Operations

Managing the processes that transform and add value to inputs to create outputs of goods and
services.
Role of operations management
Strategic role of operations management – cost leadership, good/service differentiation
Strategic role = focusing on decisions for achieving long-term goals. The strategic goals are to improve:

• Productivity
• Efficiency
• Quality of outputs.
It involves operations managers contributing to the strategic direction of strategic plan of the business
Cost Leadership: involves aiming to have the lowest costs or to be the most price-competitive in the
market. This is gained by offering greater value by means of lower prices, grater quality or by providing
greater benefits and service at no extra cost. Most businesses who aim to be cost leader will have a high
degree of standardisation. Can keep cost down through:
• Economies of scale in production and distribution
• Access to cheaper raw materials
• Exclusive access to a large source of low cost inputs
• Developing an efficient scale of operationseconomies of scale
• Using up-to-date technology in production
• Controlling production and research costs.
Good/service differentiation: involves differing products from competitors. Is can be achieved through:
• Altering the quality
• Faster delivery (efficiency)
• Customisation
• More features and applications on the physical appearance
• Location of operations
• Improving the service
Goods and/or services in different industries
Goods can either be:
• Standardised (mass produced, uniform in quality, produced with a production focus)
• Customised (varied according to the needs of the customer, produced with a market
focus)
• Can be reused
• Hard to modify once manufactured
• Perishable or non-perishable
• Tangible product that requires factory/machinery and space
• Less labour intensive than services
• The manufacturing of goods has become automated with computer-aided design
(CAD) and computer-aided manufacture (CAM).
Services can be:
• Standardised (e.g. fast food restaurant)
• Customised (e.g. medical services, hairdressers)
• They are intangible
• Can only be used by the customer once
• Easier to change and customise
• More interaction with customers
• Require more people and have an office-centred production
Interdependence with other key business functions
All key functions are interdependent and rely in each other for success.
Operations- must supply a product that has the features and quality consumers want as well as being
reliable in distributing the product to the market.
Marketing- connects operations directly with the customer. Identifies the nature of consumers’ desires and
implements marketing strategies to encourage purchase of goods made in operations.
Finance- required so production and distribution can take place. The finance manager creates budgets and
makes funds available to purchase inputs, equipment and repairs.
Human Resources- required for the hiring of employees to work in production. Ensures that there are
enough employees with the appropriate skills.
Influences on operations
Globalisation, technology, quality expectations, cost-based competition, government
policies, legal regulation, environmental sustainability
Globalisation:
• Able to reduce the cost of operations by pursuing a global web strategy (location of
different parts of the production process in different areas) which will reduce labour costs
• More abundance of raw materials, technology skills and low transport costs
• Can also act as a threat to a business as other businesses who apply cost leadership can
dominate the market
• Able to reach new markets and provide franchises
• Gives consumers the opportunity to purchase products from the business that provides
the most value for money
• Access to a global market for businesses to sell their outputs

Technology:
• Enables service-based businesses to penetrate global markets with the international
distribution of information through the internet and smart phones
• Can result in the development of new methods of production or new equipment that
helps businesses perform functions more quickly and efficiently (lower cost)
• Computer-aided design (CAM) and computer-aided manufacture (CAM) has impacted
the number of employees needed within operations
• It improves efficiency, logistics and reduces reliance on human labour
Quality expectations: customer expectations and satisfaction with the product(s). Operations of the delivery
of services can have a positive impact on customer satisfaction. Customers require world-class standards in
products and after-sales support. Customers will have certain beliefs about:
• Durability (how long the product lasts given a reasonable amount of use)
• Reliability (how long the product functions without needing repairs or maintenance)
• Fit for purpose (how well the product does what it is supposed to)
Cost-based competition: A business can gain a price advantage over its competitors by using operational
strategies that lower costs through:
• Cheaper labour and resources
• Outsourcingeconomies of scale, global web strategy
• Lowering quality
• Using cheaper inputs
Government policies:
• Government policies are methods used by the government that encourage the
operations function of a business to be more innovative and competitive.
• A common way to support these innovative businesses is to provide monetary benefits
such as a financial grant or tax concessions.
• There has been a gradual reduction in ‘protection’ of Australian businesses forcing
them to be more efficient in their operations and reduce costs.
• Free trades, taxation, interest rates, government spending and environmental
incentives.
Legal regulations:
• The aim of government regulation of a business is to promote safety and fair business
conduct.
• Many of the regulatory requirements exist at a local, state and federal level.
• It is the legal responsibility of the operations manager to be aware of all the laws
 relevant to the operations function and ensure that the business complies with them.
• Work Health and Safety (WHS), anti-discrimination, equal employment opportunity
(EEO), local zoning, and GST collection.

Environmental sustainability:
• Ecological sustainability refers to the development and use of methods of production
that allow resources to be used by producers today without limiting the ability of future generations
to satisfy their needs and wants.
• Consumers need to be aware of the cost and disposal of excessive packaging.
• Society will have a positive attitude towards businesses that are environmentally
friendly and good corporative citizens.
• Involves the use of alternative resources, organic growing, recycling and packaging
and catering for future generations.
Corporate social responsibility
-the difference between legal compliance and ethical responsibility
-environmental sustainability and social responsibility
Corporate social responsibility is a commitment by a business to operate ethically to protecting and
contributing to the resources and interests of customers. It is how success and profitability is determined and
how well it considers the interests of employees, consumers and the community.
Legal compliance is mandatory and of greater importance than ethical responsibility as there are not
specific laws the business would be breaking, yet unethical behaviours may lose customers.
• Ethical behaviour involves making decisions that are not only legally correct but also
morally correct.
• For operations, a code of conduct will be concerned with:
• minimising harm to the environment
• reducing waste, recycling and reusing
• producing value-for-money, quality products
• improving customer service
Environmental sustainability is about the present use not affecting the future use, looking after the
environment for future generations. Social responsibility refers to the positive effect on the community-
protecting interests of customers and wider society, e.g. initiatives/charity to community.
• By pursuing environmentally sustainable goals a business will be contributing to a
better quality of life for society.
Operations processes
Inputs
-transformed resources (materials, information, customers)
-transforming resources (human resources, facilities)
Common direct inputs= labour, energy, raw materials, skills/knowledge, machinery and technology.
Transformed resources: inputs that are changed or converted in the operations process to a finished good
or service.
• Materials- raw materials and intermediate goods (e.g. supplies, parts) used up in the
operations
• Information-influence and inform how inputs are used, where and which supplier to
use and to keep control over material inputs.

• Customers-their choices shape inputs. Customers can be changed in different ways,

e.g. feel that value has been added to their lives after seeing a film or going on holidays.
Transforming resources: resources that remain in the business and carry out the transformation process to
add value to inputs.
• Human resources-effectiveness of human resources determines the success of the
transformation. The skill, knowledge, capabilities and labour of people is applied to materials to
convert them into goods and services.
 • Facilities-plant, machinery, buildings, land, equipment and technology used in
operations.
Transformation processes
-the influence of volume, variety, variation in demand and visibility (customer contact)
-sequencing and scheduling – Gantt charts, critical path analysis
-technology, task design and process layout
-monitoring, control and improvement
The transformation processes are those activities that determine how value will be added. These processes
can add value in four ways:
• Physical altering of the physical inputs or the changes that happen to people
• Transportation of goods or services, e.g. having them delivered to a more convenient
location
• Protection and safety from the environment; for example, protecting assets
• Inspection by giving customers a better understanding of the good or service

The influence of volume:

• The actual number of products or services produced by the operation.

• A business using mass production will produce a high volume with a high degree of
process repetition.
• A business with customization and low production will allow for lots of stoppages and
adjustments.
• When volume is the largest factor, there will be lots of capital facilities and
technology, but less labour. Assembly lines using convey or belts will be common and organized.
• Low volume= 5 star restaurant, high volume = fast food restaurant.
The influence of variety:

• Variety refers to the range of products made, number of different models and
variations offered in the products or services.
• A business producing a high volume product with low variety will be capital intensive.
• Low variety= car factory with small variations. High variety= financial advice.
The influence of variation in demand:

• amount of produce desired by customers

• Variation can change according to time of day, season, holidays and time of year.
• When there are steady levels with no variation, there will be high volume and capital
costs.
• Low variation= bread and milk. High variation = ice cream factory
The influence in visibility (customer contact):

• Operations will also be influenced by the degree to which customers can see the
operations in action.
• Service-based businesses will have a high level of visibility. Speed of operations will
also be important as customers usually have a much lower tolerance for waiting.
• High visibility= restaurant. Low visibility= beef producer.

Sequencing= a plan showing the order in which activities occur

Scheduling=used to plan the length of time activities take and the sequence of the use of resources
Gantt charts records the number of tasks involved in each particular project and the estimated time needed
for each task, good for long-term projects, easy to understand
Critical path analysis a scheduling tool that allows manager to see shortest length of time to complete all
tasks, precise in timing, good for short-term tasks

Technology: It makes task more effective and efficient, high-tech or low-tech, less employees needed,
increasingly important, cost is also relevant, allows more work to be done in a shorter time,
machinery/manufacturing technology-robotics, CAD and CAM.
Task Design: is how the task will be completed. It allows for ongoing analysis and adjustments in each
activity to ensure continuous improvement in productivity. Classifying job activities, what needs to be done,
making it easy for an employee to successfully complete tasks, job analysis, can be cone after a skills audit
is conducted.
Process layout: arrangement of machines in a sequence-grouped together by function/process they perform

Monitoring- the systematic collection and analysis of information as a task progresses. These include:
quality, speed, dependability, flexibility, customisation and costs. It is aimed at improving the efficiency and
effectiveness of an operations process. The purpose of it is to see if resources have been allocated properly
and are being used efficiently.
Control- a function that aims at keeping the business’s actual performance as close as possible to what was
planned by making adjustments to the operation process. It is about assessing the performance of a business.
Improvement- suggests that adjustments and readjustments may need to be made to day-to-day activities in
the short term and even the entire operations process in the long term. There can be improvements in:
quality, speed, dependability, flexibility and cost.

Outputs
-customer service
-warranties
Outputs: good or service provided/delivered to a customer, are the final products that a business offers to
customers.

Customer service- is a service provided to customers before, during and after a purchase. It is an intangible
output that requires extensive contact with customers. Good customer service will increase customer
satisfaction. How a business meets and exceeds the expectation of customers in all aspects of its operations,
key in developing long-term relationships.

Warranties- an assurance that a business stands by the quality claims of the products that they make and
provide to the market. Agreement to fix defects in products, an assessment of warranty claims can help a
business to adjust transformations processes to be more effective.

Operations strategies
Performance objectives – quality, speed, dependability, flexibility, customisation, cost
Quality= quality of service/conformity/design, can be measured in rate of returns and feedback. Good
quality prevents costs by product recalls and repairs, dimensions of quality are: durability, performance,
serviceability (convenient to repair) and aesthetics (does it look good).
Speed= time it takes for production/operations process to respond to changes in the market demand, tested
by analysing wait time and production speed, if the production is too fast the quality may suffer.
Dependability= consistency and reliability of products, measured by warranty claims and complaints.
Flexibility= how quickly processes adapt to market change, technology, ability to make changes to
operations due to external factors.
Customisation= creation of individualised products to meet specific customer needs.
Cost= minimisation of expenses so that operations processes are conducted as cheaply as possible.
New product or service design and development
New product: design, development, launch and sales of new products allows a business to grow and
maintain a competitive advantage, different approaches (customer approach/changes or innovation in
technology).
Service design and development: more complex, adding to the service offered to the customer, can be
adding to variety/increase of choice, develop within cast structure.
Supply chain management – logistics, e-commerce, global sourcing
Supply chain management is the stream of processes of moving goods from the customer order through the
raw material stage, supply, production and distribution of products to the customer. Integrating and
managing the flow of supplies throughout the inputs/transformation process/outputs to best meet the needs
of customers, supplier rationalism/backwards vertical integration/cost minimisation/flexible responsive
supply chain process
Logistics: the transport of physical raw materials, inputs and the distribution of finished goods to markets. It
involves the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, materials handling and
packaging. Computerisation can make the task faster/more efficient. The role of logistics is to ensure that
operations have the right items at the right quantity and the right time at the right place.
E-commerce: the use of internet to buy and sell goods and services. Alter operation process, e-procurement,
managing supplies in an organised way, makes trading easier, cheaper access to global markets, privacy and
security issues, and increased risk of purchasing unsatisfactory or faulty materials.
Global sourcing: business acquires the inputs it needs for production across the borders of a number of
countries. A business seeks to find the most cost effective location for manufacturing a product, even if the
location is overseas, may be cheaper to purchase inputs from overseas than create them, keep control over
complex supply chains, lower costs, loss of control over quality, reliability and costs, slower lead times.
Outsourcing – advantages and disadvantages
Outsourcing: occurs where other businesses provide the raw materials and components, and also service
inputs.
Advantages- external provider specialised, lower costs, greater effectiveness, require less capital
expenditure, can use employees of other business, may contribute to the speed, give the business flexibility
to choose the suppliers it wants, requires less input from management, the business can focus on its core
business.
Disadvantages- if ineffective may be more expensive, not in control, if competitors are doing the same=less
competitive advantage, dependent on other businesses, can involve a loss of jobs, can the security and
confidentiality issues.
Technology – leading edge, established
Leading edge= most advanced or innovative, is sometimes still being developed
Established= developed and widely used
Inventory management – advantages and disadvantages of holding stock, LIFO (last-in-
first-out), FIFO (first-in-first-out), JIT (just-in-time)
Inventory management refers to the systems and processes that identify the quantity of goods or materials
to be ordered and the timing of the delivery of those goods or materials. Inventory control has 3 aims:
determine maximum and minimum stock, provide details of changes in inventory to trigger management
decisions to reorder, strategies applied impact transformation process.
Advantages of holding stock: consumer demand can be met, reduces lead times between order/delivery,
storage of stock allows business to promote products in non-traditional/new markets, stock adds value to
business, making products in bulk can reduce costs, dependability of delivery
Disadvantages of holding stock: costs with storage, invested capital/labour/energy can be used elsewhere, if
stock is unsold the business experiences a loss, increased management costs, goods may pass their expiry or
use by date.
LIFO (last-in-first-out): last goods produced are the first out or used and therefore each unity sold/used is
the last one recorded, the newer stock is displayed for sale before products purchased at an earlier date. This
endures that up-to-date stock is on display for customers.
FIFO (first-in-first-out): first goods produced are the first ones sold/used, therefore the cost of each unit
sold/used is first recorded, can be used if price of supplies/goods remain relatively stable, used when
products have a used-by date.
JIT (just-in-time): ensures exact amount of products or materials arrive only as they are needed, can save
money as it eliminates inventories but require flexible operations/reliable suppliers.
Quality management
-control
-assurance
-improvement
Quality management: involves setting performance objectives that clearly set quality as a foremost goal.

Quality Control- involves checking transformed and transforming resources in all stages of the production
processes, failure to meet pre-determined targets=corrective action

Quality Assurance- involves monitoring and evaluation of the various processes of a project, service or
facility to ensure that a minimum level of quality is being achieved by the production process. Assures set
standards are met, pre-determined (universal) quality standards

Quality Improvement- involves continuous improvement in all functional areas to reduce the rate at which
mistakes occur. Ongoing commitment to improving goods/service and total quality management-quality is a
commitment/responsibility of all staff

Overcoming resistance to change – financial costs, purchasing new equipment,

redundancy payments, retraining, reorganising plant layout, inertia
Major reasons for resistance to change are:

Financial costs-purchasing new equipment, redundancy payments, retraining, reorganisation of plant layout

Inertia- psychological resistance, fear of losing jobs/uncertainty.

Global factors – global sourcing, economies of scale, scanning and learning, research and
development
Global sourcing: refers to the process of acquiring raw materials, services and various parts that are needed
to manufacture goods or services. A business may use a global web strategy.
Economies of scale: occur when the amount of production increases and as a result of this increased output
there is a decrease in the cost of production per unit of output.
Scanning and learning: involves monitoring a business’s internal and external environment so that it can
gather, analyse and use information for tactical or strategic purposes. Scanning the global environment to
identify and learn the critical global trends that may impact on the business.
Research and development: helps business to creating ideas for new products or services that will give
them a leading edge over other businesses.
 Marketing
The process of developing a product and implementing a series of strategies aimed at
correctly promoting, pricing and distributing the product to its target market.
Role of marketing
Strategic role of marketing goods and services
Central and strategic role brings the products of the business and customers together to increase the market
share of the business.
Interdependence with other key business functions
Operations: as the sales of a product decline over time, the operations manager and marketing manager
need to design and develop new products, operations needs data from marketing to know what to produce.
Finance: the business needs to know how much money it can put into marketing.
Human Resources: staff must be hired and trained to have experienced employees marketing the products.
Production, selling, marketing approaches
Production= emphasis on quantity and reducing costs, demand greater than supply. Mass market, low-cost
production.
Selling= businesses think of customer only after product has been made, emphasis on selling and
advertising. Supply greater than demand, persuasive sales techniques
Marketing= focuses on the customers’ needs and wants, emphasis on customer satisfaction, modification-
societal approach emphasises quality, safety and the environment, customer focus, customer orientation,
relationship marketing.
Types of markets – resource, industrial, intermediate, consumer, mass, niche
Resource= where the production and sale of raw materials occur, e.g. land. Where the factors of production
are sold exchanges, these resources are then sold to firms producing goods/services for customers
Industrial= markets for manufactured products, e.g. agriculture, mining. Those who buy goods/services that
go into the production of other products
Intermediate= markets to provide the link between producers and the marketplaces where consumers make
their purchase decisions, (wholesalers) e.g. supermarket. Those who buy goods/services to resell/rent to
others, wholesalers-steps to produce the final product
Consumer= markets that sell directly to the individual. A market for goods at their final point of
consumption
Mass= market for goods appealing to the majority of customers, e.g. milk, bread, electricity
Niche= smaller markets for more specialised goods/services, appealing to fewer people, e.g. luxury cars.
Influences on marketing
Factors influencing customer choice – psychological, sociocultural, economic,
government
Psychological: personal characteristics of an individual (perception, attitudes, lifestyle, personality and self-
concept).
Sociocultural: forces exerted by other people and groups (family and roles, religion, culture, peers).
Economic: the amount of money available to spend (boom, recession).
Government: policies and laws directly/indirectly influence business activity and consumers’ spending
habits (interest rates, fiscal and monetary policies, age restrictions, income tax).
Consumer laws
-deceptive and misleading advertising
-price discrimination
-implied conditions
-warranties
The Competition and Consumer Act 2010 attempts to promote fair and competitive behaviour in the
marketplace.
Deceptive and misleading advertising= overstating benefits, offering discounts and special offers that
don’t exist, bait and switch advertising (promotes a product that is heavily discounted even though the
business has very little supplies).
Price discrimination= the process of a business giving preference to some retail stores by providing them
with stock at lower prices than is offered to the competitors of those retailers.

Implied conditions= terms unspoken or written in a contract. The product needs to be good quality, of
reasonable standard and fit for purpose.

Warranties= a promise by the business to repair or replace faulty products. A business must either refund or
exchange goods recognised as faulty at the time of leaving the store, this is an implied warranty.

Ethical – truth, accuracy and good taste in advertising, products that may damage health,
engaging in fair competition, sugging
Ethical behaviour refers to the generally accepted code of behaviour. When marketing a business should act
in an ethical way. They need to consider health concerns, social obligations, cost of marketing, sugging and
fair competition.

Truth, accuracy and good taste in advertising: it is expected that all promotional material is truthful,
accurate and in good taste. Consumers have a right to accurate and truthful information from businesses
about their purchases.

Products that may damage health: restrictions on products that damage health, e.g. tobacco smoking

Engaging in fair competition: business behaviour must be fair and ethical towards their competitors.

Sugging: selling under the guise of a survey. This is not illegal but it is unethical as it involves an invasion
of privacy and deception.

Marketing processes
Elements of the marketing plan are:
• Executive summary
• Situational analysis
• Market research
• Establishing marketing objectives
• Identifying the target market
• Developing marketing strategies
• Implementing, monitoring and controlling.
1. Situational analysis – SWOT, product life cycle
A situational analysis is the current situation of the business.
SWOT- provides the information needed to complete the situational analysis and gives a clear indication of
the business’s position compared to its competitors. The strengths and weaknesses are the internal forces
within the business. Opportunities and threats are the external forces as they operate outside the business and
cannot be controlled by the business.
Product lifecycle- different marketing strategies should be used as products travel through the product life
cycle
• Introduction/establishment: profits are limited, penetration policies will be used,
business establishing a loyal customer base
• Growth: profitability will grow, costs will increase, marketing strategies will need to
change, businesses lower their costs.
• Maturity: steady income stream with limited prospects, marketing strategies modified,
try to differentiate through price, after-sales service or by making the product easier to access.
• Post-maturity: increased competition and changing customer preferences, can either
decline, renew, steady state (profits stay the same) or cessation (business shut down).
2. Market research
Primary research: surveys, interviews, observations, experiments
Secondary research: *can be internal or external-census, data, competitor’s sales data, annual reports
3. Establishing market objectives
Businesses generally adopt a SMART approach to setting objectives:
• Specific – the objective needs to be clear
• Measurable – the business needs to find ways to measure success
• Achievable – the business needs to have the financial and human resources to achieve
goal
• Realistic – the objective should be reasonable
• Time bound – the time frame must be reasonable
Marketing objectives usually include:
• Increasing market share
• Expanding the product range
• Expanding existing markets
• Maximising customer service
4. Identifying target markets
To appeal to a target market the business needs and in-depth understanding of the nature of consumer
markets. Consumers can be grouped into segments of:
• Demographic
• Sociocultural
• Geographic
• Psychographic
5. Developing marketing strategies
Marketing involves a number of strategies designed to price, promote and place products in the market. The
marketing mix consists of four elements called the 4Ps:
• Product – the product is a combination of quality, design, name, warranty, packaging
and exclusive features. Customers buy products that satisfy their needs as well as provide them with
intangible benefits.
• Price – the right price needs to be chosen to prevent the product from not selling at all
if the price is too high or receiving lower turnover as well as cheap image if the price is too low.
• Promotion – the promotion strategy is the method that is to be used by the business to
inform, persuade and remind customers about its products.
• Place – deals with the distribution of the product and consists of two parts which are
transportation and the number of intermediaries involved.
6. Implementation, monitoring and controlling – developing a financial forecast;
comparing actual and planned results, revising the marketing strategy
Implementation- is the process of putting the marketing strategies into action. Implementation of the
marketing plan involves integrating it with all sections of the business, establishing lines of communication,
motivating the employees and making them familiar with the marketing objectives and strategies.
Monitoring- means checking and observing the actual progress of the marketing plan. The information is
used to control the plan.
Controlling- involves the comparison of planned performance against actual performance and taking
corrective action to make sure the objectives are achieved. The controlling process requires the business to
outline what is to be accomplished by establishing a performance standard which is a forecast level of
performance against actual performance can be compared. Cash flow statements, balance sheets, profit and
loss
Developing a financial forecast a business must develop a financial forecast that details the revenues and
expenditures for each strategy when evaluating alternatives. Cost benefit analysis is a helpful tool used to
itemize fixed and variable costs and draw up a profit forecast showing profit and return. Developing a
financial forecast requires two steps that are: cost estimate- how much the marketing plan is expected to cost
and revenue estimate- how much revenue will be generated as a result.
Comparing actual and planned results this is the monitoring which will involve comparing actual results
with planned results.
Revising the marketing strategy the marketing plan can be revised and corrective action taken is needed.
Marketing strategies
Market segmentation, product/service differentiation and positioning
Identifying the niche markets within the mass market by grouping people with similar characteristics.
Demographic: age, sex,
Geographic: location
Psychographic: lifestyle, social class, personality
Behavioural: consumer loyalty, purchase occasion, benefits sought, usage rate

Product/service differentiation= how a business separate themselves from the competition. Price, product
quality, providing after-sales.
Positioning= process or marketers creating an image/identity for their product, brand and organisation.
These can be based on factors such as price, quality, value, safety. A positioning matrix may be helpful.
Positioning strategies include: positioning by benefit, price or quality, direct comparison, use occasion or
users
Products – goods and/or services
-branding
-packaging
Goods/services should be seen as flexible and product range/use, what to emphasise, position should be
taken into consideration

Branding: a brand name is a way of distinguishing a product from its competitors, branding strategies
include: generic brand (e.g. no frills), individual brand (e.g. dove, lux)
Packaging: often first image of the product- image should be positive and effective while aiming to protect
and maintain quality. Should offer a reason to purchase product, this may be: nutritional information,
benefits, feature, design and colour.

Price including pricing methods – cost, market, competition-based

-pricing strategies – skimming, penetration, loss leaders, price points
-price and quality interaction
Pricing methods:
• Cost- (mark up), adding a percentage to purchase price.
• Market based- setting prices according to supply and demand.
• Competition based- considers total cost to the business of manufacturing or providing
a good or service to the consumer and then adds an additional amount. Comparable to competitors’
price.

Pricing strategies:
• Skimming- a business charging the highest possible price
• Penetration- setting prices at the lowest possible price to gain an immediate groups of
customers. Used to gain market share rapidly.
• Loss leader- selling products at a loss to entice customers into the business
• Price points- selling products only at predetermined prices, e.g. $29.99, $39.99.

Price and quality interaction: products that are a higher price usually have a higher quality than those sold
at a low price. Higher price products also tend to seem better quality than low-cost product.
Prestige/premium pricing= high price is charged to give the product an aura of quality and status.

Promotion
-elements of the promotion mix – advertising, personal selling and relationship marketing,
sales promotions, publicity and public relations
-the communication process – opinion leaders, word of mouth
Elements of the promotion mix:
 • Advertising - conveys a non-personal message to a large market.
• Personal selling- activities of a sales representative directed at a customer to make a
sale
• Sales promotions – use of activities/materials as direct inducements to customers, e.g.
coupons, samples, loyalty cards
• Publicity and public relations – free news story, creating and maintaining favourable
relations between a business and its competitors.
• Relationship marketing- long term, cost effective and strong relationships with
customers, e.g. Fly Buys

The communication process:

• Opinion leaders- respected and trusted well known members in the public eye, e.g.
sports stars, singers
• Word of mouth- friends and family communicating experiences and beliefs on
products to others.
Place/distribution
-distribution channels
-channel choice – intensive, selective, exclusive
-physical distribution issues – transport, warehousing, inventory
Distribution channels: routes taken to get the product from the business to the customer, e.g.
ProducerRetailerCustomer.

Channel choice:
• Intensive- saturate the market, e.g. milk
• Selective-moderate proportion of all possible outlets, e.g. clothes sold in department
stores, e.g. big W
• Exclusive-the use of only one retail outlet for a product in a large geographic location,
e.g. boutique.

Physical distribution issues:

• Transport- needed to deliver products to stores.
• Warehousing- involved in receiving, storing and dispatching goods.
• Inventory- (stock) need inventory control to maintain quantities and varieties.

People, processes and physical evidence

*For service-based industries.

People: having well-trained staff who can support the products of the business. The quality of interaction
between the customer and those within the business who will deliver the service.

Processes: the flow of activities that a business will follow in its delivery of a service.

Physical evidence: the environment in which the service will be delivered, e.g. signage, brochures, calling
cards, website, etc.

E-marketing
The practice of using the internet to perform marketing activities. Webpage, podcasts, sms, blogs, web 2.0,
social media advertising.
Global marketing
-global branding
-standardisation
-customisation
-global pricing
-competitive positioning
Many TNCs adopt global marketing, e.g. Coca-Cola.

Global branding: worldwide use of a name, term, symbol, logo to identify a seller’s products.

Standardisation: the needs it satisfies are the same throughout the world, e.g. mobiles

Customisation: the needs it satisfies are different between countries, e.g. McDonald’s menus.

Global pricing: customised, market-customised, standardised.

Competitive positioning: how a business will differentiate its products from other businesses.

Finance
The planning and monitoring of a business’s financial resources in order to allow the
business to achieve its financial objectives.
Role of Financial Management
Strategic role of financial management
The strategic role of financial management is to provide the financial resources to allow the implementation
of the business’s strategic plan. It ensures that a new business continues to operate, grow and is able to
achieve its financial objectives.

Objectives of financial management

-profitability, growth, efficiency, liquidity, solvency
-short-term and long-term
Profitability:
Profitability is the ability of the business to maximise its profits. This is achieved by carefully monitoring
the business’s revenue and pricing policies, costs and expenses.
Growth:
Growth is the ability of the business to increase its size in the longer term. Growth ensure that the business it
sustainable into the future.

Efficiency:
Efficiency is the ability of the business to maximise its costs and manage its assets so that maximum profit is
achieved with the lowest possible level of assets.

Liquidity:
Liquidity refers to the ability of the business to pay short-term liabilities using its current assets. Therefore
the current assets need to be greater than current liabilities.

Solvency:
Solvency is the extent to which the business can meet its financial commitments in the longer term (12
months+).

Short-term:
Short-term financial objectives are the tactical (one to two years) and operational (day to day) plans of the
business. They are mainly concerned with managing cash flow and ensuring that the balance between
current assets and current liabilities is positive for the business.

Long-term:
Long-term financial objectives are the strategic plans of the business. They are mainly concerned with the
growing of the business and tend to be broad goals, e.g. increasing profit and market share.

Interdependence with other key business functions

Operations:
Finance is required for inputs, machinery, land, etc. to create value whilst receiving a return on investments.

Marketing:
Finances are required for advertising to occur, e.g. ads, which generates sales that help the business increase
its value and short-term financial goal of managing cash flow.

Human resources:
Finance is an important aspect to help human resources achieve its resources. The information finance
gathers on earnings, productivity and customer satisfaction provides insights into the staffing and
development needs of a business and without this HR cannot do its job effectively.

Influences on Financial Management

Internal sources of finance-retained profits
Internal sources of finance are obtained from within the business. They include owners’ equity, retained
profits and sale of assets.
Owners’ equity- is the funds contributed by owners or partners to establish and build the business.
Retained profits- are the part of the net profit of a business that are not distributed but are invested back
into the business to be a cheap and accessible source of finance.
External sources of finance
-debt- short-term borrowing (overdraft, commercial bills, factoring), long-term borrowing
(mortgage, debentures, unsecured notes, leasing)
-equity- ordinary shares (new issues, rights issues, placements, share purchase plans),
private equity
External finance refers to funds provided by sources outside the business, e.g. banks and government.

Debt: short-term borrowing

Overdraft: an arrangement between the business and its bank that allows the business to borrow money from
the bank at short notice through its cheque or current account.

Commercial bills: are a type of bill of exchange (loan) issued by institutions other than banks.

Factoring: is the selling of a company’s accounts receivable (money that is owed to the business) at a
discount to a finance company for immediate cash.

Debt: long-term borrowing

Mortgage: loans with a fixed schedule of payments that is repaid over a number of years with interest

Debentures: are fixed interest securities issued by a company that will pay a fixed interest rate on the money
loaned to the company for a set time period. They are issued by a company for a fixed rate of interest and for
a fixed time.

Unsecured notes: are loans made by finance companies and are not secured by any assets, and therefore
presents the most risk to the investors in the note (the lender). For this reason it attracts a higher rate of
interest than a secured note.

Leasing: involves the payment of money for the use of equipment that is owned by another party. It allows a
business to use an asset in return for payments over a set time.

Equity: ordinary shares

Ordinary shares are the usual way that an investor can buy part ownership of a public company (a business
listed on the Australian Securities Exchange or ASX).

New issues: a security that has been issued and sold for the first time on a public market; sometimes referred
to as primary shares or new offerings.

Rights issues: the privilege granted to shareholders to buy new shares in the same company.

Placements: allotment of share, debentures, etc. made directly from the company to investors.

Share purchase plans: an offer to existing shareholders in a listed company the opportunity to purchase more
shares in that company without brokerage fees. The shares can also be offered at a discount to the current
market price.

Private equity

Private equity refers to securities that are held in companies that are not listed and not publicly traded in the
Australian Securities Exchange (ASX). The aim of the private company (like the publically listed companies
who sell ordinary shares) is to raise capital to finance future expansion/investment of the business.

Financial institutions- banks, investment banks, finance companies, superannuation

funds, life insurance companies, unit trusts and the Australian Securities Exchange
Banks
Banks are the most important source of funds for businesses. Banks accept deposits from the general public
and provide funds for loans and, in turn, make investments.

Investment banks

Investment banks provide specialised advice and services for businesses financial needs. They deal with
businesses and governments in raising large amounts of capital by underwriting share issues.

Finance companies

Finance companies make loans (unsecured and secured) to consumers and businesses. They raise capital
through share issues and funds through debenture (company bond) issue.

Superannuation funds

Provide funds to the corporate sector through investment of funds received from superannuation
contributions and fees. Superannuation funds are able to invest the contributions of members into a range of
short and long-term investments with the aim of maximising a return.

Life insurance companies

Insurance companies cover various risks that people and businesses face. To purchase insurance, customers
pay a premium to an insurance company. These companies invest in other businesses as a method of
spreading their exposure to risk.

Unit trusts

Unit trusts (mutual funds) take funds from a large number of small investors and invest them in specific
types of financial assets.

Australian Securities Exchange

The Australian Securities Exchange (ASX) is a market that brings together buyers and sellers to exchange
shares. Once approved by the ASX businesses can issue shares to the general public on the primary market.
Buyers and sellers can exchange shares on the secondary market.

Influence of government- Australian Securities and Investments Commission, company

taxation
The government influences the financial management of businesses through the implementation of
economic policies (fiscal-budgets and monetary- interest rates), and through the implementation of current
and changing legislation.

Australian Securities and Investments Commission

The Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) aims to reduce fraud and unfair practices in
financial markets and financial products.

Company taxation

Companies and corporations in Australia pay company tax on profits. Company tax is paid before profits are
distributed to shareholders as dividends.
Global market influences- economic outlook, availability of funds, interest rates
Financial risks associated with global markets are greater than those encountered domestically, but such risk
taking is necessary for a business strategy to be implemented. Globalisation has created more
interdependence between economies and businesses.

Economic outlook

The projected changes to the level of economic growth throughout the world. It may increase the demand for
products/services and the interest rates on funds borrowed internationally.

Availability of funds

Refers to the ease with which a business can access funds (for borrowing) on the international financial
markets. The availability of funds depends on the risk, demand and supply and the domestic economic
conditions.

Interest rates

Interest rates are the cost of borrowing money. The higher the level of risk involve in lending to a business,
the higher the interest rates.

Processes of Financial Management

Planning and implementing-financial needs, budgets, record systems, financial risks,
financial controls
Financial planning is essential if a business is to achieve its goals. The financial planning process begins
with long-term or strategic financial plans.
The planning process involves the setting of goals and objectives, determining the strategies to achieve those
goals and objectives, identifying and evaluating alternative courses of action and choosing the best
alternative for the business.

Financial needs

Financial needs are essential to determine where a business is headed and how it will get there. Important
financial information needs to be collected before future plans can be made. A new business will have to
determine its start-up costs, e.g. cost of equipment and employees. Once a business has begun operations
financial information from balance sheets, incomes statements and cash flow statements need to be analysed
to determine if profits can be given to shareholders.

Budgets

Budgets provide information in quantitative terms (facts and figures) about requirements to achieve a
particular purpose. Budgets are often prepared to predict a range of activities relating to short-term and long-
term plans and activities. Budgets can be operating, project or financial.

Operating budgets- relate to the main activities of a business and may include budgets relating to sales,
production, raw materials, direct labour, expenses and cost of goods sold.

Project budgets- relate to capital expenditure and, research and development.

Financial budgets- relate to financial data of a business and include the budgeted income statement, balance
sheet and cash flows.

Record systems

Record systems are the mechanisms employed by a business to ensure that data is recorded and the
information provided by record systems is accurate, reliable, efficient and accessible.

Financial risks

These are the risks to a business of being unable to cover its financial obligations, such as the debts that a
business incurs through borrowings, both short-term and longer term.

Financial controls

Financial controls are the policies and procedures that ensure that the plans of a business will be achieved in
the most efficient way. This enables the manager to determine if the objectives set were achievable or need
to be reassessed.

-debt and equity financing- advantages and disadvantages of each

Debt financing

Relates to the short-term and long-term borrowing from external sources by a business. External (debt
finance) is a liability as it is owed to sources external to the business.

Advantages:
Disadvantages:
• Readily available
• Costs to a business-establishment costs and ongoing fees and charges
• Interest payments can be tax deductible
• Security is required by the business
• Increased funds lead to increased earnings and profits
• Regular payments have to be made
• Loans provide a business with the opportunity to grow
• Increased risk if debt comes from financial institutions because the interest that the
bank charges
• Profits are not shared with the lender of the loan
• Interest rates can vary over the loan period-making it more expensive

• If it is a secured loan, defaulting on the loan may lead to loss of an asset

Equity financing

Related to the internal sources of finance in the business. It is the money lent to the business in exchange for
ownership, including start-up capital.

Advantages:
Disadvantages:
• Remains in the business for an indefinite time
• Requires sufficient profits to be made so that the business can continue to operate
• Does not need to be repaid on a set date
• Lower profits and lower returns for the owner
• Safer than debt
 • Equity is hard to obtain and can take time to organise and, therefore, may limit growth
• Cheaper that other sources of finance as there is no interest
• Not tax deductible
• There is flexibility in timing of dividend payments
• Central ownership is reduced, causing a loss of control in decision-making
• The debt to equity (gearing/leverage) ratio decreases, lowering the risk to the business
• High demand for dividend payments to shareholders may reduce the level of retained
profits

-matching the terms and source of finance to business purpose

When a business identifies and plans to meet its financial objective, it is necessary to match the terms of
finance with its purpose. This requires a business to consider:
• The terms, flexibility and availability of finance
• The cost of each source of funding- equity and debt
• The structure of the business- small business and public company

Monitoring and controlling- cash flow statement, income statement, balance sheet
Monitoring and controlling is essential for maintaining business viability and affects all aspects all aspects of
business operations. The main financial controls used for monitoring include cash flow statements, income
statements and balance sheets.

To fully analyse and interpret the financial controls a number of basic formulas need to be used including:

• COGS = Opening Stock + Purchases – Closing Stock (income)

• Gross Profit = Sales – COGS (income)
• Net Profit = Gross Profit – Expenses (income)
• Owners’ Equity = Assets – Liabilities (balance)
• Total Equity = Owners’ Equity + Net Profit (balance)

Cash flow statement

A statement that summarises cash transactions that have occurred over a period of time. Its purpose is to
provide information about the cash inflows (receipts) and outflows (payments). Users of cash flow
statements include creditors (people who a business owes money to) and well as owners and shareholders. In
preparing a cash flow statement, the activities of a business are generally divided into: operating activities,
investing activities and financing activities.

CASH FLOW STATEMENT

For Eastern Shores Restaurant (Coffs Harbour) ($ 000'

Income statement

The income statement outlines the level of revenue (sales), cost of goods sold (opening stock+purchases-
closing stock) and operating expenses. It calculates whether a business have made a profit or loss over a
particular period of time, usually a year.

Income Statement
Caroline-Anne's IT Supplies
For year ending 30 June 20X2
Sales
360 000
Less Cost of goods sold
 Inventory 1 July
10 000

(+) Purchases
120 000

(+) Cartage inwards

4 000

(-)Inventory 30 June
8 000

126 000

Gross Profit
234 000
Less Operating Expenses

Selling/distribution expenses
Advertising
5 000

Depreciation
1 000

Wages
50 000
56 000

General expenses
Insurance
4 000

Rent
34 000

Utilities
6 000
44 000

Financial expenses
Interest on loan
13 000

Interest on mortgage
3 000
16 000
116 000

Net profit
118 000

Balance sheet

The balance sheet is a statement showing the total value of a business on a particular day (snapshot). It is
based on the accounting equation: Assets (A) = Liabilities (L) + Owners Equity (E)

Balance Sheet
El-Café Pty Limited
As at 31 December 2000
Current Assets
Cash
1 300

Accounts receivable
3 000

Inventory
3 000
7 300

Non-Current Assets
Plant and machinery
10 000

Buildings
140 000

Good will
50 000
200 000

Total Assets

207 300

Current Liabilities
Accounts payable
14 300

Overdraft
6 000
20 300

Non-Current Liabilities
Bank Loan
34 000
Mortgage
70 000
104 000

Total Liabilities

124 300

Owner's Equity
Capital
75 000

Retained Earnings
8 000
83 000

Total L & OE

207 300

Financial ratios
-liquidity- current ratio (current assets ÷ current liabilities)
-gearing- debt to equity ratio (total liabilities ÷ total equity)
-profitability- gross profit ratio (gross profit ÷ sales); net profit ratio (net profit ÷ sales);
return on equity ratio (net profit ÷ total equity)
-efficiency-expense ratio (total expenses ÷ sales), accounts receivable turnover ratio (sales
÷ accounts receivable)
-comparative ratio analysis- over different time periods, against standards, with similar
businesses
Liquidity

Liquidity is the extent to which the business can meet its financial commitments in the short-term. The
amount of current assets should be higher than debts.

Current Ratio (working capital) = Current Assets ÷ Current Liabilities

It is generally accepted that a business that has a current ratio of 2:1 is in a good, stable financial position.

Gearing

Gearing measures the relationship between debt and equity. It is the proportion of debt (external finance)
and the proportion of equity (internal finance) that is used to finance the activities of a business. Gearing
ratios determine the firm’s solvency (long-term debts).

Debt to Equity Ratio = Total Liabilities ÷ Owner’s equity

The higher the ratio, the less solvency of the firm/business (rely on debt more). Lower=good.
Profitability

Profitability is the earning performance of the business and indicated its capacity to use its resources to
maximise profits.

GROSS PROFIT

Gross Profit Ratio = Gross Profit ÷ Sales X 100%

The amount of sales that is available to meet expenses. The higher the ratio, the better.

NET PROFIT

Net Profit Ratio = Net Profit ÷ Sales X 100%

The profit or return to the owners. The higher the ratio the better.

RETURN ON EQUITY

Return on Equity Ratio = Net Profit ÷ Total Equity X 100%

How effective the funds contributed by the owners have been in generating profit. The higher the ratio or
percentage, the better the return for the owner.

Efficiency

Efficiency is the ability of the firm to use its resources effectively in ensuring financial stability and
profitability of the business. The more efficient the firm, the greater its profits and financial stability.

EXPENSE

Expense Ratio = Total Expenses ÷ Sales X 100%

The amount of sales that are allocated to individual expenses, the lower the better, the more efficient.

ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE TURNOVER

Accounts Receivable Turnover Ratio = Sales ÷ Accounts Receivable X 100%

The effectiveness of a firm’s credit policy and how efficiently it collects its debts. High turnover ratios
indicate that business has efficient debt collection. The bigger the number the worse it is.

Comparative ratio analysis

Over different time periods: comparing ratios for a business over various periods to identify trends and assist
with interpretation of ratio results.

Against common standards: such as industry averages and benchmarks to assist a manger’s interpretation
and decision-making on the business’s performance.

With similar businesses: comparing ratios from businesses in the same industry and of the same size will
give further insight into the performance of a business.
Limitations of financial reports- normalised earnings, capitalising expenses, valuing
assets, timing issues, debt repayments, notes to the financial statements
Normalised earnings

Earnings on the balance sheet are adjusted to remove unusual or ‘one-off’ events to show the true earnings
of a company.

Capitalising expenses

Process of adding a capital expense to the balance sheet that is regarded as an asset (in that it will add to the
value of the company) rather than as an expense.

Valuing assets

The process of estimating the market value of assets or liabilities. Some assets change value over time due to
inflation and the market. Therefore it would have been worth less in the past and would not reflect the true
value.

Timing issues

Financial reports cover activities over a period of time, usually a year. Therefore, the business’s financial
position may not be a true representation if the business has experienced financial fluctuations.

Debt repayments

Financial reports can be limited because they do not have the capacity to disclose specific information about
debt repayments, e.g. how long the business has had or has been recovering the debt.

Notes to the financial statements

These are the details and additional information that are left out of the main reporting documents, such the
balance sheet and income statement.

Ethical issues related to financial reports

Businesses have a legal and ethical responsibility to provide accurate financial records.

Ethical issues related to financial reports include:

• Audits- independent check of the accuracy of financial records and accounting
procedures. There are three types of audits:
• Internal: conducted internally by employees to check accounting procedures
and the accuracy of financial records
• Management: conducted to review the firm’s strategic plan and to determine if
changes need to be made
• External: conducted by independent and specialised audit accountants.

• Record keeping- all accounting processes depend on how accurate and honest data is
recorded in financial reports
• GST obligations- businesses have an ethical and legal obligation to comply with GST
reporting requirements
• Reporting practices- accurate financial reports are necessary for taxation purposes as
 well as for other stakeholders.
• Businesses are to not make the business look better than it actually is by adding
revenues that do not exist
• Businesses should show all liabilities and expenses in the balance sheets and income
statements
• Accountants must display integrity, confidentiality and a high level of professional
and technical ability
• Financial managers and accounts cannot ‘be creative’ when recording transaction and
preparing financial reports in order to make the business appear more profitable
• Managers should not use the business’s credit cards for personal expenses

Financial Management Strategies

Cash flow management
-cash flow statements
-distribution of payments, discounts for early payment, factoring
Cash Flow Statements

Cash flow statements indicate the movement of cash receipts and cash payments resulting from transactions
over a period of time. They are also used to show the trends of short-term and long-term cash inflows and
outflows.

Management Strategies

Distribution of Payments: by spreading expenses over the whole year there is more equal cash outflow each
month rather than one huge outflow during one month.

Discounts for Early Payment: a business may offer discounts to encourage people to pay their payments
early to improve cash flow.

Factoring: the selling of accounts receivable for a discounted price to a finance or specialist factoring
company.

Working capital management

-control of current assets- cash, receivables, inventories
-control of current liabilities- payables, loans, overdrafts
-strategies- leasing, sale and lease back
Working capital is the funds available for the short-term financial commitments of a business.

Working capital management is determining the best mix of current assets and current liabilities needed to
achieve the objectives of the business.

Current (working capital) ratio = current assets ÷ current liabilities

The current ratio of 2:1 or 200% is generally acceptable.

Control of Current Assets

Cash: it is the most liquid current asset in the business. It is important as it allows the business to be able to
pay its debts, loans and accounts in the short-term. Businesses can increase their cash amount by sale and
leaseback. However, too much cash can be unproductive.
Accounts Receivable: the total amount of money that customers owe to the business. The collection of
accounts receivable is important in managing working capital. Managing accounts receivable involves:
checking the credit rating of prospective customers, sending customers statements monthly and at the same
time each month so debentures know when to expect accounts, following up on accounts that are not paid by
the due date and putting policies into place for collecting bad debts.

Inventories: the total amount of goods or materials in a store or factory (stock). Inventory control involves a
balance between too much and too little stock. Strategies involved in the management of inventory include:
regular and ongoing stocktaking, control systems (e.g. JIT), use of sales to convert stock into cash and
limiting staff access. In order to remain solvent the business needs to manage their inventories.

Control of Current Liabilities

Accounts Payable: sums of money owed by the business to its suppliers (creditors). Some strategies include
payment on time (to avoid late fee charges), taking advantage of early payment discounts and maintain a
good credit rating for continuing access to lines of credit provided by suppliers.

Loans: sums of money that are borrowed from financial institutions for the purpose of funding such things
as property and equipment. Control of loans involves comparing the cost of the loan to other sources of
finance to find that most appropriate and cost efficient source.

Overdrafts: a relatively cheap and convenient form of short-term borrowing. Businesses may control
overdrafts by ensuring that all cash received is promptly deposited in the business’s account to reduce the
amount owing.

Strategies

Leasing: the hiring of an asset from another person or company. By leasing assets the business maintains
more working capital to invest in other assets and opportunities for expansion of the business.

Sale and lease-back: involves the selling of assets such as buildings and equipment and leasing them back
from the purchaser. This increases a business’s liquidity as the cash that is obtained from the sale is used as
working capital.

Profitability management
-cost controls- fixed and variable, cost centres, expense minimisation
-revenue controls- marketing objectives
Profitability management: involves the control of both the business’s expenses and its revenue.

Cost controls

Fixed and Variable costs: fixed costs do not change when the levels of activity changes, e.g. rent, insurance.
To minimise fixed costs it is essential to negotiate satisfactory arrangements initially or to take advantage of
discounts for early payments. Variable costs change proportionally with the level of operating activity in a
business, e.g. advertising, employee wages, overtime payments. Strategies to reduce variable costs include:
negotiating discounts with all suppliers, reducing the number of suppliers and/or switching to a cheaper
supplier.

Cost Centres: the expenses associated with each key business function. Businesses attempt to control costs
by allocating a proportion of total costs (direct and indirect) to particular parts of the business. These cost
centres are then responsible and held accountable for the costs that they incur.

Expense Minimisation: the reduction of costs and expenses in order to maximise the profits and gain a
competitive advantage. Strategies include outsourcing, sales and lease-back, replacing labour with
technology and improving budget and accountability. This is done to reduce expenses consuming valuable
resources within the business.

Revenue controls

Marketing Objectives:
• Sales objectives- the link between the marketing plan and the financial plan. Sales
targets are to maximise sales, increase the turnover of stock and maximise revenues. Need to set
targets to generate maximum revenue.
• Sales mix- the range of products and services sold by the business. Businesses should
control this by maintaining a clear focus on the important customer base when deciding whether to
diversify or extend product ranges or ceasing production. Need to review each product’s profit-
margin contribution
• Pricing policy- is necessary as the setting of prices is a complicated task and staff need
to be aware of the business strategy for pricing. The main aim of pricing policy is to balance sales
with profits. Pricing decisions should be closely monitored and controlled. Overpricing could fail to
attract customers, while under-pricing may bring higher sales but may still result in cash shortfall and
low profits. Need to review price penetration, price skimming, price points and discounts.

Global financial management

-exchange rates
-interest rates
-methods of international payment- payment in advance, letter of credit, clean payment,
bill of exchange
-hedging
-derivatives
Global financial management refers to the strategies implemented by businesses to deal with the export
component of the business activities.

Exchange Rates

The foreign exchange rate is the ratio of one currency to another; it tells us how much a unit of one currency
is worth in terms of another. Exchange rates fluctuate over time due to variations in demand and supply.
Such fluctuations in the exchange rate create further risk for global businesses. Currency fluctuations will
impact on the revenue profitability and production costs.

A currency appreciation raises the value of the Australian dollar in terms of foreign currencies. This means
that each unit of foreign currency buys fewer Australian dollars. However, one Australian dollar buys more
foreign currency. Therefore, an appreciation makes our exports more expensive on international markets but
prices for imports will fall. The result of the appreciation reduces the international competitiveness of
Australian exporting businesses.
A current depreciation lowers the price of Australian dollars in terms of foreign currencies. Therefore, each
unit of foreign currency buys more Australian dollars. The result is that our exports become cheaper and the
price of imports will rise. An depreciation, therefore, improves the international competitiveness of
Australian exporting businesses.

Interest Rates

Interest rates can have an impact on the willingness and ability of businesses to invest in business activities,
and of customers to purchase goods and services. Low interest rates reduce borrowing costs and encourage
expansion. High interest rates increase borrowing costs and discourage expansion. It is therefore important
to find the lowest interest rate, as exchange rate fluctuations can make repayments more costly.
Methods of International Payment

Payment in advance: the exporter/seller receives payment by the buyer before the products are sent. There is
a risk of the goods not being sent.

Letter of credit: commitment where the buyer/importer’s bank promises to pay the exporter a specified
amount when the documents proving shipment of goods are presented.

Clean payment: the goods are shipped before payment is received. This is used when businesses and their
exporters have a good relationship and history.

Bill of exchange: a document written by the exporter demanding payment from the importer at a specified
time. This method of payment allows the exporter to maintain control over the goods until payment is either
made or guaranteed.

Hedging

Hedging is the process of minimising the risk of currency fluctuations. Hedging helps reduce the level of
uncertainty involved with international financial transaction.

Derivatives

Derivatives are financial instruments that support a business’s hedging activities. It is a financial contract
that is based on the future market value of an asset such as a commodity, shares or currency. The main
purpose is to reduce risk for one party. They include:
1. Forward exchange contracts= the bank will guarantee the exporter a certain exchange rate on a certain
rate.
2. Currency option contracts= gives the buyer the right to buy or sell foreign currency at some time in the
future.
3. Swap contracts= an agreement to exchange currency in the spot market to reverse the transaction in the
future.

Human Resources
Role of human resource management
The management of the total relationship between employer and employee.
Strategic role of human resources
Ensures that the business has well trained staff that will benefit the business in the long-term. By being
proactive and adopting a long-term approach, managers may seek to improve a diverse range of human
resource issues within the business, e.g. policies and practices. The business must also develop appropriate
performance review measures to examine the effectiveness and efficiency of their employees.
Interdependence with other key business functions
Operations:
The operations function works closely with human resources to ensure that the business has recruited staff
with the relevant skills and experience. Additional workers may be required depending whether finance
allows it.
Marketing:
The human resource is related to marketing as staff must be motivated and skilled to develop products. It is
also through marketing that businesses are able to determine the skills required for employees to produce the
desired product. Marketing may require additional managers which need to be sourced.
Finance:
The human resources is related to finance as budgets are often established that allocate funds towards
training and workplace education issues. Human resources must also work within these budgets to provide
for the needs of its employees. A decline in the hiring of new employees may be present to ensure the
business is liquid.
Outsourcing
-human resource functions
-using contractors- domestic, global
Outsourcing- when a company takes a part of its business functions and gives it to another company to
complete.

Human resource functions

The human resource function is the second most frequently outsourced after information technology.
The most commonly outsourced human resource functions include: recruitment, induction, leadership
training, mediation, outplacement and payroll. However, businesses need to realise that outsourcing may not
solve the problems that it was supposed to. There are a number of disadvantages involved in outsourcing
human resources including: cost saving are not always achieved, employee unrest, problems with outside
HR provider, loss of control, and reasons for outsourcing the HR function are not clear.
Using contractors

A contractor works for many employers as once the contract has been completed they are free to offer their
services to any other business. Contractors have independence and are not subject to the regulations and
directives of the business.

Domestic: domestic subcontracting is very common and avoids the need to employ additional ‘in-house’
staff, along with all the overhead expenses involved. Some risks include: loss of customer contact.

Global: using global contractors as an external provider of services allows the Australian business to access
the use of labour without having to consider issues such as minimum labour requirements and WH&S.

Key influences
Stakeholders- employers, employees, employer associations, unions, government
organisations, society
Each stakeholder seeks to protect and promote its own interests.
Employers
The individual or organisation that pays others to work for them. They are often the owners and take
responsibility in the organisation’s goals. They handle HR management on a daily basis. Employers
responsibilities are increasing due to recent legislation requiring them to resolve disputes and negotiate
agreements.
Employees
An individual who provides his or her skills to a business in return for a regular source of income. They are
now considered in the decision making process and workers can now work from home to accommodate a
work-life balance. Labour shortages are looming due to aging population.
Employer associations
Organisations that aim to promote the interests of employers within the business environment. They lobby
governments to develop policies that enhance the interests of the employer and consult with governments on
changes to key policy issues. They provide advice, negotiate agreements and make submissions to safety net
wage cases.
Unions
Are organisations formed by employees in an industry, trade or occupation to represent them in efforts to
improve wages and working conditions for members. They provide representation in disputes, free or
discounted legal services, superannuation schemes, cheap home loans, training through TAFE, insurance and
WH&S advice.

Government organisations
Government departments oversee legislation relating to employment relations. They establish the legal
framework by which employers, employees and trade unions coexist and operate within the employment
relationship.
Society
Workplace practices are reflective of behaviours that are upheld within society. Issues such as discrimination
and harassment are becoming publicised. Businesses must act consistent with the views of society.
Legal- the current legal framework
-the employment contract- common law (rights and obligations of employers and
employees), minimum employment standards, minimum wage rates, awards, enterprise
agreements, other employment contracts
-occupational health and safety workers compensation
-anti discrimination and equal employment opportunity
The employment contract

Is a legally binding formal agreement between employer and an employee. A written contract is more
protective than verbal.

Common Law (rights and obligations of employers and employees)

Common law is developed by courts and tribunals. Under common law employers and employees have basic
obligations in any employment relationship.

• Employer obligations= providing work, payment of income and expenses, meeting

requirements of industrial relations legislation and duty of care.

• Employee obligations= obey lawful and reasonable commands by the employer, use
care and skill in the performance of their work activities and act in good faith.

Minimum employment standards

The standards cover basic rates of pay and casual loading, maximum ordinary hours of work, annual leave,
personal leave and parental leave. The employment standards are implemented to provide safety for
employees.

Minimum wage rates

The employees’ base rate of pay is determined by:

• The award or agreement that overs the employee
• The national wage minimum.
Awards

Awards are legally binding documents containing minimum terms and conditions of employment in addition
to any legislated minimum terms for an industry or occupation. They may include minimum wages, penalty
rates, types of employment, flexible working arrangements, hours of work, rest breaks, classifications,
allowances, leave and leave loading, superannuation, redundancy entitlements and procedures for
consultation. They are established through negotiations between employers and associations.

Enterprise agreements

Enterprise agreements are collective arrangements made at workplace level between an employer and a
group of employees about terms and conditions of employment.

Other employment contracts

As the nature of work changes, greater variety is occurring in the types and features of employment
contracts available.

• Individual common law employment contracts= exist when an employer and an

individual employee negotiate a contract covering pay and conditions.

• Independent contracts= known as consultants, undertake work for others; however,

they do not have the same legal status as an employee.

• Contracts for casual work= receive no holiday or sick leave entitlements.

Occupational health and safety

WHS legislation is the process of being made uniform around Australia to improve business productivity.
Employers must provide a safe system of work, ensure employees are trained and supervised in their work.

Workers compensation

Provides a range of benefits to an employee suffering from an injury or disease sustained by their work.

Anti-discrimination

Involves reducing harassment and vilification. All employers must implement anti-discrimination legislation
to avoid large fines, legal orders and damages, and loss of reputation.

Equal employment opportunity

Refers to equitable policies and practices in recruitment, selection, training and promotion to eliminate direct
and indirect discrimination.
Economic
Economic factors impact on the demand for labour and the pressure of wage growth. It involves the
economic cycle, inflation and globalisation. Globalisation has increased competitive pressures on businesses
with many increasingly recruiting or outsourcing functions offshore.

Technological
Changes in technology require employees to be trained in new technology. It can lead to: increased levels of
productivity, lower costs and improved profitability. It can however lead to job losses and employees can
lead to feeling less valued.

Social- changing work patterns, living standards

Today there are more multicultural workplaces and more working women. Many employees also want to
achieve a balance between work and family.
Changing work patterns

The workforce is increasingly more flexible in working arrangements, with a recent dramatic increase in
part-time and casual work.

Living standards

Australia’s high living standards include: WH&S, regular wage increases, performance bonuses, fringe
benefits and leave and superannuation benefits. There is pressure from global competition and conflict for
desire of high living standards and work-life balance.

Ethics and corporate social responsibility

Ethical business practices are those practices that are socially responsible, morally right, honourable and fair.
CSR is the commitment by companies to behave ethically and to contribute to economic development, while
improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families, as well as the local community and society
at large.

Processes of human resource management

Employment Relations: the function that deals specifically with the relationships between the employer and
the employees of the business. The role of employment relations is to provide the business with the
workforce it requires. They also aim to find, attract, develop and motivate the people who can provide
services the business requires.
The human resource cycle involves acquisition, development, maintenance and separation of employees. It
involves acquiring people with skills for the job and the continued development of employees’ knowledge
and capabilities. The cycle also involves providing incentives for effective, reliable employees to remain
motivated and to stay within the business.
Acquisition
Acquisition is the obtaining of employees. It requires the manager responsible for employment relations to
make decisions about and take action on planning the organisations human resources needs, recruiting staff
and selecting staff.
Acquisition involves analysing the internal environment (business’s goals and culture, focus on cost
containment, growth, downsizing, improved customer service or quality) and the external environment
(economic condition, competition, technology, and the legal, political and social factors).
Recruitment: the process of locating and attracting the right quantity of staff to apply for employment
vacancies or anticipated vacancies at the right cost.
Selection: involves gathering information about each applicant and using that information to choose the
most appropriate applicant.
Placement: involves locating the employee in a position that best utilises the skills of the individual to meet
the needs of the business.
Development
Development is concerned with improving employee’s skills and knowledge to improve performance and
productivity.
It involves induction, training, organisational development, mentoring and coaching, and performance
appraisals.
Induction:
• Gives employees a positive attitude to the job and the business
• Builds a new employee’s confidence in the job
• Stresses the major safety policies and procedures, and explains their application
• Helps establish good working relationships with co-workers and supervisors
Training:
• The aim of training is to seek a long-term change in employees’ skills, knowledge,
attitudes and behaviour on order to improve work performance in the business.
• It is essential in overcoming business weaknesses, building on strengths and
 maintaining staff commitment.
• It involves educating an employee in the skills and processes of the job they currently
have.
Organisational development:
• Businesses are using flatter structures to improve efficiency and competiveness by
creating more opportunities for employees to innovate and participate in solving business problems.
• Strategies to help motivate and retain talented staff include: job enlargement, job
rotation, job enrichment, job sharing, self-managing teams and mentoring and coaching.
Mentoring and coaching:
• Used to motivate and develop staff with leadership potential.
• Mentoring= mutually agreed role, focused on building a personal relationship that
encompasses the life experience of both parties
• Coaching= focused on improving skills and performance and on helping individuals
manage specific work roles more effectively.
Performance appraisals:
• Is a systematic process of accessing the performance of en employee, generally
against a set of criteria or standards.
• Is used to evaluate employee performance, and identify areas for mentoring, coaching,
leadership development or performance management to enable the employee to contribute most
effectively to a business’s success.
Maintenance
Maintenance is concerned with building a long-term relationship with the employee and focuses on the
processes needed to retain staff and manage their wellbeing at work.
Communication and workplace culture:
• Effective workplace relations depend heavily on the strength of a business’s
communications systems.
• Poor communication is often reflected in workplace conflict and high turnover rates.
• Strategies to improve communication and workplace culture involve: changing the
layout of offices to increase communication, being interactive and walking around, and
implementing various team building activities.
Employee participation:
• Businesses encourage employee participation to improve communication, empower
employees and develop their commitment to improving quality and efficiency.
• Regular team meeting/briefings to discuss customer feedback, company trends and
issues helps to build a sense of shared purpose and company identity.
Benefits:
• Benefits may be monetary (money) in value or non-monetary.
• Typical benefits include: flexible working arrangements, paid training opportunities,
travel allowances, health insurance, subsidised gym memberships, housing and company car.
• Employers are responding to employees’ desires for a work-life balance with more
flexible working arrangements.
Legal compliance and corporate social responsibility:
• Anti-discrimination
• Equal Employment Opportunities
• Work, Health and Safety
• Taxation
• Social justice legislation
• Bullying and sexual harassment
Separation
Separation is the ending of an employment relationship and can be either voluntary or involuntary. Voluntary
separation may take the form of resignation, relocation, voluntary redundancy or retirement. Involuntary
separation may take the form of contract expiry, retrenchment or dismissal.
Dismissal:
• Occurs when the employer terminates an employee’s employment contract due to
unacceptable conduct or behaviour of the employee.
 • It can also be based on poor performance or redundancy due to organisational
restructuring, a downturn in business or technological change.
Unfair Dismissal:
• Unfair dismissal occurs when an employee is dismissed by their employer and they
believe that action is harsh, unreasonable or unjust.
Strategies in human resource management
Leadership styles
Authoritarian:
• Long chain of command
• Managers lead
• Employees cannot contribute to the decision-making process
• Decisions made quickly
Participative/Democratic:
• Involves employees in the decision-making process
• Encourages employees to become empowered
Delegative:
• Allows the employees to make decisions
• Employers trust employees to make the right decisions
Job design- general or specific tasks
General or Specific Tasks:
Job Design: the process of developing the content of the job and how it will interact with other jobs and
employees, so as to motivate and retain employees and to achieve the business objectives.

Several methods used to design for better jobs:

• Job enrichment- employees are provided with challenging tasks, responsibility,
autonomy and decision-making power.
• Job rotation- employees move around to perform a number of varied tasks during a
day or week-reduces boredom
• Job enlargement- employees are given additional tasks to increase the variety and
challenge involved in a position.
• Semi-autonomous work groups-increases skills and team work
• Cross functional, team based matrix structures
• Flexible work structures
Recruitment- internal or external, general or specific skills
Recruitment: the process of locating and attracting the right quantity and quality of staff to apply for
employment vacancies or anticipated vacancies at the right cost.
Internal or External Recruitment:
Internal: involves filling job vacancies with people from within the business.
• Advantages- incentive for staff to improve their performance, promotions seen as a
reward for hard work, cheaper than external
• Disadvantages- staff overlooked may lose motivation, can reinforce negative culture
External: involved filling job vacancies with people from outside the business.
• Advantages- wider applicant pool, business is encouraging new ideas, more diversity
in employment, get specific skills needed
• Disadvantages- risk of unknown staff, may take time to settle in, takes a lot of effort
and time
General or Specific Skills:
Can be recruited for general or specific skills.
General= attitudes and behaviours that are a good cultural fit for the business, job customised to suit
individual, flexibility, social confidence, positive attitude, motivation, ability to work as a team, etc.
Specific= recruiting overseas or outsourcing, employee poaching (the practice of enticing employees to
work for another business) is commonly used.
Training and development- current or future skills
Current or Future Skills:
 • The means by which a business is able to provide its employees with an avenue to
develop and enhance their knowledge, skills and understanding of various activities related to the
operations of a business.
• Training aims to develop skills, knowledge and attitudes that lead to superior work
performance.
• Development is focused on enhancing the skills of the employee in line with the
changing and future needs of the business.
• Businesses need to consider the mix of skills they can develop internally and those for
which they need to recruit.
Performance management- developmental or administrative
Performance Management: a systematic process of evaluating and managing employee performance in order
to achieve the best outcomes for a business.
Objectives:
• Evaluate an individual’s performance
• Use that information to develop the individual
Benefits:
• The employee has an improved understanding of their role and what needs to be done.
• The employer is able to identify and problems
• Allows the employee to be aware of their personal goals
Developmental:
• Focused on using data to develop the individual skills and abilities of employees, so
they improve their effectiveness in their role, overcome weaknesses and are prepared for promotion.
• Year round periodic feedback and shared discussion that is both emphatic and goal
focused
Administrative:
• Provides information often following an annual appraisal, which can be used by
management for planning in human resource functions such as training, development, rewards, pay
levels, benefits and performance improvements.
• Focus on collecting data to manage human resource management function more
efficiently.
Rewards- monetary and non-monetary, individual or group, performance pay
Rewards motivate all employees to work to their potential and cooperate with each other to achieve the
goals of the business.
Monetary or non-monetary:
Monetary: those reflected in pay or having financial value.
Non-monetary: those that do not have a financial value, e.g. social activities, retirement planning
Intrinsic: those that the individual derives from the task or job itself, e.g. sense of achievement
Extrinsic: those given or provided outside the job itself.

Individual or group:
• Individual rewards can lead to conflict and rivalry
• High quality work is achieved by an individual with the reliance on other and other
systems therefore the induction of group awards
• A fair rewards system can encourage a greater sense of team work
• Employees can become more motivated
Performance pay:
The process of linking part of an employee’s income to their performance at work
• This concept recognises that employee motivation comes from financial benefits
• Advantages= performance may improve, it encourages unmotivated staff and
inefficient individuals
• Disadvantages= the performance of employees may be difficult to measure for some
jobs, some employees may seek non-financial rewards.
Global- costs, skills, supply
Costs, Skills, Supply:
 • More companies are entering international markets by exporting their products
overseas
• Access to a cheaper workforce that possesses the required skills will be a key
consideration for a business
• The ability of labour to learn new skills will be affected by the country’s education
system.
Polycentric Staffing Approach:
• Uses host-country staffing with parent-country staff in corporate management at its
headquarters.
• Helps the company access good market knowledge
• Often cost effective
• Satisfies local pressure for employment opportunities
• May limit management experience for host-country staff
Geocentric Staffing Approach:
• Uses the staff with the most appropriate skills for a particular role and location
• Builds a pool of managers with global experience
• Can be complex and expensive- local employment regulations, relocation and
retraining costs.
Ethnocentric Staffing Approach:
• Uses parent-country staff in its business
• May limit ability to interact with customers and learn from overseas markets

Workplace disputes
-resolution- negotiation, mediation, grievance procedures, involvement of courts and
tribunals
Disputes: conflicts, disagreements or dissatisfaction between individuals and/or groups.
Industrial Dispute: a disagreement over an issue or group of issues between an employer and its employees
which results in employees ceasing work.

Resolution of Disputes:

Negotiation- a method of resolving disputes when discussions between the parties result in a compromise
and a formal or informal agreement

Mediation- the confidential discussion of issues in a non-threatening environment, in the presence of an

objective third party.

Grievance Procedures- formal procedures generally written into an award or agreement that state agreed
processes to resolve disputes in the workplace.

Involvement of Courts and Tribunals-

• Conciliation- a process where a third party is involved in helping two other parties
reach an agreement
• Arbitration- the process where a third party hears both sides of a dispute and makes a
legally binding decision to resolve disputes
• Orders- decisions that require employees or employers to carry out a direction from
the tribunal. They may be inserted in awards or agreements.

Effectiveness of human resource management

Indicators
-corporate culture
-benchmarking key variables
-changes in staff turnover
-absenteeism
-accidents
-levels of disputation
-worker satisfaction
Indicators are performance measures that are used to evaluate organisational or individual effectiveness.
Many businesses use a range of indicators to reflect on the effectiveness of the human resource functions.

Corporate Culture:

Refers to the values, ideas, expectations and beliefs shared by members of the business.
The indicators that reveal a workplace has a poor corporate culture include:
• High staff turnover
• Poor customer service
• High levels of absenteeism
• Accidents
• Disputes and internal conflicts

Benchmarking Key Variables:

Benchmarking is a process in which indicators are used to compare business performance between internal
sections of a business or between businesses.

• Involves measuring employees performance against established standards

• Aiming to achieve ‘best practice’
• Uses real facts and figures rather than assuming
• Benchmarking methods: performance appraisals, productivity levels, management
consultants to come in and use benchmarks.

Changes in Staff Turnover:

Refers to the number of employees leaving an organisation relative to the number that have been employed.

• High turnover rates indicate that employees are dissatisfied with their job, that there is
a problem with HR in the organisation and poor employment relations
• High rates lead to a loss of productivity, profitability, corporate knowledge and skills

Absenteeism:

Refers to employee absences, on an average day, without sick leave or leave approves in advance.

• High levels may indicate: workers are dissatisfied, conflict within workplace, stressed,
sickness, and personal needs/family issues.

Accidents:

• Approx. 5.3% of Australia’s 12 million employees experience a work-related injury or

illness each year.
• A low level of accidents indicate effective human resource strategies
Level of Disputation:

• Disputes or disagreements can be costly to a business.

• The greater number of disputes the more likely that the workforce is unhappy or there
is a poor working relationship between the employer and employee
• Disputes may arise as a result of managerial policy, discrimination and use of
outsourcing
• Formal grievance procedures are an indicator of poor quality relationships in the
workplace

Worker Satisfaction:

Refers to whether employees are happy and content and fulfilling their desires at work

• Employee satisfaction is a key factor in developing a committed and motivated

workforce
• Satisfied employees often work more efficiently and value the organisation that they
work for
• Employee satisfaction is improved by matching the purpose of the business with the
skills and cultural fit of the employee