding suitable pour point
depressant.
• Pour point of an oil can be lowered by lowering the viscosity of the oil which is
achieved by removing the viscous constituent of the oil.
• A high pour point leads to the solidification of the lubricant that may cause jamming
of the machine.