CHAPTER- MOTIVATION
Motivation refers to the process by which a person’s efforts are energized, directed, and
sustained toward attaining a goal. There are three elements of motivation:
Direction
Intensity
Persistency
There are two types of motivation. One is internal motivation which is generated by the
person him. And second type of motivation is ignited by the others in the form of some
appreciation.
Early Theories of Motivation
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
The best-known theory of motivation is probably Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs theory.8 Maslow was a psychologist who proposed that within every person is a
hierarchy of five needs:
1. Physiological needs: A person’s needs for food, drink, shelter, sex, and other physical
requirements.
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2. Safety needs: A person’s needs for security and protection from physical and
emotional harm, as well as assurance that physical needs will continue to be met.
3. Social needs: A person’s needs for affection, belongingness, acceptance, and
friendship.
4. Esteem needs: A person’s needs for internal esteem factors such as self-respect,
autonomy, and achievement and external esteem factors such as status, recognition,
and attention.
5. Self-actualization needs: A person’s needs for growth, achieving one’s potential,
and self-fulfillment; the drive to become what one is capable of becoming
2. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas McGregor is best known for proposing two assumptions about human nature:
Theory X is a negative view of people that assumes workers have little ambition,
dislike work, want to avoid responsibility, and need to be closely controlled to work
effectively. Theory Y is a positive view that assumes employees enjoy work, seek out
and accept responsibility, and exercise self-direction
3. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Frederick Herzberg’s two-factor theory (also called motivation-hygiene theory)
proposes that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are
Associated with job dissatisfaction.13 Herzberg wanted to know when people felt
exceptionally good (satisfied)or bad (dissatisfied) about their jobs
4. McClelland Three-Needs Theory
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David McClelland and his associates proposed the three-needs theory, which says there
are three acquired (not innate) needs that are major motives in work.14 These three
needs include the need for achievement (nAch), which is the drive to succeed and excel
in relation to a set of standards; the need for power (nPow), which is the need to make
others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise; and the need for
affiliation (nAff), which is the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.
Of these three needs, the need for achievement has been researched the most.
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
5. Goal-Setting Theory
Goal-setting theory, which says that specific goals increase performance and those
difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals.
6. Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement theory says that behavior is a function of its consequences. Those
consequences that immediately follow a behavior and increase the probability that the
behavior will be repeated are called reinforcers.
Reinforcement theory ignores factors such as goals, expectations, and needs. Instead, it
focuses solely on what happens to a person when he or she does something Using
reinforcement theory, managers can influence employees’ behavior by using
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positive reinforces for actions that help the organization achieve its goals. And
managers should ignore, not punish, undesirable behavior. Although punishment
eliminates undesired behavior faster than no reinforcement does, its effect is often
temporary and may have unpleasant side effects including dysfunctional behavior such
as workplace conflicts, absenteeism, and turnover. Although reinforcement is an
important influence on work behavior, it isn’t the only explanation for differences in
employee motivation.
7. Designing Motivating Jobs
Refers to the way tasks are combined to form complete jobs.
Job enlargement means increasing the scope of a job through extending the range of its
job duties and responsibilities generally within the same level
Job enrichment is a common motivational technique used by organizations to give an
employee greater satisfaction in his work. It means giving an employee additional
responsibilities previously reserved for his manager or other higher-ranking positions.
Job Characteristics Model. (JCM)
Even though many organizations implemented job enlargement and job enrichment
programs and experienced mixed results, neither approach provided an effective
framework for managers to design motivating jobs. But the job characteristics model
(JCM) does.40 It identifies five core job dimensions, their interrelationships, and their
impact on employee productivity, motivation, and satisfaction.
These five core job dimensions are:
1. Skill variety, the degree to which a job requires a variety of activities so that an
employee can use a number of different skills and talents.
2. Task identity, the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and
identifiable piece of work. 3. Task significance, the degree to which a job has a
substantial impact on the lives or work of other people.
3. Autonomy, the degree to which a job provides substantial freedom,
independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and
determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.
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4. Feedback, the degree to which doing work activities required by a job results in
individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or
her performance.
8. Equity Theory
Proposes that employees compare what they get from a job (outcomes) in relation to
what they put into it (inputs), and then they compare their inputs–outcomes ratio with
the inputs–outcomes ratios of relevant others
9. Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the
expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of
that outcome to the individual. It includes three variables or relationships
1. Expectancy or effort–performance linkage is the probability perceived by the
individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to a certain level of
performance.
2. Instrumentality or performance–reward linkage is the degree to which the
individual believes that performing at a particular level is instrumental in
attaining the desired outcome.
3. Valence or attractiveness of reward is the importance that the individual places
on the potential outcome or reward that can be achieved on the job. Valence
considers both the goals and needs of the individual.
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